Master Thesis Residual Stresses in Welds of Supersize Monopiles For Offshore Wind Substructures PDF

Residual Stresses in Welds of
Supersize Monopiles for Offshore Wind Substructures
Master’s Thesis, March 2015
Written by:
Christian Ammitzbøll Madsen
Daniel Sommerlund Pedersen
Christian Ammitzbøll Madsen (s072793)
Daniel Sommerlund Pedersen (s083070)
Residual Stresses in Welds of

Supersize Monopiles for
Offshore Wind Substructures
Master’s Thesis, March 2015
Supervisor(s):
Michael Joachim Andreassen, Adjunkt, Ph.d
Jens Henrik Nielsen, Lektor, Ph.d
Henning Agerskov, Docent, emeritus, Ph.d
Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark,

Kgs. Lyngby, March 2015
Residual Stresses in Welds of Supersize Monopiles for
Offshore Wind Substructures
Author(s):
Christian Ammitzbøll Madsen
Daniel Sommerlund Pedersen
Supervisor(s):
Michael Joachim Andreassen
Jens Henrik Nielsen
Henning Agerskov
Department of Civil Engineering

Technical University of Denmark
Brovej 118
DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby
Denmark
www.byg.dtu.dk
Tel: (+45) 45 25 17 00
E-mail: byg@byg.dtu.dk
Release date: 16 march 2015
Class: Public
Edition: 1. Edition
Comments: This report is submitted as the full requirement to achieve the

graduation of MSc in Civil Engineering at Technical University of
Denmark.
The report represents 35 ECTS points, corresponding to 6
months work.
Rights: © Technical University of Denmark, 2015

"The noblest pleasure is the joy of understanding”
- Leonardo da Vinci
iv
PREFACE
In developing this thesis, we have been fortunate enough to work to together with several
experts, each with their own area of expertise.
Therefore, we would like to use this opportunity to thank Tommy Carlsen from COWI A/S for
providing the initial idea, which ended up being the very foundation of this thesis. From Bladt
Industries A/S we would like to thank Hans Bille Jensen for making time to show us the
production area and providing us with the welding procedure, which is used as an input source
in our thesis. Furthermore, we would like to extent our gratitude for many fruitful discussions in
the development of this “Magnum Opus” provided by the following people:
Jens Henrik Nielsen for his assistance with the Abaqus models.
Michael Joachim Andreasen for his professional input and swift response time when unforeseen
problems occurred.
Finally, a special appreciation is directed to Henning Agerskov for a good working relationship
in this process as well as the course of study in its entirety.
In addition to this thesis, a USB drive have been provided containing numerical models and
applied references. Finally, a webpage of videos and animations have been established:
www.vimeo.com/dtubyg
Christian Ammitzbøll Madsen Daniel Sommerlund Pedersen

vi
ABSTRACT
Supersize monopiles are being developed and have already been deployed and installed on
several offshore wind farms in European waters. The demand for fabrication of cans with wall
thicknesses up to 135mm is high. However, the implications on design and especially the
joining of cans by circumferential welding with these wall thicknesses are not yet fully
understood.
This thesis deals with the effects of welding induced residual stresses in order to evaluate to
which extent these must be accounted for in the design of supersize monopiles.
The residual stress state is investigated by means of commercial finite element software
applying a coupled 3D model. The welding process is a complex process and will be simulated
using a coupled model taking into account the transient heat transfer along with the material
properties at different temperatures. The coupling of the heat transfer and the stress analysis is
considered one-way coupled, reducing the computational costs considerably.
The simulation is based on a submerged arc welding procedure (SAW) applied for a
circumferential single-U butt weld, which due to the extremely large wall thicknesses include
multiple passes. Furthermore, effects from preheat and other production methods are considered
in the analysis and a parametric study on selected parameters is carried out and reported.
The performed analysis revealed residual stresses exceeding yield stress magnitude, which may
ultimately threaten the integrity of the welded joint when subjected to a live load application.
The found result implies that the use of Post Weld Heat Treatment or increasing the magnitude
of preheat may be necessary measures to overcome these. However, the found result is bound to
the limitations associated with the applied modeling procedure in present case, due to
inadequate experimental data available, which are required to validate the obtained results.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface .......................................................................................................................................... v
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... vii
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Background – Offshore Wind Substructures ............................................................... 1
1.2 Design and Fabrication Considerations ....................................................................... 4
1.3 Review ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Objective ...................................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Scope of Work ............................................................................................................. 8
1.6 Case Geometry............................................................................................................. 9
Chapter 2. Fatigue Mechanisms .............................................................................................. 11

2.1 Fatigue Definition ...................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Welds in relation to Fatigue ....................................................................................... 12
Chapter 3. Residual Stress ....................................................................................................... 17

3.1 Definition ................................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Residual Stresses and Deformations due to Welding ................................................ 19
3.3 Service Life Effects ................................................................................................... 27
3.4 Measurements of Residual Stresses ........................................................................... 29
Chapter 4. Welding Processes .................................................................................................. 31
4.1 Welding Procedure Specification .............................................................................. 31
4.2 Arc Welding............................................................................................................... 32
4.3 Heat Properties of Arc Welding................................................................................. 34
4.4 Weld Material ............................................................................................................ 37
4.5 Welding Sequence ..................................................................................................... 38
Chapter 5. Numerical Modeling .............................................................................................. 41
5.1 Numerical Modelling of a Technological Problem ................................................... 41
5.2 History of Computational Welding Mechanics ......................................................... 42
5.3 Numerical Analysis .................................................................................................... 44
5.4 The Coupled Problem in CWM ................................................................................. 45
Chapter 6. Thermo-Mechanical Analysis................................................................................ 49

6.1 Thermal Analysis ....................................................................................................... 49
6.2 Mechanical Analysis .................................................................................................. 54
6.3 Material Modelling .................................................................................................... 58
Chapter 7. Modeling Approach ............................................................................................... 69

7.1 FEA Software and General Model Choices ............................................................... 69
7.2 Computational Welding Mechanics ........................................................................... 72
7.3 Mechanical Modelling ............................................................................................... 77
Chapter 8. Validation Case: One sided butt weld .................................................................. 85

8.1 Joint Geometry and Support Conditions .................................................................... 85
8.2 Experimental Work .................................................................................................... 86
8.3 Numerical Model – Preprocessing ............................................................................. 89
8.4 Numerical Model – Post Processing .......................................................................... 96
8.5 Model Optimization ................................................................................................. 110
8.6 Model Verification ................................................................................................... 114
8.7 Chapter Conclusion.................................................................................................. 115
Chapter 9. Main Case ............................................................................................................. 117

9.1 Production of Offshore Monopile Foundations ....................................................... 117
9.2 Joint Details and WPS ............................................................................................. 120
9.3 Model Assumptions/Considerations ........................................................................ 122
9.4 Numerical Model - Pre-processing .......................................................................... 124
9.5 Job Submission and Performance ............................................................................ 128
9.6 Post-Processing ........................................................................................................ 128
9.7 Model Verification ................................................................................................... 155
9.8 Discussion and Future Work .................................................................................... 158
Chapter 10. Conclusions and Final Remarks ....................................................................... 163
References ................................................................................................................................ 166
Appendix …............................................................................................................................. 173
x
1 INTRODUCTION
It begins with a general introduction to wind substructures in the offshore wind energy sector
with emphasis on the current practice and future trends regarding monopile foundations and
design criteria. Furthermore, some of the challenges and opportunities with this development
have been outlined. This leads to a definition of the thesis objective. The ‘scope of work’ is
presented together with a brief presentation of the application geometry, which will be
considered in the analyses.
1.1 Background – Offshore Wind Substructures

The energy of wind has been exploited for thousands of years, starting as a mean of power for
sailing ships, later for pumping water and grinding grain and more recently for the generation of
electricity. However, not until the oil crisis in the 1970s wind technology gained real foothold.
The recent years’ focus on peaking oil reserves has increased the interest among countries in the
Western World to become more independent of oil-based electricity, thus promoting the interest
in wind energy. Today wind power is the fastest growing energy source in the world. Originally,
wind turbines were placed all over the countryside in windy locations such as hilltops and near
the coast, but in the early 1990s the ocean was taken into use. Since water has less surface
roughness than land, the average wind speed at open water is usually considerably higher, thus
increasing the potential for producing more energy, [1].
When building wind turbines on land, the tower is usually grouted in place, which is a cheap
and fairly straightforward process. Offshore, on the other hand, installation is far more
comprehensive, e.g. requiring special vessels and equipment. Here the foundation normally
accounts for approximately 20-25% of the total cost of the wind farm, [1, 2]. Many design
considerations have to be made when chosing the appropriate foundation solution, among which
water depth, current and tidal conditions, seabed sediment characteristics and off course, the
size of the turbine chosen, are some of the central. Other considerations are construction and
installation requirements, economical aspects (CAPEX/OPEX) as well as environmental
impacts.
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Among foundation systems current available are: gravity-based foundations, monopiles and
jacket structures (lattice/space frame structures), which can be seen in Figure 1.1. Other types of
support structures are tripod, tripile foundations (three-legged jacket) and floating structures.
Figure 1.1 - Types of foundation systems for offshore windturbines: A) Gravity foundation,
B) Monopile foundation and C) Jacket foundation; from [3].
In regards to the design considerations, each type of foundation has its advantages and
disadvantages. Traditionally, the gravity foundation and the monopile are most suited for
shallow waters, whereas the more expensive space frame structures are in many cases prefered
for deeper waters. This is due to the larger stability problems due to greater tidal and wave
effects at depths exceeding 30 meters, which demand more sophisticated solutions.
By far the most succesful and commonly used support structure solution is the monopile. The
monopile is used in several of the world’s largest offshore windfarms, e.g. London Array (UK),
Greater Gabbard wind farm (UK) and Anholt (DK), and by the end of 2013, the monopile
accounted for 76% of all installed foundations in European offshore wind farms, [4]. The
monopile support structure is a relatively simple design by which the turbine tower is supported
either directly or through a transition piece. As illustrated on Figure 1.2, the substructure is the
structure between the wind turbine tower and seabed, whereas the monopile foundation is the
remaining structure that penetrates the seabed. During installation, the monopile is driven into
the seabed, typically by means of hydraulic hammering. The pile penetration depth is adjustable
to suit the actual environment and seabed conditions, which makes the solution versatile and
easy to install in shallow to medium waters ranging from 0-30 meters. The structure is a
cylindrical steel tube manufactured from several ”can elements” welded together
circumferentially, whereas each can element is basically a steel plate rolled to the appropriate
diameter and then welded in the longitudinal direction. The production cost of this process is
comparatively inexpensive since welding robots allow for a somewhat automated fabrication
process.
2
Figure 1.2 – Monopile foundation overview; from [5].
Relative to space frame foundations, one of the main disadvantages of the monopile foundation
is the structural instability due to the large size, which will attract bigger waves. In addition to
the permanent axial load acting from the transition piece carrying the tower and the wind
turbine, the installed monopile is subjected to large cyclic, lateral loads and bending moment
induced by wind, currents and wave loads. In addition to this comes the cyclic loading induced
by rotating blades of the wind turbine in service. This poses a number of structural design
criteria, which must be considered, particularly with regards to stiffness (buckling) and fatigue
strength [6].
Recent trends in the offshore wind industry suggest that these concerns are not getting less
significant in future. Offshore wind turbines keep growing in size and weight and the same does
the demand for bigger foundations [4]. Until 2-3 years ago, most offshore wind experts expected
that jackets, concrete gravity base or tripod designs would be the dominant foundation solution
for larger turbines in deeper waters. Today, however, the positive experience of manufacturing
increasingly larger monopiles has raised confidence in the prospects for even bigger monopile
sizes. The so-called ’Supersize Monopiles’, also known as ’XL or XXL monopiles’, which are
expected to be installed in waters as deep as 60 meters, seem to be an option for the future [7,
8]. Figure 1.3 shows the historical development as well as future trends for monopile cross-
section dimensions.
3
Outer diameter [m] vs. Time [year] Can thickness [mm] vs. Time [year]
10.0 135
9.5 130
9.0 125
8.5 120
8.0 115
7.5 110
7.0 105
6.5 100
6.0 95
5.5 90
5.0 85
Figure 1.3 – History and future trends in monopile foundation size with regards to outer
diameter and can thickness, respectively, [9].
Approaching an outer diameter of 9 meters and a can thickness of 130 mm, the Super-size
monopiles pose numerous challenges for the entire supply chain from design and fabrication to
transportation and installation. Assuming that future logistics of transportation, storage and
installation capabilities will become sufficient to handle supersize monopiles, the starting point
is to consider related implications on design and fabrication, [10].
1.2 Design and Fabrication Considerations

As indicated so far, the offshore monopile foundation must be designed to withstand permanent,
cyclic and even accidental loading, during its service life. At present, the design of monopile
foundations are governed by the fatigue strength of welded joints in order for the structure to
satisfy specified performance targets [11]. This is obviously due to the aforementioned cyclic
loads, which, in addition to the permanent load from the structure's own weight, requires special
considerations in the structural design.
The cyclic loads lead to cyclic stresses, which are defined in terms of the stress range and the
corresponding mean stress. Figure 1.4 shows three idealized stress ranges as a function of time.
The level of mean stress, as well as the stress ratio R (min/max stress), describe to what extent a
given stress cycle is either tensile or compressive, or a combination of both. This is of great
importance of the structural integrity, since large tensile stresses will reduce the fatigue strength
significantly.
4
Figure 1.4 - Effect of mean stress on fatigue strength: (a) zero mean stress
(alternating loading, R=-1), (b) Zero minimum stress (pulsating loading, R=0), (c)
Tensile minimum stress (wholly tensile loading, R>0). From [12].
Though the entire monopile will be subjected to the cyclic loading, the welded joints in
particular tend to exhibit poor fatigue performance, thus leading to structural instability. This is
due to a number of factors influencing the integrity of the welded joint, among which
unfavorable residual stresses are known to be a particularly interesting one.
Residual stresses are introduced into the monopile even before it is installed and it is an
inescapable consequence of fabrication and manufacturing processes [13]. From Eurocode 3
[14] residual stresses are defined as the sum of several production steps:
𝜎𝑅𝑆 = 𝜎𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝜎𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝜎𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝜎𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑡 + 𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 (1.1)
The fatigue strength of welded joints in complex structures (such as the monopile) is
particularly influenced by high tensile residual stresses at the weld. This results in reduced
fatigue strength and it almost completely eliminates the effect of mean stress [15]. In the design
guidelines and recommendations from Eurocode 3, DNV and IIW, the assessment of fatigue
strength for welded joints is based on following assumption:
 Residual stresses up to yield strength magnitude are generally assumed for welded
structures.
Thus, during cyclic external loading on the monopile the actual stress stage at the welded joints
will vary from the tensile yield strength and downwards, as illustrated in Figure 1.5. This leads
to the fatigue strength being a function of the stress range and it implies that the different
external stress ranges in Figure 1.4 are equally damaging for the monopile at the welded joint.
5
Figure 1.5 - Effect of superimposing cyclic stress onto existing

yield magnitude tensile residual stress. From [16].
This assumption is utilized since a great majority of the S-N curves in guidelines are obtained
from welds tested for fatigue strength in structures being too slender to provide the required
restraint to form representative residual stresses. Thus, they might not be applicable for larger
structures [17]. Currently, this assumption is being debated because results have shown that
residual stresses in larger joints may actually be lower than the yield strength when exposed to
external cyclic load [18]. This is a point that demonstrates that there are many uncertainties
about the real distribution and magnitude of residual stresses, both initially and during load
application [19]. Thus, in many cases the structural design may result in unexpected behavior
and ultimately, a risk of failure. However, it also suggests an opportunity for structural
optimization, provided that more information about residual stresses is available [6].
1.3 Review
The main features and principles of fatigue design rules for welded joints are provided in a
consistent manner by the national and international fatigue recommendations. However, rapid
development in the offshore wind sector, where 'super-size monopiles' seem to be the backbones
of the future, requires additional considerations by the designer. Particularly, the continuous
increase in size of the welded joints needs special attention with regards to welding induced
residual stresses, which have a negative influence on the integrity of the welded joint, e.g.
promote deformations, hot/cold cracking, fatigue induced cracking, stress corrosion cracking
etc. However, the extent of the residual stresses at these thicknesses is not fully known. The
shape and magnitude of the residual stress field depends on several factors like the structural
restraint, the wall thickness over diameter ratio, the heat input, the number of weld passes and
weld pass sequences.
At the present state, the development of welding procedures is based primarily on performing
experiments, from which a Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) is the final result. This
implies that the WPS is evaluated from observations of e.g. joint integrity, absence of defects,
microstructure and mechanical testing [20].
6
With increasing computational power over the last decades, one of the significant tools applied
for additional design considerations is the finite element analysis (FEA). Cases already exist,
such as the hot spot approach, where fatigue guidelines (ex. IIW and DNV) have implemented
FEA in the design against fatigue. The next step, perhaps, is the application of computational
welding mechanics (CWM), a field of study under FEA, in order to predict e.g. residual stress
and distortion caused by welding. CWM involves numerical approximations of the complex and
coupled phenomena occurring in the joint as it is “fused” together. This involves considerations
of the transient heat source, weld pool phenomena and nonlinear heat flow distribution,
resulting in thermal stresses and deformations. Included are temperature dependent material
properties as well as complex thermal and mechanical boundaries.
CWM is rarely used in the process of developing welding procedures, however, it is expected
that simulations can be used to complement the experimental procedures for obtaining WPS
since the resulting residual stress and distortion can then be considered when comparing
different welding procedures. Furthermore, simulations can be useful in designing the
manufacturing process as well as the manufactured component itself [20].
1.4 Objective
In light of the preceding review, the overall objective of this thesis is formulated as follows:
 To determine the welding induced residual stresses of a specified welded joint detail of
a super-size monopile foundation by means of computational welding mechanics and in
accordance with existing production procedure.
 To investigate whether optimization in regard of fatigue design is a possibility and to
evaluate the practical consequences of the stresses found.
 To outline the methodology and applied assumptions involved in the numerical
approximations and to assess the consequences associated with these.
In present thesis, collaboration has been established between Technical University of Denmark
(DTU), Cowi A/S and Bladt Industries A/S. The allocation of this working group is as follows:
Cowi A/S has specified information on the welded joint of the monopile to be analysed. Bladt
A/S has presented the associated welding procedure specification (WPS) as well as guidance on
the fabrication process. This has led to following criteria in relation to the objective stated.
 The welding residual stresses created by welding of a convex single-U circumferential

butt weld. This weld corresponds to the larger of part of a double-sided butt weld
connecting two can sections of the monopile.
 Both can sections have an outside (towards action of the sea) diameter of 9m and a
thickness of minimum 60mm.
 The primary weld is a multipass weld using submerges arc welding (SAW) in
accordance with the provided welding procedure specification.
7
1.5 Scope of Work

The scope of work in this thesis involves an initial theoretical study of literature within the
relevant topics of: fatique, residual stress, welding processes, numerical modelling and
computational welding mechanics. Each of the topics will be presented in theoretical chapters,
which form the basis of the welding simulation model as well as the forthcoming analysis.
The central part of the thesis comprises building a proper three-dimensional welding simulation
model using the commercial finite element software, Abaqus FEA, from which the analysis of
the residual stress state is carried out. This task requires a thorough method validation in order
to verify the applied model assumptions as well as the usefulness of the results. Therefore, an
initial analysis is performed for validation and comparison purposes. The validation analysis
implies a simple double-pass butt weld as defined in section 1.6, from which experimental and
numerical work was carried out and presented in a Ph.D thesis [21] from 2003.
The main analysis concerns with the circumferential double one-sided butt weld, which is part
of joining the can elements of the monopile as stated in the ’objective’. In contrast to the
validation case, the technological aspect of this welding simulation model is far more complex
with multiple welding passes and sequences, curved geometry, etc. Also, in this case, the
welding simulation model is built on the basis of the current welding practice obtained from the
offshore steel manufacturer, Bladt Industries A/S. A parametric study will be carried out with
the purpose of exploiting the extent of the residual stress at different thicknesses.
Finally, discussions and conclusions based on the findings will be presented along with
recommendations for future work.
8
1.6 Case Geometry

This section provides a short introduction to the basic geometry of the welding applications
considered in the validation case and the main case, respectively.
1.6.1 Validation Case

The geometry for the welding application in the validation case comprises a full penetration one
sided butt weld joining two identical plates, where the edges have been prepared by flame
cutting. The geometry is obtained from [21] and is illustrated in Figure 1.6. The butt weld is
performed by two sequences using submerged arc welding (SAW).
Figure 1.6 - Full penetration one-sided butt weld.
1.6.2 Main Case

Picture 1.1 illustrates the fabricated monopiles (in front) together with the characteristic yellow
transition pieces in the background. The main case in this thesis will consider the outer weld of
a double-sided circumferential butt weld connecting two consecutive monopile can sections.
This is the last major production step in the assembly of the monopile.
Picture 1.1 – Transition pieces and monopiles on a barge as fabricated at Bladt

Industries, ready to be installed at London Array wind farm; illustration from [22].
9
The thickness of the tubular section is identical on both sides of the joint and will be
investigated for various can thicknesses, though maintaining a constant outer diameter of 9m. A
definition sketch of the welded joint is shown in Figure 1.7, in which the outer weld
(highlighted in the figure) will form the basis of the analysis conducted.
Figure 1.7 - Definition sketch of main case for t = 30mm, 60mm and 90mm. A constant
diameter is applied for all thicknesses.
The submerged arc welding (SAW) technique is the overall dominating welding procedure
applied in the main case. The joint is initially tack welded using gas metal arc welding
(GMAW), but this technique will not be considered further due to relatively small contribution
to the overall weld. Furthermore, the inner weld is also performed using SAW, but this will only
to a limited extent be considered in present thesis.
As previously indicated, the weld is build up from multiple weld passes. The specific layout of
the welding sequences are not shown in Figure 1.7, whereas these will instead be presented in
connection to the main analysis chapter.
10
2 FATIGUE MECHANISMS
Large cyclic loads from wind, currents and waves at open water make fatigue failure one of the
main concerns in design of steel structures for the offshore industry. In this section, the essential
fatigue mechanisms in relation to offshore wind substructures are defined as a fundamental
prerequisite of the following chapters. This chapter begins with a general definition of the
various fatigue cracking modes, in which the governing factors affecting the fatigue crack and
its propagation, will be described. This leads to a description of weld characteristics in relation
to fatigue, in which different geometrical design concerns will be commented on. Thus, this
section will clarify why fatique failure occur most often in welds.
2.1 Fatigue Definition

Fatigue is a failure mode occurring in a structure exposed to fluctuating, i.e. cyclic, load
conditions resulting in changing stress state, leading to the appearance and growth of cracks in
the structure. The structure will fail when the magnitude of the crack(s) becomes so large that
the reduced effective cross sectional area is unable to carry the main load.
In fracture mechanics cracks are generally separated into three different modes [23, 24], see
Figure 2.1. Mode 1 is the opening mode in which the crack surfaces are being pulled apart by a
tensile force. Mode 2 is the in-plane forward mode, and Mode 3 is the anti-plane mode.
Figure 2.1 – Modes of fatigue cracking.
Mode 1 in which tensile stress attempts to open the crack, is most common [25], especially in
case of fatigue where the cyclic appearance of a tensile load will lead to crack propagation.
Thus, the structure typically fails in areas where tensile stresses are dominating, or near welds
[26], which will be discussed in further details in section 2.2 and chapter 3. The magnitude of
11
CHAPTER 2. FATIGUE MECHANISMS
the fluctuating stresses necessary to cause fatigue failure are, if repeated many times, far below
the yield strength (static strength) of the structure. In general, three conditions need to be
present to cause fatigue failure. These are:
1. Sufficiently large peak value of tensile stresses

2. Sufficiently large fluctuation stress amplitude
3. Sufficiently large exposure time (cycles) of condition 1 and 2.
If condition 2 is not fulfilled, hence a static load regime, the fatigue cracks will not grow under
normal thermal conditions. The definition of the fatigue life of structures is therefore typically
defined as the number of cycles needed to initiate the fatigue crack, and for the crack to grow
until failure. Propagation of fatigue cracks can be defined as a crack initiation phase followed by
a crack growth phase [25], see Figure 2.2:
Figure 2.2 – Phases of fatigue crack propagation; from [ 25].
The initiation phase covers the crack growth in the microstructure of the material, and in this
early stage the fatigue cracks are visible only by use of a microscope. The following crack
growth phase occurs in the macrostructure of the material, visible by the eye, and the crack is
increasing in size until structural failure. The reason why the propagation of one crack is
considered in two separate phases is, that different conditions govern each phase. A thorough
describtion of the initiation phase and the crack growth phase will be omitted here, where
instead, these topics have been treated in separate sections, 2.1.1 and 2.1.2 in Appendix A.
2.2 Welds in relation to Fatigue

Due to its unique advantages, welding is by far the most widely used method of joining offshore
steel structures subjected to cyclic load. However, unique challenges are also characterizing
welding, which causes it to be an extensive and independent part of the manufacturing and
engineering discipline. The importance of careful design, production and optimization of the
complex welding processes can be seen from the comprehensive amount of literature, norms,
standards and institutions dealing specifically with welding. This section will provide an
overview of reasons why fatigue cracks typically occur in and near welds. This serves the
purpose of illustrating some of the implications present in a welded joint.
12
CHAPTER 2: FATIGUE MECHANISMS
2.2.1 Stress Concentrations

The main cause for increased risk of fatigue is local stress concentrations. Stress concentrations
are defined according to equation (2.1) as the increase in the stress relative to the nominal stress
of the cross-section, i.e. the linear averaged stress [27].
σlocal
SCF = (2.1)
σnominal
The overall heading defining the cause of stress concentrations is discontinuities, i.e. local
change of shape, not to be compared with reduced cross-section. This is due to discontinuities
that force the stress pattern to rearrange [28], see Figure 2.3:
Average stress
Peak stress at root of notch

Figure 2.3 - Stress pattern rearranged due to discontinuity; from [28].
In order to explain the physical aspect of this, reference can be made to e.g. hydrodynamics
where the presence of an obstacle will cause an increase in the flow velocity as the water has to
flow around the obstacle, cf. Bernoulli’s Equation [29]. In regard to the stress pattern, the same
is seen by the density of the stress-streamlines in Figure 2.3 representing the magnitude of the
stress. Thus, stress-streamlines close to each other result in large stress, whereas stress-
streamlines further apart from each other result in lover stress.
Common types of discontinuities causing stress concentrations can be divided into two groups:
Global Design Considerations and Weld Geometry. One does not exclude the other hence a
superposition of stress raising effects can act similarly at one point in the monopile.
2.2.1.1 Global Design Consideration

Global design considerations of the structure can cause local stress concentrations. For the
monopile investigated in the main case, the two circular can sections of the monopile can be
misaligned either axialy or angularly, when joined. The axial misalignment can be due to design
considerations in which increase in thickness is needed, as shown in Figure 2.4a or accidently
be present as shown in Figure 2.4b. For thin-walled cylindrical monopiles with large D/t ratio,
undesirable misalignments are difficult to avoid in practice, why these should be expected
present [23].
13
a)
b)
c)
Figure 2.4 - Axial misalignment of circular monopile sections; from [24].
During service life of a monopile, the normal stresses in the monopile from the axial load will
result in secondary bending stresses, due to the misalignment, because the joint will try to
straighten. The angular misalignment in Figure 2.4c shows that the surface planes are not
parallel, which typically occurs due to large heat input from welding (which will be considered
closer in the main case). Also, additional stress concentrations will be present due to local
bending.
Another design aspect is the global increase of the thickness of the monopile in order to follow
the continuous growth in wind turbine size, as described in the introduction. The challenge,
however, is that increase in thickness will decrease the fatigue strength [24]. Among potential
reasons is the level of residual stress, which is investigated in this report, as well as the change
in stress distribution at the weld due to increased plate thickness, see Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5 - Effect of plate thickness on stress distribution; From [24].
Figure 2.5 shows the geometric effect on the stress gradient in terms of the stress concentrations
at the weld toe. The stress distributions will be identical relative to the geometric size of the
joint, thus, a steeper gradient will be present in the thinner joint. This means that if two initial
cracks with identical lengths, are present in the thin and the thick plate, respectively, then the
crack in the thicker plate will be exposed to larger stress resulting in larger initial crack growth
14
CHAPTER 2: FATIGUE MECHANISMS
rate. Since most of the fatigue crack propagation life is located in the initiation phase, the
relatively longer crack propagation distance will be overruled by the increased stress near the
surface. This results in reduced fatigue life of the thicker joint relative to its thinner counterpart
[30].
2.2.1.2 Weld Geometry

The main dominating factor causing the stress concentration at the weld toe is the weld shape [
23]. The result is that the fatigue strength, i.e. the resistance against crack initiation and crack
propagation for welded joints, is typically much lower compared to non-welded structure parts.
The two overriding factors (if no weld defects are present) [28] are residual stress, which is
treated in the following section, and the stress concentration present at the weld toe.
The governing parameters of the weld shape in relation to the magnitude of stress concentration,
are showed in Figure 2.6. The two dominating parameters are the weld toe angle, , defining the
convexity of the weld, and the radius at the weld toe, , [24], hence they both affect the degree
of ”rearranged” stress-streamlines.
Figure 2.6 - Weld shape parameters; from [24].
If the transition between the plate and the weld metal is smooth, i.e. the weld toe angle
approaches 180 and the weld reinforcement height, s, goes towards zero, only a small stress
concentration will be present. Conversely, if the transition is significantly prominent, this will
induce a large stress concentration. In practice, grinding may be used to decrease the radius of
the weld toe, thus reducing potential stress concentrations [25].
2.2.2 Weld Defects and Irregularities

Another challenge is that welds are the most likely place for generation of defects [31], which
obviously can affect the integrity of the welded joint. Weld defects are most basically defined as
unacceptable discontinuities. Though many possible effects may occur, they are usually divided
into six main groups: (1) lack of fusion, (2) lack of penetration, (3) porosity, (4) slag inclusions,
(5) cracks and (6) imperfect shape such as abrupt convex shape [23]. Some of the typical weld
defects are shown in Figure 2.7.
15
Figure 2.7 - Typical welding defects; from [31].
In regards to fatigue, the small crack intrusions appearing at the weld toe of the butt weld have
the most severe defect [28]. This is due to a more rapid progress of the crack initiation phase,
which results in significant reduction of the number of stress cycles needed to cause fatigue
failure, compared to that of a non-welded component. The small crack intrusions initiate
particularly because of two reasons; the first being hydrogen introduced during the solidification
phase, the second being tensile residual stresses.
16
3 RESIDUAL STRESS
The residual stress distribution caused by a welding process has a large effect on the fatigue life
of a component. There is, however, uncertainty of residual stress effects on fatigue [32]. This is
due to lack of knowledge regarding magnitude as well as the exact distribution of residual
stresses present in structures, particularly in components with large thicknesses. In order to
further investigate this, the first step is to understand the mechanisms involved. This chapter
will provide an overview of the essential theory in relation to residual stress, which will form
basis of the analyses presented in future chapters.
Starting from an initial definition on the matter, main focus will be turned to welding induced
residual stresses, where various aspects on stress distribution and propagation as well as
deformations will be treated. Then follows an elaboration on the consequences of residual
stresses and on how they influence fatigue strength, and finally, a practical assessment of
available measuring techniques is outlined.
3.1 Definition
Residual stress is by definition a self-equilibrated stress distribution, which is present in a
structure, component, plate or sheet even if no constraints, forces or moments are applied to any
of its external surfaces [33]. An example of self-equilibrated residual stress distribution across
the thickness of a component, is illustrated in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 - Residual stress distribution in equilibrium with itself

across the thickness of the component; from [25].
Due to absence of external effects, residual tensile stress must be balanced by the residual
compressive stress, thus, they always exist together [25]. The absence of external load(s) results
in residual stress frequently in literature being addressed by many different names, such as:
Internal stress, initial stress, inherent stress, reaction stress, constraint stress or locked-in stress.
The typical reason for the large variety of names is individual authors’ focus on different causes
for residual stress. This leads to the definition applied in current case, where the source of the
17
CHAPTER 3. RESIDUAL STRESS
residual stress is welding, hence, it is defined as initial thermal stress with/without the influence
of reaction stresses. “Initial” covers that no external loads are introduced, and the definition of
reaction stress and its impact on thermal stress (welding residual stress) is presented in section
3.2.
3.1.1 Order Classification

The length scale over which residual stress is averaged, classifies the stress. The residual
stresses discussed up until now are; first order residual stress, 1, where the stress is averaged
over a macroscopic area of several crystallites down to approximately 1mm [34]. It is those that
can be described by thermo-dynamics in terms of e.g. temperatures, strain/stress and
displacements. Also, the first order residual stress is same order as the design external stresses
applied to the component during installation and service life. The second order residual stress,
2 acts between grains and is governed by the formation of grain morphologies, rate of growth,
etc. The second order residual stress is averaged over an area with the size of (1 - 0.01) mm
[21]. The third order of residual stress is governed by the interatomic mechanisms, hence, it is
responding to dislocations and imperfections in the interior of the metallurgical crystallites. The
third order residual stress is averaged over an area with the size of (10-2 - 10-6) mm. Figure 3.2
illustrates the classification of residual stress, and its relation to length scale and the governing
mechanical properties.
Figure 3.2 - Classification of first, second and third order residual stresses (1, 2, 3),
and its relation to length scale and governing mechanical properties; from [21].
In a practical assesment of welded structures in terms of the mechanical effects on a

macroscopic scale, only the first order of residual stresses are important to consider from an
engineering point of view [16]. This is due to the fact that most mechanical applications are
described by first order, which is also typically the case when structures are designed against
fatigue. Thus, only the first order residual stress will be of interest in present work.
18
CHAPTER 3: RESIDUAL STRESS
3.1.2 Fabrication Causes

The residual stress state present in a component when it begins its service life, is a summation of
several stress contributions resulting from initial production steps. As indicated in the
introduction, residual stresses can arise from e.g. rolling stresses, cutting processes, welding
shrinkage or lack of fit between members or from any loading event that causes yielding of part
of the structure [14]. Basically, residual stress arises in any steel component experiencing
inhomogeneous permanent (i.e. plastic) deformation [34], which is why all of the
aforementioned, each by their individual procedure, can induce residual stress.
Fabrication of monopiles involve the following processes, all of which to some extent will
contribute to the overall residual stress state in the final structure:
 Rolling
 Flamecutting
 Welding and preheating
 Backgouging
Also, various transportation and installation operations may contribute to localized plastic
yielding, especially considering the enormous amounts of steel to be handled, including e.g.
heavy lifting, temporary clamping and hammering of the monopile into the seabed. Though it
would be ideal to account for all production steps in an analysis of residual stresses, this thesis
will deal primarily with residual stresses induced by welding, as initially stated in the thesis
objective. Thus, the other processes will be paid little attention to, henceforth. Residual stresses
due to welding, will be treated in detail in the following section.
3.2 Residual Stresses and Deformations due to Welding

The process of welding typically involves the use of filler material together with a highly
localized transient heat source, which causes the components to melt together. Localized heat
results in a significant nonlinear temperature distribution during the heating- and the cooling-
phase in which the weld pool solidifies, whereas the adjacent part of the components practically
remain at constant temperature throughout the welding process [35]. A detailed description of
the welding processes will be given in Chapter 4.
The residual stress occur in welds because the weld and the near weld material, while subjected
to the local heating and subsequent cooling, are unable to freely expand and contract. This is
due to the restraining effects of the adjacent components, which have an approximately
unchanged temperature field [28]. The development of residual stresses occurs primarily in the
cooling phase due to shrinkage. Considering the example of two components welded together
by a single weld bead shown in Figure 3.3, the internal effects from longitudinal shrinkage can
be visualized.
19
PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT
(c)

(b)
(a)
Figure 3.3 - Longitudinal shrinkage of butt-weld when joining two components: (a)
longitudinal contraction of unrestrained (unattached) weld, (b) longitudinal shrinkage of

restrained weld (attached), and (c) internal forces present due to longitudinal shrinkage
of weld; based on [23, 28, 35].
Figure 3.3a shows a hypothetical situation in which three components are considered apart from
each other. This is intended to visualize the longitudinal shrinkage effect on the weld during the
cooling phase, whereas the adjacent components assume the original length. Assembling the
components in Figure 3.3b shows that the longitudinal shrinkage of the weld is restrained by the
base components, resulting in plastic elongation of the weld, thus developing tensile stresses in
the weld. The magnitude of the tensile stress will be approximately up to, but not as high, as the
yield point [23, 28, 35]. Figure 3.3c illustrates the internal forces present as a consequence
thereof, from which it is seen that the tension in the weld is balanced by the compressive
stresses in the two welded components.
The volumetric changes during heating obviously works in all three dimensions, which is why,
in addition to the longitudinal stress, residual stress distribution may also be considered in the
other two main directions, i.e. the transverse- and through-thickness direction. However, the
stress effects in these directions are usually less significant in comparison, which will be further
elaborated in section 3.2. A typical residual stress distribution in a welded application is shown
in Figure 3.4 with regard to the longitudinal- and the transverse direction, respectively.
20
Figure 3.4 - Typical distribution of longitudinal and transverse residual stress in a butt
joint including transverse reaction stress; based on [28, 35, 36]. It is noted that the stress
distributions are shown in regards to their perpendicular directions, respectively.
The longitudinal stress distribution is shown in accordance with the previous observations
stating that a localized tension zone occurs near the weld in balance by two lower amplitude
compression zones away from the weld. The transverse stress distribution shown in Figure 3.4
illustrates two different types of residual stress systems, which are defined as short-range
stresses and long-range stresses, respectively [24, 36]. Short-range stress is usually defined as
residual stress that appears due to the thermal contraction and restrain from cooler parts, hence,
it appears very close to the weld. Long-range stress on the other hand, is defined as reaction
stress, which is almost uniform and tensile throughout the component [35]. Reaction stresses
appear due to external (global) mechanical constraints, but are, similarly to short-range stress, a
consequence of the welding procedure. Reaction stress, if present, will due to its uniform
distribution, affect only the magnitude of the residual stress, whereas the distribution will be
maintained.
3.2.1 Residual Stress Propagation

The residual stress distribution presented in previous section represents the fully developed
residual stresses due to welding, which implies that the temperatures have decreased to a level
corresponding to the ambient temperature. Figure 3.5 shows the temperature change and the
longitudinal residual stress development during a welding sequence performed at a constant
velocity, v. The final stage of residual stress is presented at section D, from which the heat
source has moved a sufficient distance away, in order for the temperature change to be reduced
to zero.
21
Temperature
Temp. Change
change
Residual stress
Residual Stress

D
level
C
Tension
D
B
C
A
v
Compression B
Figure 3.5 - Distribution of temperature change, ΔT, and longitudinal residual stress
during welding procedure of single bead butt weld; Inspired from [35].
The procedure leading up to the final stage is presented in section A-C. Section A is located in
front of the welding arc, hence, no significant temperature change and resulting residual stress
has been developed. Section B shows the presence of a steep temperature distribution because it
directly crosses the intermediate position of the welding arc. In the regions near the weld pool
the resulting residual stresses are small because the heated steel cannot support a significant
load due to the reduced yield strength. Compressive residual stresses are present in the heat-
affected zones located on each side of the weld pool because the area is unable to expand, due to
colder surrounding areas. Some distance away from the weld pool, the compressive stress is
balanced by tensile stress, in accordance with the equilibrium condition. Located behind, and
much less affected by the current position of the welding arc, is section C. The maximum
gradient of the temperature distribution is being reduced, as the effect of the heat source is
constantly getting weaker, whereas the surrounding areas continuously provide heat sink. The
cooling results in the weld metal and the heat affected zone trying to shrink, and tensile stress
starting to be introduced in balance with the compressive stress in the cooler areas.
Though, this is a very general view on the stress tendencies arising during welding, the case of
section A-D well demonstrates that the process is rather complex, even in theory. The heat
balance during welding depends on several thermal conditions and material specific properties,
and similarly, various nonlinear mechanical dependencies will govern the development of
plastic strains, stresses and deformations. The following section will outline the effect of the
weldment geometry in relation to stress propagation.
3.2.2 Geometric Considerations

Residual stress distribution as previously defined is a principal case, whereas a large variety of
factors will complicate the situation in practice. Present section will explore some general
geometrical aspects of a welded application, and their influence on residual stress. This is
22
particularly important from an experimental- and a CWM modelling perspective, since the
welded specimen considered must be sufficiently large in order to contain residual stresses as
high as those that exist on actual structures [37].
There is a relation between the size of the welded components and the magnitude of the residual
stress field. The extent to which these residual stresses increase/decrease depends on the
particular dimension being changed, i.e. length, width and thickness. This is demonstrated by a
series of experiments from which the residual stresses were measured from weldments of
various dimensions. The weldments consisted of two unrestrained low-carbon steel plates joined
by a double-sided butt weld using submerged arc welding [35].
Initially, the effect of weld length was investigated during a series of identical welding
operations, from which the only variable was the length of the weld. The peak stress from each
experiment was obtained and held against the corresponding weld length. Figure 3.6 shows the
influence the increased weld length has on the maximum value of the longitudinal residual
stress.
Figure 3.6 - Effect of the length of the weld on maximum

longitudinal residual stress; from [35].
The gradient of the curve represents increase in longitudinal residual stress, due to increase in
the weld length. The large gradient for small weld lengths illustrates a large dependence, but as
the weld length becomes longer, the curve starts to flatten and eventually, no further increase in
the residual stress will take place, as the weld length increases. From this experimental setup, a
weld length of more than 457mm would be sufficient to produce high tensile stresses in the
longitudinal direction [37]. In regard to transverse residual stress, increased weld length has
only little influence on any areas of the stress distribution [35]. In regard to the width of the
component, this dimension will have minimal influence on both longitudinal- and transverse-
residual stress, as long as the dimension is several times the width of the residual stress zone
[37].
Finally, when considering the thickness of the welded components, increase of this dimension to
above 25mm may have the consequence that the longitudinal- and transverse- residual stress can
23
vary significantly through the plate thickness due to the necessary use of multiple passes [35].
Figure 3.7 illustrates this variation in residual stress for the three main stress directions:
(a) Longitudinal stresses (b) Transverse stresses (c) Through-thickness stresses
Figure 3.7 - Distribution of residual stress in the longitudinal, transverse, and

normal to surface, through the thickness of a 25mm thick component; from [35].
Figure 3.7 shows that longitudinal and transverse stress respectively, is tensile near the surface,
and compressive in the interior of the weld, which is produced during the welding of the
multiple passes. The through-thickness stress, which has to be zero at the top- and bottom-
surface, is shown mostly in compression through the thickness. However, many investigators
believe that stresses through-thickness can be tensile. The limited knowledge is due to lack of
adequate measuring techniques that are capable of measuring stress inside a body, including
strain-gauge and diffraction techniques, both of which require measuring (of strains) close to the
surface. Thus, in heavy weldment, the surface on which the measurements are to be taken must
be exposed through drilling or sectioning [37]. Elaboration on measuring techniques follows in
section 3.4.
3.2.3 Deformations
Generation of deformations and residual stresses is inevitably linked to the practice of welding.
Deformations and stress can be considered to be largely opposed in the sense that high stresses
occur where the deformation is restrained, and low stresses occur where the deformation is
unrestrained. However, the practical challenge is to achieve the intended geometry of the
weldment, while preventing excessive residual stress [34].
Deformations (temporary or permanent) and residual stresses are produced due to plastic
shrinkage induced as a result of the thermal expansion, which occurs in the welded portion
during thermal processes. The basic deformation patterns for welded plate applications are
illustrated in Figure 3.8 [38].
24
Figure 3.8 – Basic types of deformation in a welded plate application; from [38].
Transverse shrinkage of the weld seam results in a transverse shortening of the component due
to “closing” of the originally open weld grooves. With regards to longitudinal orientation, the
shrinkage will appear notably in the near weld zone, due to the large contraction forces in this
area. In the case of an application welded from one side (butt weld), this results in angular
distortion, or in the case where angular distortion is restrained, in bending deformations.
Furhermore, various buckling, bowing, warping and rotation modes may occur, especially for
thinner plates relative to the size of the weld [34]. This general view on plate deformation is
usually based on the imagined case of a joint instantaneously filled with molten material. The
variation of the deformation behavior can be even more pronounced due to a number of
“competitive” factors, among which some of them are mentioned in the following.
Although the laid weld is shrinking, there is a certain volume that has been heated due to the
weld, and thereby also contributing to the deformation through thermal expansion. The presence
of tack welds ahead of the weld will affect the overall deformations together with the boundary
conditions representing fixtures. To this comes the aspect of welding at different speeds, which,
despite using the same heat input per unit length, can affect peak temperatures and the
diffusivity into the base material, thus affecting the displacement field. Finally, even small
differences in initial geometry components may cause unexpected deformations [39].
Attempts to reduce deformations include: the use of balanced placing of weld passes,
appropriate use of restraints (including tack welds), minimizing heat input, etc. On the other
hand, more restraints increase welding stresses and as a result other problems may appear. The
optimal solution would be to preform the welded component so that the required shape after
welding is obtained (counter-aligning) [39].
Circumferential welding of pipes is practically similar to welding of plates. Here, the

longitudinal residual stress gives a radial shrinkage in the weld. The curvature of the pipe gives
more controlled initial geometry with reduced risk for instability during welding. The shrinkage
in the weld will typically reduce the pipe diameter locally. Since circumferential welded pipes,
25
or can sections in the case of a monopile, in many cases need to be able to carry a load without
additional stiffeners, the welding residual stresses and especially the deformations will reduce
the buckling strength significantly [39].
3.2.4 Stress Relief and Post-Weld Treatment

Residual stresses due to welding may not be the final stress state experienced by the joint. A
large range of factors can contribute to redistribution or modification of these stresses. Some of
the possible post-weld manufacturing measures aimed at reducing (macroscopic) tensile
welding residual stresses and welding distortion are presented in the following with an emphasis
on opportunites and limitations in fabrication of monopile structures.
Most efforts to develop post-weld fatigue improvement are focused on the welded joints which
are expected to have the poorest fatigue performance. As previously indicated, these joints tend
to fail by fatigue crack growth in the weld toe due to a combination of stress concentrations (and
intrusions) and presence of tensile residual stress in this region. In order to reduce these effects,
there are two general categories of improvement techniques. The first one implies removal of
weld toe intrusions by e.g. grinding, machining or remelting. The second one aims for making
residual stresses compressive near the weld toe, rather than tensile. This can be accomplished by
applying local plastic deformation in the vicinity of the weld toe by using various peening
techniques (hammer-, shot-, needle-, etc.) [12].
When brittle fracture is the main concern, PWHT after welding confers the most benefit.
Existing residual stresses can be altered or reduced significantly by exposure of temperatures
near or exceeding half of the melting temperature (recrystallization temperature) due to stress
relief annealing [34]. To achieve relief of the stresses, heating and cooling must proceed slowly
in order to avoid large temperature gradients resulting in development of new residual stresses.
Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) of finished welded joints is generally applied, due to
advantages of relaxing the residual stresses and minimization of potential for hydrogen induced
cracking [40]. PWHT will not result in zero tensile residual stresses but if performed correctly,
it will reduce the stresses from yield stress magnitude and down to a value typically equal to 20-
40% of the yield strength [12]. Depending on the stress range magnitude this can result in part
of the stress range being compressive, or in the entire stress range continuing to be tensile at the
welded joint. The fatigue design standards give advice on PWHT where DNV [41] recommends
that if the joint is to be stress relived, it should be held at a temperature range of 550-620C for
a time of at least 2 minutes per mm thickness (depending on the alloy). However, all benefits
aside, PWHT is not exactly a realistic solution in the fabrication of larger structures, such as
monopile foundations, since it would require an impractically large furnace and an even larger
energy expense to achieve a significant stress reduction.
Alternatively, local heat treatment may be adopted [41]. However, regarding local heat
treatments, it is by no means possible to reduce residual stresses to the same favourable value as
stated above, in respect to global annealing [34]. In addition to this comes practical diffulties
related to this approach. Due to the intensive heat removal of internal and external surfaces, the
26
use of high-heating power and efficient thermal insulation is necessary. At the same time,
temperatures must be monitored using thermocouples at different locations in order to ensure
uniform heating over the circumference. Off course, the locally heat-treated zone would need to
be sufficiently wide, otherwise a stress state similar to that from welding, is produced. Thus, this
procedure demands certain controllability while it may even be too costly and time consuming
to apply in daily production. It should be emphasised that local post-weld heat treatment is
performed only to reduce the risk of brittle fracture in the weld zone, whereas it is less suitable
for improving dimensional stability, since the residual stresses are in most cases, only relocated
[34].
3.3 Service Life Effects

The residual stress treated until now represents an initial stress state, whereas the structural
component during service life will be subjected to both static- and cyclic fatigue- loading. In
this section, the interaction between residual stresses and applied service loads will be treated.
3.3.1 Service Loading

A distinction can be made between static and cyclic loading since their individual combinations
with the residual stress cause different reactions. Static load generally lead to two different
failure modes; elastic instability and plastic collapse. Elastic instability of a structure affects
local areas in which residual stresses are compressive. This tendency, combined with an
external static compressive load, will lead to a reduction of the critical load, ultimately causing
local buckling. The plastic collapse of a structure, on the other hand, will not be influenced by
the residual stress as long as it can behave plastically [23]. This is because if a local point reach
the yield point, which could be expected to be where residual stress is present, this does not
imply that the carrying capacity of total cross-section is exhausted, hence experiencing a plastic
collapse.
The opposite applies in the case of fatigue performance, which is largely dependent on the local
stress conditions. External cyclic fatigue loads result in cyclic stress with amplitude and a mean
stress value. Fatigue cracks typically start to propagate from stress concentrations associated
with the welded joint, most commonly, at the weld toe. In this region, residual stress is already
high and tensile as a result of welding, even before cyclic stress is applied. Thus, the stress cycle
experienced in this region is markedly different from the applied stress cycle. This is
demonstrated by the example given in Figure 3.9 in which the stress-strain curve is illustrated at
the weld toe during an alternating stress cycle applied to the welded joint (assuming elastic-
plastic material with linear work hardening).
27
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.9 – Stress at the weld toe (a) before fatigue cycling; (b) at maximum stress in
fatigue cycle; and (c) at the minimum stress in the fatigue cycle; from [12].
Before cyclic stress is applied, residual stress in the weld toe can be considered already at the
level of tensile yield strength (Figure 3.9a). As cyclic stress initiates, further tensile stresses are
developed and the material will experience plastic deformations until the maximum stress of the
cycle is reached (Figure 3.9b). The stress then decreases elastically, going towards minimum of
the applied stress cycle. At the minimum point of the stress cycle, the stress at the weld toe has
decreased to an amount equal to the cyclic stress range. This example shows that the critical
zone of the weld toe may experience tension during the entire fatigue stress cycle, despite the
fact that the cyclic stress is partly compressive. A similar example can be established
considering other stress cycles. Since the stress range in fatigue loading is usually much lower
than the materials yield strength, the stresses in the weld toe may almost always be entirely in
tension, even for fully compressive load cycles. This illustrates the fact that the fatigue failure of
as-welded joints depends only on the applied stress range and that it is independent on the
fatigue cycle applied [12].
Furthermore, this example demonstrates that fatigue strength strongly depends on the individual
stress condition. Local residual stress is superimposed to the mean value of the stress cycle,
which causes a shift in the stress that can be either favorable if stress is negative (compression)
or conversely, unfavorable if positive (tension) [24, 25]. This is due to the fact that fatigue
cracks in welded structures can, and will, occur under compressive stress, but will only
propagate in regions of tensile residual stress [28].
Fatigue strength is further enhanced for offshore structures due to their interaction with hostile
corrosive environment during their service life. The combination of tensile residual stress and
corrosion can result in inter-granular stress corrosion cracking [33], even without the presence
of an external load. However, this will not be further considered.
3.3.2 Fatigue Crack Influence

The emergence of a fatigue crack will influence the residual stress distribution. The change of
the stress distribution will initiate when a fatigue crack emerges in a tensile region of the
residual stress. During the crack propagation, an elastic redistribution of the residual stress will
take place and the question is how this redistribution will occur in a specific case. The results
presented in Figure 3.7 show that sudden areas tensile at the surface, become compressive
deeper into the component, hence, preventing the fatigue crack from further propagation.
28
Therefore, the areas in focus will have crucial influence on both the fatigue propagation ratio
and how redistribution of the residual stress will occur. “On the basis of the available data it is
believed that the effects of residual stresses may differ from one instance to another, depending
upon the materials and geometry of the members, the state of stress, the magnitude of applied
stress, the type of stress cycle” [37]. This statement is utilized during the upcoming numerical
analysis in which one of the aims is to locate the area where the residual stress distribution is
assessed to be most severe for the fatigue strength.
Finally, it should be mentioned that several numerical methods can be applied in order to
determine the redistribution of residual stress during fatigue crack propagation. Two approaches
utilized are the Sigini subroutine and the Eigenstrain approach, which are presented in e.g. [33,
42], but none of these will be further considered in present work.
3.4 Measurements of Residual Stresses

Several methods available today are capable of measuring residual streeses in components. The
methods can be broadly categorised into destructive, semi-destructive and non-destructive
techniques. The destructive techniques (e.g. contour method or sectioning technique) imply that
the specimen investigated will result in a large irreparable change, which eliminates the use
henceforth, whereas the semi-destructive techniques (e.g. hole drilling methods) leaves the
structural integrity intact. The techniques in these categories are mechanical and they use the
“strain release” principle by measuring surface strains1 caused by the release of residual stress
from nearby cutting or drilling. The surface strains then allow for back calculation of the
previously existing residual stresses. Of the less damaging non-destructive methods are e.g.
synchrotron X-ray and neutron diffraction strain scanning among the most advanced and precise
techniques for mapping residual stresses in welds. These are especially usefull to validate finite
element models [16]. Since the neutron diffraction technique was utilized in the reference case
later used, the basis of this technique will be further described in the following.
3.4.1 Neutron Diffraction Technique

When crystalline material is subjected to stress it causes the atomic planes in the crystal
structure to change their spacings. Diffraction techniques utilize this fact to derive the resulting
elastic deformations based on the relative change in interplanar spacing. In other words, this
technique uses the underlying crystal structure as an internal strain gauge that deforms
elastically under the presence of residual stresses (or applied stresses). Obviously, this requires
initial measurements estimating the “stress-free” condition in order to determine the relative
change after applying the stresses from e.g. welding.
In practice, the Neutron Diffraction Technique (ND) is applied by translating the specimen
through a highly collimated incident neutron beam (radiation), which is scattered to a position
sensitive detector, that registers the crystallographic diffraction peaks (Bragg peaks). Based on
the adjusted wave length of the incident beam and the scattering angle, the mean lattice spacing
1
Surface strains are typically measured using strain gauge rosettes.
29
from a given orientation can then be determined using Bragg’s equation2. The local strain
component is thus given by the relative change in lattice spacing obtained from measurements
before and after applied stress
𝑑 − 𝑑0 (3.1)
ε=
𝑑0
where 𝑑 is the mean interplanar spacing and 𝑑0 is the stress-free interplanar spacing. Thus, at
each measurement point, the strain must be measured in three orthogonal directions by
mounting the specimen correspondingly [43]. This technique dictates that residual stresses are
not measured directly, whereas these are instead calculated based on obtained elastic strains and
the elastic material properties by subsequently using the theory of elasticity, governed by
Hooke’s law:
𝐸 𝜈
𝜎𝑥 = (𝜀𝑥 + (𝜀 + 𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧 )) (3.2)
(1 + ν) 1 − 2𝜈 𝑥
where 𝜀𝑥 , 𝜀𝑦 , 𝜀𝑧 are the elastic strain components, 𝐸 is Young’s modulus and 𝜈 is Poisson’s
ratio. Equivalent expressions can be found for 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜎𝑧 , respectively [21].
As previously stated, diffraction techniques provide the most accurate stress data, which
typically lie in the range of tens of MPa [16]. The benefits of ND, in comparison with other non-
destructive diffraction techniques, is the penetration capabilities that allow for measurements
several milimetres or even centimetres into the material. This is typically ranging from near-
surface depths around 0.2mm down to bulk measurement up to 25mm in steel [44]. This makes
ND particularly appropriate to evaluate internal residual stress within thick specimens. On the
other hand, the disadvantages include the rather expensive equipment that is usually available
only in a limited number of research facilities worldwide. This makes the application somewhat
limited to stratetic research and development, rather than being used for in-situ routine
inspections [16].
2
Bragg’s equation: 𝜆 = 2𝑑 sinθ ,
where 𝜆 is the wave length, 𝑑 is mean interplanar spacing, 2θ is the Bragg scattering angle.
30
4 WELDING PROCESSES
In previous chapters it was emphasised that presence of residual stresses is one of the main
causes reducing fatigue strength of cyclic loaded steel structures. Though many initial
fabrication steps may generally contribute to the final stress state in a structure beginning its
service life, welding may definitely be considered among the most dominating loads.
Understanding the welding process performed by the manufacturer according to the welding
procedure specification (WPS) is therefore a crucial premise if the numerical welding model is
to be challenged against real-life conditions. This section will in detail clarify the essential
parameters of the WPS, together with an elaboration on the mechanics of welding.
4.1 Welding Procedure Specification

One important task for the structural engineer is to specify the requirements of the welded joints
as part of securing a sufficient design of a given structure. The welding engineer defines the
WPS to be used by the steel manufacturer. The WPS ensures that the integrity of the weld
fulfills the requirements from the structural engineer.
Several different welding processes are currently available. In accordance with [45], these can
be identified as: arc welding, resistance welding, gas welding, pressure welding, beam welding,
and other welding processes. For every specific welding process in combination with the
specific joint and material used, the formal document of a WPS is required. The requirements to
the WPS is stated in different norms and standards provided by e.g. the American Welding
Society [46] and the European Standard [47]. An example of WPS is given in Appendix B.
As indicated in the introduction, the current practice in designing the WPS is based on
experimental testing in order to ensure the welds integrity together with good mechanical
properties. The welding procedure needs to be qualified in order to demonstrate that welds made
by use of this procedure, have satisfactory properties. The qualification process involves
carrying out a set of mechanical tests on a weld that has been made using a preliminary welding
procedure (pWPS) [12]. The weld will also go through visual examination and non-destructive
testing. The necessary test programme depends on the type of welding and the material used. In
the case of arc welds in steel, this involves visual inspection, radiography or ultrasonic
examination, surface crack detection, tensile and bend tests, and under certain circumstances,
Charpy-V and hardness tests [47]. If all tests3 reveal satisfactory results then the preliminary
design becomes the qualified WPS [12]. In addition to the WPS, a supporting welding
procedure qualification record (WPQR) is documented, containing all essential variables used
3
WPQT: Welding Procedure Qualification Tests
31
CHAPTER 4. WELDING PROCESSES
during qualification in order to verify that the procedure is in compliance with applied standards
[41].
In the light of the preceding review, it is noted that the psysical inspection necessary to fulfill
design requirements of the WPS, do not particularly involve determining the residual stress
state, whereas evaluation is primarily based on mechanical tests and visual inspection. Though,
this is not necessarily an inconvenient practice, there may still be benfits to gain from welding
simulations, particularly when considering larger structures where experimental procedures in
full-scale become costly. This aspect will be further discussed in future chapters.
As provided by the steel manufacturer, the welding procedure applied in present work is based
on the submerged arc welding technique (SAW), which, together with conventional arc
welding, will be presented in the following. It should be mentioned that gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) is initially used for tack welding in the main case, however, the extent of which this
procedure is used, is assumed negligible in comparison with SAW. Thus, a thorough description
of this procedure will be omitted here, whereas instead, reference is made to Appendix C.
4.2 Arc Welding

Arc welding is a fusion process where components, in this case made of structural steel, are
joined by local melting. The heat source consists of an electric arc that can be defined as a gas
exposed to sufficient high amount of current [Ampere], which results in local conduction of
electricity [48]. This is often referred to as arc discharge, or simply arc, as refered to in this
report. The reason conduction of electricity is named arc is that the shape of the hot gas will rise
in the form of an arc because of its low density. The principle of the arc process is shown in
Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 - Definition of arc welding processes; from [48].
The electric circuit is composed of two cables; one from the power source to the electrode and
one from the base metal and back to the power source. The power cable is attached the electrode
near its tip, to secure minimum resistance of the current [48]. The circuit is closed when the tip
of the electrode “touches” the structural steel, resulting in creation of an arc. The local heat
32
input from arc to steel dissipates as governed by the commonly known heat propagation laws,
i.e. conduction, convection and radiation.
A number of different processes influence the arc, hence the welding process. Firstly, the
electrode applied can be consumable (bare or coated) or non-consumable. In the case of a
consumable electrode, the melted material will drop down in the weld pool, which will then
consist of the electrode and melted steel. Secondly, welding can be performed with a rectifier
power source in case of direct current, DC, or by a transformer in the case of alternating current,
AC [48]. In cases of welding with direct current, the polarity can be either DC+ (electrode
positive, also referred to as reversed polarity) or DC- (electrode negative, also referred to as
straight polarity). Electrodes will typically be used for a specific polarity dictated by the needs
for the specific joint. Figure 4.2 shows the recommendations for each polarity.
DC DC
Power Source Power Source
Higher burn-off rate, Deep penetration,
less penetration low burn-off rate
Electrode Electrode
Work piece Work piece

STRAIGHT POLARITY REVERSE POLARITY
Figure 4.2 - Principles of polarity; from [49].
Welding with alternating current implies that the currents will alternate between positive and
negative, hence a polarity fluctuating at a predefined frequency [21]. The result is that half of
the energy is generated at the electrode for melting and the other half at the workpiece. Thirdly,
different methods of shielding the arc exist. This is generally applied in order to protect the weld
pool against the atmosphere containing oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen. The shielding methods
characterizing SAW is examined in the following
4.2.1 Submerged Arc Welding

The principles of welding process number 121, Submerged Arc Welding, in accordance with
[45], is shown in Figure 4.3. The submerged arc welding process is characterized by use of a
consumable unclad wire-electrode, which is covered beneath a bed of granulated flux. One
requirement of the SAW procedure is that it needs to be performed on a leveled surface, in order
to avoid movement of the flux powder. The flux powder serves as thermal insulation resulting in
reduced heat loss from the arc to the surroundings providing ideal conditions for a large current.
This results in large heat intensity concentrations giving a deep penetration.
The heat formed by the electric energy burns in a cavity beneath the flux powder, thus creating
gasses and emissions from the metal [50]. The result is a mixture in the liquid weld pool
consisting primarily of electrode and the adjacent edges of the base material, whereas most of
the flux powder will slip off as liquid slag [51].
33
Figure 4.3 - Schematic view of submerged arc welding process; from [51].
The initiation of the heat source movement results in flux powder continuously being added in
front of the electrode. The non-melted excess powder will then be sucked op behind the
electrode, and reused. The wire-electrode will continuously be fed at the rate in which the
electrode tip is consumed by the arc. Solidification of the weld pool will initiate when the heat
source has moved a sufficient distance, resulting in a solid welding bead with the top covered in
a layer of slag material. The slag material is subsequently swept away before applying any
additional weld, in the case of a multi-pass weld [50].
4.3 Heat Properties of Arc Welding

The amount of heat energy added to the joint during welding and the time it takes for the heat to
dissipate will have a large influence on changes in the microstructure as well as inducing
residual stresses in the heat-affected zone (HAZ). The changes in microstructure affect the
mechanical properties and behaviour [52]. This aspect will be treated in more detail in section
6.3.1. Current section will describe the heat source fundamentals.
4.3.1 Preheat
The thermal cycle from typical arc welding is characterised by rapid local heating to a high peak
temperature followed by a relatively fast cooling phase back to the ambient temperature. During
the cooling phase, local shrinkage will occur in- and near- the welded joint, initiating residual
stress. This is due to non-uniform cooling (heat dissipation) affecting the joint. This unfavorable
effect can be reduced by applying preheat to the welded joint, which implies heating the base
material, either in its entirety or just in the joint region, prior to welding. The purpose with this
maneuver is to reduce the temperature gradient in the joint, by applying a higher heat input,
which leads to reduction of the cooling rate, as illustrated on the slopes in Figure 4.4.
34
Figure 4.4 - Heat input influences cooling rate; from [53].
In addition to reducing shrinkage in the weld and the adjacent base material, lowering the
cooling rate may also produce a more ductile metallurgical structure with greater resistance to
cracking. Furthermore, it allows for hydrogen that may be present to diffuse out harmlessly
without causing cracking. Preheating may be continued during the welding process in case of
long multipass welds, but in most cases the heat from welding may be sufficient to maintain the
desired temperature. However, this requires that the interpass temperature does not fall below
the preheat temperature [53].
4.3.2 Heat Input from the Arc

The principal parameter of the heat source is the arcs’ heat flow to the steel surface, also defined
as the heat input. Depending on the arc welding process chosen, a large difference in the heat
input can be obtained in terms of differences in peak temperature and the subsequent cooling
rate in and near the HAZ. This will influence the joints’ properties [48]. Equation (4.1)
expresses the heat input from the arc per unit time, Q [J/s], hence the total energy transported
continuously to the weld [34].
Q= IUη (4.1)
where I is the current [A], U is the voltage [W] and  is the thermal efficiency [-]. The latter is
also termed the ‘process efficiency’, defining the ratio of the total arc energy transferred to
weld. This includes heat dissipation to the surroundings due to convection, radiation and spray-
losses (for consumable electrode) [34]. The current and the voltage are controlled by the power
source whereas the thermal efficiency depends on the shielding method. Since welding of
individual passes is a process performed at a given travel speed, v [mm/s] a more convenient
measure is the heat input per unit length of the weld, q [J/mm]:
Q ηUI
q= = (4.2)
v v
The range of heat input, thermal efficiency and welding speed characterizing the submerged arc
welding process (and the gas metal arc welding process in comparison) is given in Table 4.1.
35
Welding Heat input, Q Efficiency,  Welding speed, v Heat Input, q

Process [kJ/s] [-] [mm/s] [kJ/mm]
SAW (121) 5-250 0.90 – 1.00 < 10 < 10
GMAW (135) 5-100 0.60 – 0.90 <2 <2
Table 4.1 - Survey on parameters for fusion welding of steel. From [48, 34]
Table 4.1 shows that the shielding method in the SAW, hence the arc covered by the flux
powder, has a significantly larger thermal efficiency compared to GMAW, where the arc is
shielded by gas. This is due to the flux powder that keeps the melted material in the weld pool at
high arc pressures and prevents spatter losses due to the surrounding boundaries. Therefore, a
relatively high amount of the melt consists of the base metal [21]. The gain of this is the
possibility of applying a larger current, hence heat input compared to other arc welding
procedures. The magnitude of the heat input has a singnificant influence on the penetration
depth. The large value gives advantages for joining sections with large thickness, as applied in
this report, as well as the possibility of much faster welding speed, since the speed essentially
represents the heat input, cf. equation (4.2).
Another aspect of the heat source is the heat source density, q* [W/mm2]. Heat source density
represents the degree to which the heat is spread. Figure 4.5(a) illustrates different heat densities
as characterized by their corresponding welding processes.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.5 - Heat flow density per unit area [W/mm2] in two cases: (a) Variable magnitude
and response of the steel to be welded, and (b) Density profile at the surface of the steel,
which approximately resembles the Gaussian distribution; from [34].
Figure 4.5(b) shows the heat density profile on a steel plate in the case of a flame torch and an
arc process, both of which have a similar effective heat output from the source. The effect of the
small density flame torch can be seen to resemble a flat curve, from which the heat is distributed
on a large area, unlike the more narrow and high density arc. Thus, the flame torch may in this
case cause a build-up of heat, however it still results in negligible melting.
36
4.4 Weld Material

The shape of the heat source during arc welding causes the material to experience large
differences in the thermal load from region to region. These are defined as the unaffected base
metal, the HAZ, and the fusion zone also referred to as the weld material, see Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6 - Definition sketch of weld zones, illustrated by solidified one-

sided butt weld. From [31].
In the fusion zone the melted material, electrode (if consumable), and the powder flux (if used
as shielding) will result in formation of a weld pool, consisting of a mixture of the melted
components. The behavior of the melted mixture is affected by several chemical and physical
phenomena, such as: surface tension force, Lorentz force, plasma drag force, buoyancy force,
the thermo-physical properties of the base material, etc. - all of which to some extent affect the
shape and composition of the weld pool [48, 54]. The interaction of these phenomena is very
complex to describe in theory, which is why it is usually more convenient to consider the
resulting shape after solidification as well as mechanical properties, both of which can be
obtained experimentally. Therefore, the welded material in this report will be considered
primarily in terms of weld pass shapes and the final mechanical properties, after solidification.
4.4.1 Weld Shape

The highly complex flow phenomena in the weld pool causes both the global weld profile
(convex or concave) and the individual weld pass to differ from the conditions of a liquid drop
spreading over a solid surface [55]. The prediction of the weld shape is even more complicated
for large multipass joints in which large transverse shrinkage forces arise during solidification.
The shrinkage will cause the initial shape of a welding pass to change during the welding
process [39]. The weld shape is typically estimated from samples taken from the welded joint at
the end of the cooling phase [21].
4.4.2 Composition of Weld Material

A large range of parameters affects the composition of the solidified weld material, hereunder
the chemistry of the electrodes, the mixture ratio of the melted metal, the shielding type, and the
weld pool solidification [56]. The specific electrode (filler material) given in the WPS is chosen
37
in order to ensure a proper composition of the weld material, which must provide a crack-free
and satisfactory service life, together with the base material. The choice of electrode is not, as
one might expect, based on matching the chemistry of the electrode with the chemistry of the
base material. An identical chemistry would result in weld material with higher yield strength
and a lower ductility compared to the base material, due to microstructural changes of the weld
material. Typically, the solution applied is an electrode with lower carbon content relative to the
base material.
4.5 Welding Sequence

The WPS prescribes the assembly process performed by the steel manufacturer. This involves a
controlled sequence of the performed weld passes. A weld pass is defined as a single
progression of the heat source along the joint (from start to stop). The deposited weld material is
refered to as a weld bead. For thin steel structures, welding is frequently performed by a single
pass, whereas thick steel structures is commonly joined by multi-pass with opening groove,
before welding [35]. See Figure 4.7 for definition.
Closing passes
Single pass
Bottom pass Filling passes
Figure 4.7 - Single-pass- and multi-pass- butt weld. From [48].
In multi-pass weld the first deposited pass is often the bottom pass, or root pass, which is used
as tack welding as well as functioning as a shelf for the overlying filling passes. The vital part of
the WPS is the order in which the weld is deposited, reffered to as the weld sequence. This
involves choice of depositon sequence as illustrated in different varieties, (a), (b), and (d), in
Figure 4.8. The built up of weld passes in a joint in the thickness direction of the base material
is illustrated in (c).
38
Unwelded spaces filled after deposition of

intermittent blocks
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4.8 - Examples of welding sequences: (a) Backstep Sequence, (b) Block
Sequence, (c) Built-up Sequence and (d) Cascade Sequence. From [35].
The amount of shrinkage due to welding, hence the residual stress as well as distortion is largely
affected by the recommended welding sequences in the WPS. In the case of the built-up
sequence, this is expressed by the number and size of weld passes [57]. The larger the thickness
of the cross-section, the higher number of passes, which will results in larger shrinkage.
Increase in size of the weld pass will result in increase of the weld pool size, which is more
challenging to control by the manufacturer, thus increasing the risk of weld defects. The weld
passes are constrained by the colder base material. Hence in a multi-pass built-up sequence, the
initial placement of the weld passes in a given layer, should be along the groove of the base
material in order to reduce the number of passes connecting the two sides. In the case of a
double-sided butt weld, the angular shrinkage can be reduced by performing “balanced
welding”, a process in which weld passes are continuously being deposited on the opposite site
of the previously performed pass [48]. Generally, the approach should counteract the shrinkage
forces by the upcoming weld passes, if possible.
For multipass welds, a reheating thermal cycle of each subsequent weld bead will be applied.
This is in the WPS defined as the interpass temperature, and it has a positive impact on the
microstructure by normalization and refinement [56]. Furthermore, interpass temperatures will
reduce the cooling rate of the subsequent weld passes. Thus, decrease of the interpass
temperature will result in increase of residual stress. This was also discussed in relation to the
preheat effect, in section 4.3.1.
One other aspect related to the welding sequence is the application of back gouging. Back
gouging is the process in which the weld root and the base material is removed from the
opposing site of the partially welded joint [58]. This is performed partly to make space for the
opposing weld (in the case of thicker cross-section) and partly to remove discontinuities from
the previously laid root pass, thus ensuring complete fusion.
39
40
5 NUMERICAL MODELING
In this chapter, the complexity and various tasks involved in numerical modelling of welding
are sought clarified. Initially, the fundamental task of modeling a technological problem is
clarified. Hereafter, a historical introduction to computational welding mechanics is presented in
order to outline the present state of capabilities and challenges related to the subject.
Furthermore, the numerical tool utilized in present thesis is presented. Finally, the chapter will
clarify to which extent a welding simulation must be decoupled in theory, in order to meet the
current objective.
5.1 Numerical Modelling of a Technological Problem

Normally the need for modelling originates from a technological problem for which a solution is
sought. An appropriate example of this is to test the usability of a certain welding procedure, or
maybe focus is on an actual optimisation of various welding process parameters such as heat
input, material properties, welding layout, etc.
Numerical modelling of a technological problem allows the scientist to gain knowledge of a

given physical process, without all the great amounts of work and costs it usually takes to
perform traditional full-scale experimental measurements. Deformations, stress developments,
temperatures and microstructures are some examples of the physical quantities, which can easily
be obtained by means of numerical modelling. The validity of the model however, requires a
proper description of the physical terms combined with the proper choice of a mathematical
model. The sequential steps from the originating problem to the final solution are shown in
Figure 5.1.
Technological Physical Mathematical

problem phenomena model
Analytical /
Numerical
method
Technological Physical Mathematical
solution interpretation solution
Figure 5.1 - Steps towards the solution of a technological problem; after [59].
The physical terms of the problem imply the relevant material properties and behaviours, which
are used as input for the numerical model. In order for the model to expediently reflect reality,
41
CHAPTER 5. NUMERICAL MODELING
this knowledge is typically derived from experiments in the traditional sense, in which a given
physical process has been “recreated” and examined in real life. This information serves not
only as validation of the material model chosen for the analysis, but also as a validation of an
appropriate and realistic process description. In this sense, experimental work is fundamental for
the validation of the numerical model’s ability to yield the correct solution to a technological
problem.
The choice of a mathematical model depends on the nature of the problem investigated as well
as the desired accuracy of the result. A distinction is typically made between the simple
analytical approach, which implies a simple model with an exact solution, and the numerical
approach, which is based on a far more complex model resulting in an approximate solution.
Regardless of the approach, it should be emphasised that a mathematical model will always
include assumptions to some degree, which is why the technological solution will always be an
approximation of the original problem. Thus, all approximations and assumptions must be taken
into account when evaluating the value or applicability of a solution to a technological solution.
Hence, there will always be a risk of misinterpretation of the results, which can lead to wrong
conclusions, if one is not aware of the assumptions and thus, the limited conditions upon which
the numerical model is built.
5.2 History of Computational Welding Mechanics

Historically, arc welding was introduced shortly after electrical power became available in the
late 1800s. The first serious scientific studies date from the beginning of the 1930s, when
research was stimulated primarily by the failure of welded bridges in Europe and American
Liberty ships during World War II in 1940s. In USA, most attention was paid to experimental
approaches in developing fracture mechanics and fracture toughness tests, which could be
interpreted as a belief that welding as such, was too complex to analyse [60].
Analytic theory of steady state heat transfer established by Rosenthal [61] during the 1930s was
an exception. His theories on heat distribution were to some extent applicable under welding
conditions. However, the usefulness was limited, due to various fundamental assumptions
involving many constant inputs and boundaries. Some of the assumptions implied disregarding
material properties dependency on temperature4, no heat loss at the boundaries, an infinite piece
(except in the directions specifically noted), and steady conditions with respect to heat input,
travel speed, etc. [62]. Although the theories were extended and revised during the 1940s and
1950s, the limitations remained, and instead, researchers during the 1960s turned to numerical
methods, which recent years, particuarly in the airspace industry, have proven useful, when
handling complex mathematical equation systems.
Over time, the main techniques for solving heat transfer problems and the strategy for analyzing
welds have changed as a result of growing computer capacity. Material non-linearities and the
4
At all temperatures assuming e.g. solid material, constant thermal conductivity, density and specific heat
capacity
42
coupling between thermal and mechanical analysis was included in pioneering work dealing
with simulation of welding in the early 1970s, performed by Ueda and Yamakawa [38] and
Hibbit and Marcal [63], among others.
Up until the mid 1980s the limited computing power had restricted the capabilities of the
numerical analysis to two-dimensional (2D) plane models, though welding situations in reality
exclusively result in fully three-dimensional (3D) states of stressses and deformations. The first
three-dimensional transient heat transfer analysis was introduced in the mid 1980s. A few years
later, the coupling to thermal stress analysis on rather simple models became feasible from a
computer hardware perspective [21].
In the early 1990s, much attention was given to the local welding aspects, i.e. coupling effects,
microstructure formation and temperature distribution in the weld pool, which was now being
analysed by more geometrically detailed 3D modelling. Thermal-microstructure analysis
involved material within short distance to the weld path, thus only the need for smaller
geometrical models. The thermal-stress analysis, on the contrary, was a much more challenging
problem for several reasons. Among the reasons was that thermal stress generated by the
welding process, must travel over the entire structure. This made it much more difficult to
perform analysis of even relatively small regions around the weld, and particularly difficult to
choose realistic boundary conditions. Another reason was that the mesh used for thermal-stress
necessarily had to be more refined compared to the thermal analysis, since temperature
increments that generate stress increments larger than yield strength, make it difficult to carry
out an accurate thermal-stress analysis [64].
Since the mid 1990s, we have seen an increased number of publications analysing transient and
residual stresses in welding. Mainly simple joints such as e.g. T-joints and butt welds have been
considered, though only rarely including multipass welds. In most cases, adaptive meshing
techniques in combination with either plane strain or shell assumptions was used to reduce
problems to 2D, which recognizes the fact that 3D transient computational welding mechanics
(CMW) remain too “expensive” to be practical [64].
In the comprehensive review by Lindgreen [20, 65, 66], the direction for future research is
summarized. In the first part [20], the author shows that increased complexity of the models
gives a better description of the engineering applications. The second and the third part [65, 66]
outline the important development of material modelling and computational efficiency,
respectively. Furthermore, Lindgreens’ work contains recommendations of how and what to
include in a model depending on the aim of welding simulation, some of which will form the
basis of the analysis in this thesis.
5.2.1 Review
For many years, the ultimate objective in CWM was to be able to analyse three-dimensional
temperatures, microstructures, defects, stresses and deformations - accurately, efficiently and at
low cost. Especially for large, complex structures comprising multiple welds, there is significant
43
potential for optimization. At present stage, lack of knowledge and computational power are
still limiting factors, which require further development.
Another concern is the time consuming effort of having to manually setup the adequate welding
simulation model for specific problems investigated, which also requires quite a lot of user
expertise. However, recent years, commercial efforts have been made into making more user-
friendly software packages for numerical simulations of general welding applications. Probably
among the most comprehensive stand-alone welding simulation software packages is
SYSWELD, but also other software packages have been developed to extent the capabilities of
more commonly used general-purpose numerical tools, e.g. ANSYS and Abaqus FEA. One of
such software extensions is the Abaqus Welding Interface (AWI), which, as the name dictates,
is used in connection to Abaqus FEA. Further elaboration on the numerical tool applied in the
work carried out in this thesis, follows in upcoming section.
Though welding simulation and analysis remain complicated and still requiring expertise, recent
developments in software and hardware technology have made numerical analysis of weldings
more accessible and less time consuming than previously. The following section will briefly
introduce the aspect of numerical analysis with an emphasis on the Finite Element Method
(FEM), which forms the basis for the CWM analysis carried out in this thesis.
5.3 Numerical Analysis

Numerical analysis is the area of mathematics and computer science that creates, analyses, and
implements algorithms for numerically solving problems of continuous mathematics. Its
application is widely used to assess real-world problems within science, technology and
engineering. Several numerical methods exist to provide an approximate solution to the often
quite complex physical problems, from which there are no analytical solution readily available.
By definition, analytical solutions are continuous, given by a function of time and space,
whereas numerical solutions are discrete, which implies that these are obtained at certain points
in time and only a finite number of points in the spatial domain of the problem [21]. In the field
of computational welding mechanics, the Finite Element Method (FEM) is the overall dominant
tool used.
5.3.1 Finite Element Method

One of the most well established and widely used numerical tools, is the Finite Element
Method, which can be used to solve problems in almost every field of engineering. Common
applications include e.g. static, dynamic and thermal behavior of physical systems, all of which
may pose complex engineering challenges. The basic idea of the finite element method is to find
approximate solutions to the physical process of interest, described by its governing differential
equations. This is performed by discretizing the whole problem domain into a finite number of
elements connected by their corresponding nodal points, which together form a grid, also known
as the mesh. The adjacent elements sharing nodal points then exchange information through
shape functions and other characteristics, such as the material properties of the element.
44
The principle of FEM can be considered analogous to the principle of approximating a circle by
connecting a large number of tiny straight lines. In the same way, FEM uses methods for
connecting a large number of simple element equations to approximate a more complex
equation over a larger domain. For a more thorough description on the finite element method in
general, reference can be made to e.g. [67, 68].
As indicated in the review on computational welding mechanics (section 5.3.1), there are
several software packages available, which are applicable for the purpose of performing
numerical simulations of welding. The analysis conducted in this thesis will apply the general-
purpose finite element tool, Abaqus FEA, which will be shortly introduced in the following.
5.3.2 About Abaqus FEA

Abaqus FEA is a suite of software applications used for finite element analysis and computer-
aided engineering. The Abaqus product suite currently consists of five core software products,
among which Abaqus CAE5 is the one utilized in present report. The software was originally
designed in 1978 to solve non-linear physical behavior, and as a result thereof, the software
today provides a large variety of material modelling- as well as multiphysical- capabilities.
When performing finite element analysis (FEA), there are four different stages to comply [69]:
1. Simplifications / Assumptions
2. Pre-processing / Modelling input
3. Processing / Running the analysis
4. Post-processing / Creating output
The initial stage involves performing a modeling strategy, which describes the modeling
approach in terms of methodology, basic assumptions and limitations. The second stage
involves creating an input file (.inp) containing all the information needed for the finite element
solver to process the solution in the third stage, which then creates an output visual file (.odb).
In the final post-processing stage, the results are obtained from the output file and subsequently,
visualised in the form of e.g. an image, a graph or an animation.
An advantage of Abaqus, is the program’s capability of customization by e.g. applying problem

specific extensions, such as the Abaqus Welding Interface (AWI). The specific modelling
approach utilized in present work will be presented in Chapter 7.
5.4 The Coupled Problem in CWM

As it has been presented so far, welding is a complex process where localized intensive heat
input is applied to join pieces, thus promoting mechanical and metallurgical changes. Many
physical phenomena play a role in the process of welding, and various coupling effects have
been discussed extensively during past decades, of which Karlsson [70], Goldak [60], Lindgren
5
“Complete Abaqus Environment”
45
[39] and Zacharia [71] are among influential authors. Some of the main aspects discussed relate
to the fields of thermodynamics, mechanics, fluidmechanics and metallography. Furthermore,
there are special considerations as e.g. electromagnetism, plasma physics, droplet dynamics, etc.
All of these phenomena are strongly coupled, however, not at all equally important or even
relevant for the process of welding [21]. Additionally, in the context of modelling the welding
process, an appropriate compromise between accuracy and reasonable computational time is
usually to prefer, which is why simplifications and assumptions have to be made to
accommodate this.
For the purpose of analysis to be performed in accordance with the thesis objective, only the
evolution of certain variables on macroscopic scale is of interest, including temperature,
displacements, strain and stress. The coupling between the most influencial fields in the
modelling of welding, is schematically shown in Figure 5.2, in which strong and subtle
dependencies are illustrated with grey and white arrows, respectively. Beneath the figure
follows a brief explanation of the various effects.
Thermodynamics
Temperature field
3. Transformation stress
Mechanics Metallography
Stress and Microstructural state
deformation field 4. Transformation field
caused by stress
Figure 5.2 – Decoupling and mutual influencing of thermodynamics, mechanics and

metallography; after [70].
1. Thermal stresses: Mechanical deformations depend on temperature due to thermal

expansion.
2. Deformation heat: Mechanical deformation generates heat in the material and changes
the thermal boundary conditions (geometrical change).
3. Transformation stress: Volume changes due to phase transformations, plastic and
elastic deformations depend on microstructures.
4. Transformation caused by stress: Stresses cause microstructural transformations.
5. Microstructural transformation: Temperatures affect microstructure deformation.
46
6. Transformation heat: Phase transformations release latent heat and changes in material
properties, which will affect temperatures, i.e. act as a heat sink on heating and as a heat
source on cooling.
It should be noted that the contribution from the field of fluid dynamics is omitted from Figure
5.2, though filler material deposited during welding obviously becomes fluid. This is because
the effect from the fluid flow on deformation and stresses can usually be considered negligible
in this type of analysis [72]. Only if the geometrical changes close to the weld pool are of
primary interest, modeling of the fluid flow will be necessary.
Various objectives can be associated with the welding simulations, e.g. to examine weld
strength, defects, fatigue and corrosion properties. The objective may even be linked
specifically to optimisation of the WPS. In any case, the applied modeling approach must be
chosen specifically based on the problem of interest.
When the objective of the analysis is to determine the mechanical effects of welding (residual
stress and distortions), the most frequently adopted approach is to consider the thermal and
mechanical coupling, only [39, 60]. This coupling is usually considered one-way in the sense
that the mechanical analysis depends on the thermal field obtained from the thermal analysis,
but not vice versa. This is due to the fact that the heat generated by plastic deformation
(coupling 2), in traditional welding applications, is markedly weaker in comparison with the
heat applied from welding arc. The approach is commonly termed ‘sequentially coupled
thermo-mechanical analysis’, which is the one adopted in present work.
The field of microstructure can be accounted for by more or less sophisticated techniques in
material modeling, so that in the analysis, there is an indirect incorporation of microstructural
aspects in the material behaviour definition, which accounts for the microstructure dependency
on temperature and deformation [73]. This approach implies that the volumetric strains due to
thermal expansion (coupling 1) and the phase transformations (coupling 3) are the most
dominant loads in the stress analysis.
In the upcoming chapter, the theoretical basis of the sequential thermo-mechanical analysis will
be presented in terms of the governing equations and their implementation in the finite element
code. In addition to this comes clarification of the material specific properties, which must be
considered in connection with the analysis.
47
48
6 THERMO-MECHANICAL ANALYSIS
As described in previous chapter, the analysis performed on the welding applications considered
in this thesis will be based on a sequential thermo-mechanical approach, which implies
neglecting fluid flow, microstructure formations, electromagnetism, etc. Hence, the problem to
be solved will consider heat- and force- balances described by their respective governing
equations, which must be solved in order to determine the resulting temperatures, strains and
stresses (due to welding). As the term “sequentially coupled” indicates, the problem can be
divided in a thermal- and a mechanical- analysis, respectively.
The purpose of this chapter is to provide the reader with a basic understanding of the underlying
physical laws and the general assumptions in relation to the numerical analysis performed in this
thesis, and furthermore, to introduce the associated material input parameters and boundary
condition needed in the analyses. No particular emphasis has been put on the derivation of the
different formulas, why these are simply assumed valid, based on reliable litterature [39, 60, 59,
34]. The finite element formulations in discretized form are briefly introduced in connection
with the individual analyses, to present the numerical problem which is to be solved in Abaqus.
The final part of this chapter will consider the material modelling aspect of welding. This
includes a review on the essential material properties applied for the thermal- and the
mechanical analysis, respectively.
6.1 Thermal Analysis

The thermal analysis implies a non-linear heat transfer analysis, in which the temperature
distribution in the welded application is calculated over time. The thermal analysis considers the
overall energy balance in terms of change in stored energy and in heat fluxes. In addition to this
comes thermal boundary effects including convection and radiation. The governing equations of
the thermal analysis are presented in the following. An approximation of the heat input follows
from chapter 7, in which the modelling principle of the moving heat source and the addition of
filler material will be described.
6.1.1 Heat Conduction

When a temperature gradient exists in a body, there is a transfer of heat energy from the high
temperature region to the lower temperature region. By definition the temperature T [C] is a
time dependent scalar field:
49
CHAPTER 6. THERMO-MECHANICAL ANALYSIS
𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) (6.1)
where x,y,z refer to a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system and t [s] is time. This
internal transfer of heat energy is from thermodynamics commonly known as conduction
(diffusion), where the heat flux density q [W/m2] defines the diffusive heat flow per unit area:
𝑇
q = [𝑞𝑥 , 𝑞𝑦 , 𝑞𝑧 ] (6.2)
Heat conduction is assumed governed by Fourier’s law, which states that the diffusive heat flow
q is proportional to the thermal conductivity,  [W/m/C], times the negative temperature
gradient, T [C/m], perpendicular to the diffusive area. Considering a momentary local heat
flow and momentary temperature field and assuming a homogenous and isotropic material,
Fourier’s law can be written as follows:
𝜕𝑇
q = −𝜆𝛻𝑇 = −𝜆 (6.3)
𝜕𝑛
where the index n refers to the direction of the unit normal vector. The general heat conduction
equation is constructed based on Fourier’s law, together with the principle of conservation of
energy (first law of thermodynamics) [ 39]:
𝜌𝐻̇ = 𝑄̇𝑉 − ∇q (6.4)
where  [kg/m3] is the density of the material, 𝐻̇ [J/kg] is the volumetric enthalpy, 𝑄̇𝑉 [W/m3] is
the heat input supplied externally per unit of volume and q is the diffusive heat flow. The
enthalpy H describes the thermodynamic potential and it is traditionally defined as the sum of
internal energy U and the product of the pressure p and the volume V. Since the enthalpy is a
state property, it is customary to consider the change in enthalpy H, or in other words, the
change in internal heat energy of a volume material, which is given as:
𝑇2 𝑇2
Δ𝐻 = 𝑚 ∙ ∫ 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑉 ∙ ∫ 𝜌 ∙ 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇 (6.5)
𝑇1 𝑇1
where cp [J/kg/C] is the specific heat capacity (denoted at constant pressure 𝑝), m [kg] is the
mass and  [kg/m3] is the density. From this equation the specific heat capacity can be derived
as:
𝑑ℎ
𝑐𝑝 = ( ) (6.6)
𝑑𝑇 𝑝
where h is the specific enthalpy following from 𝑑𝐻 = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑑ℎ. Combining the relations above
produces the governing equation of heat conduction, eq. (6.7) [34]:
𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝑇̇ = 𝑄̇𝑉 + ∇(𝜆∇𝑇) (6.7)
Or in terms of Cartesian coordinates (in three dimensions):
50
𝜕𝑇 ∂ 𝜕𝑇 ∂ 𝜕𝑇 ∂ 𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐𝑝 = 𝑄̇𝑉 + (𝜆 ) + (𝜆 ) + (𝜆 ) (6.8)
𝜕𝑡 ∂x 𝜕𝑥 ∂y 𝜕𝑦 ∂z 𝜕𝑧
In order to solve this equation, a set of initial- and boundary conditions must be defined. The
initial condition is the location-constant temperature of the surrounding medium (or from
preheating). The temperature distribution at the time t=0 of the entire body:
𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 = 0) = 𝑇0 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) (6.9)
The boundary conditions are the conditions of heat dissipation at the boundary surfaces of the
structure. These are treated separately in the following section.
6.1.2 Thermal Boundary Conditions

Generally, there are three types of thermal boundary conditions (BC) occuring in the case of
application analyses. The first-type BC (Dirichlet, “known temperature”) is the prescribed
temperature condition, which can be specified at specific points and/or surfaces of the body:
𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑇 𝑆 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) on 𝑆1 (6.10)
The second-type BC (Neumann, “known boundary flux”) regards a prescribed heat flow density
at a surface. Remembering Fourier’s law, equation (6.3), the heat flux density normal to a
surface is stated as a function of position and time:
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑛𝑆 = −𝜆 on 𝑆2 (6.11)
𝜕𝑛
In the simplest case, the heat flux may be defined as “vanishing” (zero heat flux gradient)
corresponding to an adiabatic boundary condition [34]. The third-type (Robin) considers the
heat transfer to the surrounding medium by the following equation:
𝑞𝑛𝑆 = ℎ ∙ (𝑇 − 𝑇0 ) on 𝑆3 (6.12)
where h [W/m2/C] is the heat transfer coefficient and T0 is the temperature of the surrounding
medium (gas or liquid). This BC describes how the heat transfer is proportional to the
temperature difference betweeen the surface and the ambience, and it includes convection and
radiation (treated in the following). The heat transfer coefficient h, is also known as the surface
film coefficient.
6.1.2.1 Convection
Heat transfer by convection involves movement of particles, particularly within liquids or gases.
A distinction is usually made between natural and forced convection. Natural convection
implies that movement of particles is solely caused by differences in densities due to
temperature differences, whereas forced convection occurs if external (flow) forces maintain the
movement (e.g. the blow effect of the arc or flame). According to Newton’s law, heat transfer
by convection qcon is given as:
51
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛 ∙ (𝑇 − 𝑇0 ) (6.13)
where hcon [W/m2/C] is the heat transfer or film coefficient due to convection. The heat transfer
coefficient is dependent on conditions such as wind flow on the surface, surface properties and
the temperature difference between the material and the surroundings.
6.1.2.2 Radiation
Another surface effect to consider is the heat transfer due to radiation, which refers to the
transfer of heat energy due to electromagnetic wave propagation. According to Stefan-
Boltzmann’s law, heat flow density caused by radiation is given by:
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜀 ∙ 𝜎 ∙ (𝑇 4 − 𝑇04 ) (6.14)
where  [-] is the emissivity constant and  [W/m2/K4] is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. The
Stefan Boltzamann constant of a ‘perfect black body’ is given as  = 5.670  10-8 W/m2/K4.
The emissivity constant can be considered as the degree of ‘blackness’, thus it is in other words,
the effectiveness of which the surface of a material emits energy as thermal radiation (0<<1).
For light and shiny surfaces the emissivity is high resulting in a higher heat loss, whereas for
dark surfaces the opposite is the case. The emissivity constant can be temperature dependent in
the high temperature range. By linearizing eq. (6.14) the heat flow density from radiation can be
expressed in similar form as the heat flow density due to convection equation (6.13), thus
allowing for the boundary conditions to be combined, which in some cases may be convenient
in order to solve the boundary value problem.
6.1.3 Finite Element Formulation

The analytical solution of the governing heat conduction equation (6.8) can only be obtained for
simple geometries and boundary conditions as well as temperature independent material
properties. Since this is obviously not the case in present work, a finite element formulation is
necessary.
The fundamental idea of the finite element method is to discretize the governing differential
equilibrium equation in order to describe the physical problem on weak form in terms of finite
elements. According to the Abaqus manual [74] the finite element formulation of the basic
energy balance of a body can be expressed by the weak form as an integral form over the
volume V with the surface area S:
∫ 𝜌𝑈̇ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝐪 𝑑𝑆 (6.15)
𝑉 𝑉 𝑆
where 𝑈̇ is the material time rate of internal energy, r is the heat supplied externally into the
body per unit of volume and q is the heat flux flowing into the body per unit area. In this
formulation it is assumed that the thermal and material problems are uncoupled in the sense that
U depends only on the temperature of the material, and q and r do not depend on the strains or
displacements of the body [74].
52
The weak formulation of the governing equation of heat conduction (6.8) can be obtained by
means of the standard Galerkin approach by multiplying with a virtual temperature weighting
function 𝛿𝑇 and integrating over the entire volume. This leads to the general finite element
formulation of the heat transfer problem:
𝜕𝑇
∫ 𝛿𝑇 𝜌𝑐 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ ∇𝛿𝑇 λ∇T 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝛿𝑇 𝑟 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝛿𝑇 𝑞 𝑑𝑆 (6.16)
𝜕𝑡
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑆
6
The principle of virtual temperatures is applied to discretize the heat flux balance in terms of
the unknown nodal temperatures, which leads to an overall balance of the heat fluxes by the
assemblage of the element integrals by summation. By seperating the time variable and the
space dependency, the temperature within each element can be interpolated as:
𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = N(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ∙ T(𝑡) (6.17)
where the vector 𝐓 contains the temperature evolution at the nodes of the finite elements and 𝐍
is a matrix in which the so called shape or interpolation functions are stored. A similar approach
can be applied with respect to the virtual temperature field 𝛿𝐓. The gradient of the temperature
field is given as:
∇𝑇 = ∇N ∙ T(𝑡) = 𝐁 ∙ 𝐓 (6.18)
where B is the temperature-gradient interpolation matrix containing the first derivatives of the
shape functions7. Inserting the preceding formulations in equation (6.16) and assembling the
virtual energy over the whole body leads to the general finite element equation of the system:
𝐂𝐓̇ + (𝐊 𝛌 + 𝐊 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 + 𝐊 𝒓𝒂𝒅 ) 𝐓 = 𝐐𝒊𝒏𝒑 + 𝐐𝒄𝒐𝒏 + 𝐐𝒓𝒂𝒅 (6.19)
where all the different element contributions are obtained by the appropriate integrations over
the volumes and surfaces of all finite elements as follows. These integrations will be omitted
here, but can instead be found in Appendix D. Thus, from this summation of element
contributions, the full system of equilibrium equations, expressed by the nodal fluxes, is
obtained for all the nodal point temperatures. For simplicity, a more general finite element
fomulation of the heat problem is obtained by combining the conductivity, convection and
radiation matrix (internal) as well as heat supply vectors (external) in equation (6.19).
𝐂𝐓̇ + 𝐊 𝐓 = 𝐐 (6.20)
In order to numerically solve this semidiscrete finite element heat equation, the time interval,
∆𝑡, for the solution must be divided into a number of increments/time steps, 𝑛. Thus, the
equation system is evaluated at every discrete time, 𝑛 ∙ ∆𝑡.
6
Analogous to the more common principle of virtual displacements (work).
7
No special attention is paid on a proper definition of the shape functions on an element level. Reference
is made to the ABAQUS manual; in the case of continuum elements.
53
The time integration can, in principle, be performed using either an implicit or explicit
integration scheme. When using implicit methods, the solution is calculated iteratively at every
discrete time step. The explicit time integration can be performed without iteration and without
having to solve a global set of linear algebraic equations. However, this scheme is only
conditionally stable, which implies that smaller time steps are required. In the specific case of
welding applications, in which time period for subsequent cooling of the structure is usually
large, it may be more appropriate to apply the implicit time integration, in order to prevent an
excessive number of “small” time steps, and hence impractically long computational time [39,
60].
Abaqus/Standard (implicit) uses the backward difference algorithm for time integration and
within every discrete time step, ∆𝑡, the nonlinear system is solved by utilizing the modified
Newton-Raphson iteration scheme. For more information reference is made to e.g. Abaqus
theory manual [74].
6.2 Mechanical Analysis

As previously described, the thermal and mechanical processes are assumed sequentially
coupled. This implies that the nodal temperature histories obtained from the thermal analysis are
used as input data (load) for the mechanical analysis, in which the resulting strains and stresses
are subsequently calculated. The governing equations of the mechanical analysis are presented
in the following, together with the general finite element discretization formulations.
6.2.1 Governing Equations

The mechanical analysis is based on the solution of three governing partial differential
equations of force equlibrium (Newton’s second law), which in the static case, can be expressed
as [59]:
𝜕𝜎11 𝜕𝜎12 𝜕𝜎13

+ + + 𝑝1 = 0
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3
𝜕𝜎21 𝜕𝜎22 𝜕𝜎23

+ + + 𝑝2 = 0 (6.21)
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3
𝜕𝜎31 𝜕𝜎32 𝜕𝜎33

+ + + 𝑝3 = 0
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3
Where the indices, in the present case, refer to the components of a rectangular Cartesian
coordinate system. For convenience, these equilibrium equations are more simply written in
tensor notation:
σ𝑖𝑗,𝑖 + 𝑝𝑗 = 0 (6.22)
54
where σ𝑖𝑗 is the Cauchy stress tensor and 𝑝𝑗 is the body force at any point within the volume, 𝑉.
The solution to the equations can be found using the principle of virtual work. The physical
interpretation of the principle is that the work done by the external forces subjected to any
virtual displacement field, is equal to the work done by the equilibrating stresses due to the
same displacement field. The principle of virtual work is the weak form of the equilibrium
equations and it is used as the basic equilibrium statement for the finite element formulation.
The weak form is obtained from the standard Galerkin method:
∫ 𝜎𝑖𝑗 𝛿𝜀𝑖𝑗 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑝𝑖 𝛿𝑢𝑖 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝑇𝑖 𝛿𝑢𝑖 𝑑𝑆 (6.23)

𝑉 𝑉 𝑆
where 𝛿𝑢 is the virtual displacement field, 𝑇 is the surface traction at any point on 𝑆, and 𝛿ε is
the virtual strain derived from the displacement field. Based on the assumption that the
displacement spatial gradient is small (|𝑢𝑖,𝑗 | ≪ 1), the Cauchy strain tensor derived from the
displacement field is given as:
1
𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 2(𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑗,𝑖 ) (6.24)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
In welding applications, the total strain 𝜀𝑖𝑗 consists of different summated strain components,
among which the elastic (e), conventional plastic (pl) and thermal (th) strain contributions can
be considered essential in a numerical analysis, in order to predict residual stresses. Additional
strain components are related to e.g. creep (cr) and phase transformation effects (pt). The strain
rate decomposition can be expressed as:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑙 𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑡 𝑐𝑟
𝜀̇𝑖𝑗 = 𝜀̇𝑖𝑗 + 𝜀̇𝑖𝑗 + 𝜀̇𝑖𝑗 + 𝜀̇𝑖𝑗 + 𝜀̇𝑖𝑗 (6.25)
Whether or not to include/account for additional strain components depends on the problem to
be investigated in terms of accuracy and the scope of work. This issue will be further discussed
in section 7.3, whereas for now, only the elastic-, plastic- and thermal- strain parts will be
considered. For simplicity of notation in the following, all quantities, not explicitly associated
with a time point, are assumed evaluated at the end of the increment (in respect to the finite
element discretization presented in section 6.2.2).
The fundamental way of relating strains to stresses is by means of Hooke’s law of elasticity. In
order to describe this relation in the general form, i.e. independent from any coordinate system,
it is convenient to decompose the symmetric stress and strain tensors (of second order) into their
respective volumetric and deviatoric portions [59, 34]:
𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑣 1 1
𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝜀𝑖𝑗 + 𝜀𝑖𝑗 = (3𝜀𝑖𝑖 𝛿𝑖𝑗 ) + (𝜀𝑖𝑗 − 3𝜀𝑖𝑖 𝛿𝑖𝑗 ) (6.26)
1 1
𝜎𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎𝑖𝑗𝑣𝑜𝑙 + 𝜎𝑖𝑗𝑑𝑒𝑣 = (3𝜎𝑖𝑖 𝛿𝑖𝑗 ) + (𝜎𝑖𝑗 − 3𝜎𝑖𝑖 𝛿𝑖𝑗 ) (6.27)
55
where 𝛿𝑖𝑗 is the Kronecker delta. Hooke’s law applies for elastic strain, and it is in the
following, defined subdivided, according to the volumetric and the deviatoric portions,
respectively:
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙 (6.28)
𝜀𝑖𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 𝜎
3𝐾 𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑒𝑣 1 𝑑𝑒𝑣
𝜀𝑖𝑗 = 𝜎 (6.29)
2𝐺 𝑖𝑗
where the elastic shear modulus 𝐺 and the elastic compression (or bulk) modulus 𝐾 are obtained
from the temperature dependent material properties, Young’s modulus 𝐸(𝑇) and Poisson’s ratio
𝜈(𝑇):
𝐸(𝑇)
𝐾(𝑇) = (6.30)
3(1 − 2𝜈(𝑇))
𝐸(𝑇)
𝐺(𝑇) = (6.31)
2(1 + 𝜈(𝑇))
The transition from elastic to plastic behaviour, from which non-reversible deformations occur,
is commonly known as yield. Besides changes in the constitutive stress-strain relation, the
plastic behaviour introduces an extra set of conditions, including the yield condition, the flow
rule and a hardening rule. The yield condition describes the initiation of yield in the uniaxial
stress state, and it is assumed governed by von Mises yield criterion, which can be expressed in
terms of the yield function, 𝑓:
𝑓 = 𝜎𝑒2 − 𝜎𝑌2 = 0 (6.32)
where 𝜎𝑒 is the effective stress given by:

3
𝜎𝑒2 = 𝜎𝑖𝑗𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝜎𝑖𝑗𝑑𝑒𝑣 (6.33)
2
and 𝜎𝑌 is the yield stress for the material (elastic limit). In terms of the yield function, it is
obvious that 𝑓 must be less than (elastic state) or equal to zero (plastic state). It is noted from
equation (6.33) that the yield criterion is independent from the volumetric component of the
stress tensor, which is due to the fact that britle materials such as metals subjected to hydrostatic
pressure, have shown almost perfectly elastic behaviour [59]. The yield stress is assumed to be
temperature dependent with isotropic hardening, given by:
𝑝𝑙
𝜎𝑌 = 𝜎𝑌 (𝜀𝑒 , 𝑇) (6.34)
𝑝𝑙
where 𝜀𝑒 denotes the equivalent plastic strain. The flow rule (associated) determines how the
plastic strain develops. The flow rule assumes that yielding occurs in the direction normal to the
yielding surface, so that the plastic strain increment and the deviatoric stress tensor have the
same principal directions. The Prandtl-Reuss relation gives:
𝑝𝑙
𝜀̇𝑖𝑗 = 𝜆̇𝜎𝑖𝑗𝑑𝑒𝑣 (6.35)
56
where 𝜆̇ is a load parameter, which is a function of the stress parameter only, thus not the
direction of the increment. The hardening rule implies that the yield becomes a function of the
state, meaning that increasing plastic deformation will result in increased stress, unlike ideal
plastic materials, which behave with constant yield stress. The isotropic work-hardening, which
enters in 𝜆̇, are represented by the hardening modulus 𝐻 and the effective plastic strain
𝑝𝑙
increment 𝜀̇𝑒 .
𝜎̇𝑌
𝐻= 𝑝𝑙 (6.36)
𝜀̇𝑒
𝑝𝑙
𝑝𝑙
𝜎𝑖𝑗𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝜀̇𝑖𝑗
𝜀̇𝑒 =
(6.37)
√1.5 𝜎𝑖𝑗𝑑𝑒𝑣 𝜎𝑖𝑗𝑑𝑒𝑣
The thermal strains are given by the volumetric strain component as follows:
𝑇2
∆𝑉
𝜀̇𝑖𝑖𝑡ℎ = ∫ 𝛼(𝑇)𝑑𝑇 (≅ ) (6.38)
𝑉
𝑇1
where 𝛼 is the linear thermal expansion coefficient. When applying small strain theory, the
thermal strains are commonly written as the relative volume change, as indicated in parenthesis.
All the specific mechanical material properties and their implementation in the finite element
analysis will be further presented in section 6.3.3. In the following, the general finite element
solution is briefly presented.
6.2.2 Finite Element Formulation

As previously indicated, the finite element solution in the mechanical analysis is based on the
principle of virtual work in terms of virtual displacements, which the overall force equilibrium
must be considered for the entire discretized structure. The unknowns are thus the nodal
displacements, which are obtained by piece-wise interpolation using the elements’ shape
functions. The relation between strains and displacement is defined on matrix form as:
𝜀 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = B ∙ 𝑢 (6.39)
where 𝐁 is the fundamental strain-displacement matrix obtained by the appropriate

differentiation of the shape functions (analogously to the temperature-gradient interpolation
matrix in the thermal analysis, eq. (6.18)). The stresses are related to the strains based on the
constitutive laws introduced in previous section. On matrix form these can be written as:
σ = C ∙ 𝜀 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (6.40)
where 𝐂 is the constitutive matrix, in present case, relating the constitutive equations for an
isotropic time-independent elasto-plastic material. Analogously to the thermal analysis, the
57
strain-displacement relation (presented in its weak form in equation (6.23)) can be written in
terms of the general finite element equation of the system:
𝐊 ∙ 𝒖 = 𝐑𝒃 + 𝐑𝒔 + 𝐑𝒄 (6.41)
where 𝐊 is the stiffness matrix of the system, 𝐑 𝑏 is the body forces over the element volumes,
𝐑 𝑠 is the surface forces of the element and 𝐑 𝑐 is the concentrated nodal forces. The different
contributions are calculated by the appropriate integrations over the volumes and surface of the
elements, which will be omitted here. Due to variation of element shapes and orientations, an
isoparametric formulation is commonly applied by the finite element code to represent the
system in terms of a generalized coordinate system. For a more specific description of these
formulations, reference is made to e.g. Belytschko [68] or the Abaqus theory manual [74].
6.2.3 Mechanical Boundary Conditions

In welding applications the localized transient heating from the welding arc will cause the
material to contract in the welding region, which leads to local stresses across the welded joint.
These stresses are significantly influenced by factors such as external mechanical restraint, joint
geometry and fit-up, as discussed in section 3.2. In practice, as well as in finite element
analyses, it may be necessary to apply some external restraint in order to prevent the welded
structure from distorting as a result of internal stresses developing during the cooling phase.
In FEM, there are generally two types of mechanical boundary conditions (BC) to consider in
solid mechanical problems [59]. The first boundary condition describes the external load
condition on the free surface, which can be either kinematic or static. The kinematic condition
defines a prescribed displacement at the surface (first-type of BC) expressed by:
𝑢𝑖 = 𝑢𝑖 (6.42)
In the case when a part of the structure is fixed in space, then 𝑢𝑖 = 0. Another part of the surface
can be subjected to prescribed tractions 𝑡𝑖 expressed by surface loads (second-type of BC):
𝜎𝑖𝑗 ∙ 𝑛𝑗 = 𝑡𝑖 (6.43)
This second-type of BC is also termed the static boundary condition, which in the case of a
welding application, could involve a clamping force of the work piece to ensure fixation as the
deformations develop, e.g. prevent rotation. The general approach when choosing the
appropriate boundary conditions will be elaborated on, in the respective chapters of the analyses
to come.
6.3 Material Modelling

In order to achieve a realistic welding simulation, it is important to properly describe the
temperature dependent material properties and behavior. However, the modeling of material
behavior from room temperature up to the melting temperature poses a challenge. The precise
58
information on material properties for specific steel types at high temperatures approaching
melting point is not always adequate [34]. Many of the experiments conducted for different steel
types at elevated temperatures, are typically below 1200°C. Furthermore, the information
available on material behavior during high heating and cooling rates (more than 1000°C/s) , are
usually difficult to obtain in practice, thus far from known exactly [21]. A general discussion on
material properties is provided in e.g. [65, 71].
The aspects of material modeling that must be handled in an appropriate way in order to obtain
a sufficiently accurate solution are as follows [75]:
1. Modeling elastic and plastic deformation (if necessary in combination with a cut-off
temperature, see section 7.3.1).
2. Accounting for the effect of solid-solid, solid-liquid transformations or other
microstructural changes in material behavior.
The material properties utilized in this thesis will be based on the information provided from the
reference model as presented in [21]. The material considered is mild steel s235 (in [21] refered
to as ST37-2 in accordance with the standard DIN 17100/1016). The choice of steel is mainly
for the benefit of validating the initial model against the experiments performed in the reference
application. Furthermore, due to lack of information on material properties of weld metal i.e. the
mix of filler and base material, it is assumed that both thermal and mechanical material
properties are similar for both base and weld material. The validity of this assumption will be
further elaborated in section 7.3.
The following section will in general terms discuss the influence from microstructure on
material behavior. This is intended as an introduction to provide an impression of the many
factors that should ideally be taken into consideration when modeling steel. Hereafter follows
the definition of the essential thermal- and mechanical- material properties, which will be
applied in the models established in present thesis.
6.3.1 Microstructure and Material Behaviour

The mechanical properties of carbon and alloy steels depend primarily of the microstructural
formation. The presence of alloying elements in the chemical composition also influences the
material properties, however indirectly, through microstructure deformations. In addition to
carbon, alloying elements are added to iron and steel with the purpose of improving material
properties such as strength, hardenability, corrosion resistance or even special magnetic or
electrical properties etc. Basically, the alloying elements can affect the appearance of the iron-
carbon phase diagram, i.e. to change the levels of the critical phase transformation temperatures,
A1, A3 and ACM. A common distinction is made between austenite stabilizers (e.g. Ni, Mn, Cu,
N) and ferrite stabilizers (e.g. W, Mo, Cr, V), which can be used respectively, to ”expand” the
temperature range over which the austenite/ferrite formations can persist. Thus, alloying
elements can control the hardening properties, partly by their influence of hardening
temperature and the temperature at which a fully martensitic structure is developed, and partly
59
through their influence on the critical cooling rate. The hardenability is especially important in
relation to welding, since it is inversely proportional to the weldability of the steel [76].
The thermal history from production and processing of steel has a significant influence on
material properties. This is due to the microstructural transformations (phase changes) that
occur during heating and cooling. During heating, the microstructure transforms from
ferrite+pearlite (a+P) to austenite () and during cooling from austenite to either ferrite+pearlite,
bainite or martensite - depending on temperature cycle, peak temperature and cooling rates.
These processes may induce a wide variety of changes in microstructure and properties, e.g.
grain growth, recrystallization, solution and precipation phenomena, as well as microstructural
changes associated with allotropic transformations – all of which exert strong influence on final
material properties such as hardness, wear resistance and toughness [34].
In fusion welding, the energy input is

characterised by short-time, high-peak
temperature cycles with a steep rise over time
up to melting temperature in the fusion zone
followed by a flatter drop. The peak
temperature and steepness decrease with
distance from the weld, and as a
consequence, different microstructural states
are produced in layers in the base metal
adjoining the melted and partially melted
zones. The so-called heat affected zone
(HAZ) ranges from solid-liquid transition
zone on its inner surface to the unaffected
base metal on its outer surface [60], see
Figure 6.1. Most critical is the partially Figure 6.1 – Microstructural states and peak
melted and grain coarsened layers located temperature profile in HAZ after welding of low-
closest to the fusion zone of the weld seam. alloy quenched and tempered steel. Also incl.
Here, strength and ductility may be reduced hardness profile and iron-carbon diagram; [34].
to the extent that cracks (e.g. hot or cold cracks, hardening cracks, corrosion cracks) may initiate
during or after welding, ultimately eliminating the usability and weldability of the material.
Different production and process measures are often sought to avoid these unfavourable
microstructural states in the fusion and heat affected zone, e.g. by means of heating and cooling
control, pre- and post-heating, etc. In this connection, limitation of grain size, hardness and
cooling rate are all common engineering measures to be considered [34].
Generally, microstructure and composition of the steel alloy have major impacts on material
properties on a macroscopic scale. Many succesfull attempts have been made to predict the
formation of the microstructure in the HAZ during welding by means of computational
modelling, some of which are presented in e.g. Goldak [60]. However, a determination/analysis
of the actual microstructural formations are not of particular interest in this thesis, which
focuses instead on the mechanical properties and on behaviour arising thereof.
60
6.3.2 Thermal Properties

The thermal analysis with regards to the temperature field calculations are based on the equation
of heat conduction as presented in eq. (6.8). To summarize, the following thermal material
characteristic values are required to solve this, besides the heat input from the welding arc:
 Thermal conductivity, 
 Density, 𝜌
 Specific heat capacity, 𝑐𝑝
These thermal properties are all temperature dependent, and may also depend on the thermal
history as different phases may have different thermal properties. Furthermore, the latent heats
due to phase transformation, must be accounted for. Additional inputs needed for the thermal
analysis are the convective film coefficient ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛 , the emissivity constant 𝜀 and the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant 𝜎 - all of which are related to the thermal boundary conditions as defined in
section 6.1.2.
6.3.2.1 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity describes the rate of which heat is transferred by diffusion in a material.
The rate of heat transfer depends upon the temperature gradient and the thermal conductivity
(see equation (6.3). The thermal conductivity  is a function of temperature as seen in Figure
6.2.
Figure 6.2 – Thermal conductivity as function of temperature; from [21].
For temperatures above the melting temperature, the conductivity is usually multiplied by a
factor of three, to account for heat transfer by convection in the weld pool. This is to imitate the
stirrer effect of the fluid flow at these high temperatures (note that fluid flow is neglected in this
thesis). However, according to [39] this effect is unecessary if the heat input temperature is
prescribed in the CWM model, more on this in the next chapter. In practice the thermal
61
conductivity can be obtained by measuring the electric resistance by using the Wiedemann
Franz law.
6.3.2.2 Density
Density is defined as mass per unit of volume, and it is multiplied with the heat capacity in the
thermal analysis in order to calculate the actual heat storage of the material (see eg. equation
(6.8). The density of steel is only slightly temperature-dependent in the sense that the relatively
small volume changes due to thermal dilatation, will affect the density to decrease linearly as
the temperature rises towards the melting point, see Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3 – Density as function of temperature; from [21].
In some finite element codes used in CWM, the density can be specified independent of
temperature. This is usually because it is either implemented in the code as a property combined
with the heat capacity (𝜌𝑐𝑝 ), or maybde the density itself is computed along with deformations
simultaneously with the temperatures [39]. As for the finite element code applied in this thesis,
the density is separately specified as well as it is temperature dependent, according to Figure
6.3.
6.3.2.3 Heat Capacity

Heat capacity is a measure of how well a material stores heat, as described in section 6.1.1,
where the specific heat capacity was defined as the change in specific enthalpy over the
temperature change (eq. (6.6). The specific heat capacity as function of temperature is shown in
Figure 6.4.
62
Figure 6.4 – Specific heat capacity as function of temperature; from [21].
During phase transformations (solid-liquid), the material loses or accumulates energy without
change in temperature. This is due to the so-called latent heat effects during these
transformations. To capture these effects in numerical simulation, either a value of the latent
heat [J/kg] must be specified in the solidus-liquidus temperature interval, or the specific heat
capacity must be adapted to account for these effects. In present work, the latter approach has
been applied. This is shown in Figure 6.4 in which the specific heat capacity is modified to have
a significant maximum in between the solidus and liquidus temperature (650-850C). The latent
heat effect then corresponds to the area under the curve in the particular temperature range of
the phase change.
6.3.3 Mechanical Properties

In numerical investigations of welding induced residual stresses, the mechanical material
properties entering in the basic equations (presented in section 6.2) must be considered to be
temperature dependent. The following thermo-mechanical material characteristic values are
among the essential in a residual stress analysis of an elastic-plastic material [34]:
 Yield strength (with/without hardening), 𝜎𝑌
 Young’s modulus, 𝐸
 Poisson’s ratio, 𝜈
 Thermal expansion coeff., 𝛼
The density of the material, which is usually associated as a “mechanical” quantity, is seldomly
used in the mechanical analysis, unless the gravity of the welded structure is taken into account.
Thus, thermal stress problems are treated as quasi-static problems, in which the inertia forces
are ignored in the mechanical analysis [39]. Instead, density is needed as a thermal property in
relation to heat storage as defined in the previous section.
63
6.3.3.1 Yield Strength

The yield strength is defined as the stress level at which the material begins to deform
plastically when subjected to uniaxial tensile or compressive loads. The stress level at which
yielding occurs is strongly temperature dependent as shown in Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5 – Yield stress as function of temperature; from [21].
The steel softens as the temperature increases, thus the yield strength decreases. It is shown that
for temperatures above 800-1000C, the yield strength is significantly reduced, and it naturally
vanishes at the melting temperature. In terms of defining the yield strength properties to the
numerical model in Abaqus, the yield strength can be considered a temperature dependent limit
value deciding whether or not the material behaves elastically or plastically, and thus, it is of
great influence when forming the resulting stress distribution.
6.3.3.2 Young’s Modulus

Young’s modulus 𝐸, also known as the elastic modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of an
elastic material. Young’s modulus is introduced according to Hooke’s law of elasticity, which
states that strain is proportional to strain within the elastic deformation region. Thus, as the
name indicates, Young’s modulus is the slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic range,
which is usually obtained from e.g. uniaxial tensile tests. Similar to the yield strength, Young’s
modulus is significantly reduced at elevated temperatures, as shown in Figure 6.6.
64
Figure 6.6 – Young’s modulus as function of temperature; from [21].
6.3.3.3 Poisson’s Ratio

When a material is subjected to tension, it tends to contract perpendicularly to the direction of
the tension. Conversely, if the material is compressed, it tends to expand perpendicularly to the
direction of the compression. The relative volumetric change in shape can be described by
Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus, through the bulk modulus (eq. (6.30). Most steels have a
Poisson’s ratio around 0.28 [-] at room temperature. This value tends to increase slightly at
elevated temperatures, see Figure 6.7.
Figure 6.7 – Poisson’s ratio as function of temperature; from [21].
Though the Poisson’s ratio is generally needed along with Young’s modulus in order to describe
an isotropic material, it has been shown to have only a smaller influence on residual stresses and
distortions [ 39].
65
6.3.3.4 Thermal Expansion

The thermal expansion coefficient is a material property that describes the extent to which a
material expands upon heating, and conversely shrinks when temperature decreases. This is one
of main reason why residual stresses occur during welding, and can be considered to be one of
the dominate loads in the stress analysis [39]. Hence, the coefficient is used to determine the
relative volume change (or thermal dilatation), due to a change in temperature,
Figure 6.8 – Thermal expansion coefficitent as function of temperature; from [21].
Figure 6.8 shows that the expansion coefficient increases with temperatures up to approximately
700C after which the coefficient suddently drops towards the turning point at 900C. This drop
is due to the previously mentioned changes in microstructure that occur in this temperature
range, i.e. the transformation from ferrite  to austenite  in between A1 to A3 temperature.
For multi-pass CMW models it is appropriate to define an annealing function in the mechanical
analysis in order to simulate the relaxation of plastic stresses and strains of the remelted
material. This relaxation happens due to different microstructural processes, such as
recrystallization and rapid creep [77]. In Abaqus there is an annealing function applied by
defining a specific temperature over which all plastic strains are set to zero. This temperature
can be chosen equal to the material’s melting temperature [77].
6.3.3.5 Plasticity and Hardening

In general terms, plasticity describes the behavior of materials undergoing non-reversible
changes of shape in response to the applied load. Thus, elastic-plastic materials will experience
permanent deformations when its elastic yield limit is exceeded. On a crystalline scale, the
plastic deformations can be explained briefly by permanent dislocations of atoms in the
crystalline structure [76].
As it was stated in section 6.2.1, the material is assumed isotropic and the plasticity is assumed
deviatoric. The latter implies that the material is incompressible and pressure does not affect the
66
plastic behavior. Furthermore, it is assumed that the associated flow rule together with isotropic
work hardening applies for the considered material in this thesis [39]. Work hardening is also
known as strain hardening and describes the process by which the material grows stronger as it
is deformed, unlike ideally plastic materials (uncommon among metals), which behave with a
constant yield stress. The isotropic hardening data is assumed piece-wise linear and is presented
in Figure 6.9 in terms of yield stress and equivalent plastic strain for different temperatures. It is
noted that the hardening modulus, 𝐻, introduced in eqation (6.36), represents the slope of the
curves in Figure 6.9, therefore this parameter is indirectly considered in terms of the yield stress
and the equivalent plastic strain.
Figure 6.9 – Isotropic hardening stress curves of selected temperatures; from [21].
The principle of isotropic hardening is that the material hardens increasingly for every load
cycle causing platic deformations. In other words, the yield limit increased gradually for every
applied load cycle. The principle of cyclic strain hardening is shown in Figure 6.10.
Figure 6.10 – Principle of cyclic strain hardening; from [25].
67
68
7 MODELING APPROACH
In previous chapters, it has been presented that the numerical welding analysis will be carried
out by utilizing a sequentially coupled thermo-mechanical approach. This is performed by
initially creating a three-dimensional transient heat transfer analysis, from which the thermal
history can be obtained in terms of nodal temperatures over time. The thermal history is then
applied as thermal load in a subsequent mechanical analysis, from which residual strains,
stresses and deformations are obtained.
This chapter outlines the specific modeling approach as performed using the finite element tool,
Abaqus. This will be described in terms of basic definitions in combination with a discussion on
the related modeling assumptions. The applied assumptions and related consequences involved
by making these, are sought explained on the basis of the theory explained up until this chapter.
7.1 FEA Software and General Model Choices

In the following section the software used for the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) will be defined
together with a definition of the general FEA modelling choices. This includes an elaboration on
the fundamental choices, which must be defined in every finite element model.
7.1.1 Key Features of Abaqus Welding Interface

This report applies the recently developed Abaqus extension, Abaqus Welding Interface, AWI.
AWI is an Abaqus/CAE plug-in which can be used to facilitate the creation of input files
necessary for welding simulation. Similar to the approach applied in present thesis, AWI is
specifically designed for a sequential thermo-mechanical approach. Thus, AWI can be used to
generate analysis input files for the thermal and mechanical analysis, respectively.
Application of the Abaqus Welding Interface is chosen due to the advantage of significant time
savings in connection to model creation as well as an easy accessible interface. This particulary
regards the automatic analysis step creation feature, which would otherwise have to be
performed manually by the user, but more on this later. The conveniences do however have a
cost in regard to a somewhat limited freedom of choice for the numerical welding modeler,
where especially modeling of the heat source requires extensive calibrations against
experimental data. These considerations and others will be further elaborated in the upcoming
sections (7.2.3).
69
CHAPTER 7. MODELING APPROACH
7.1.2 FEA model type

The welding is in this report evaluated by use of implicit analysis, see section 6.1.3 .
7.1.3 Selection of Elements and Meshing Approach

At present no guidelines are given in the norm standard/recommendations from Eurocode, DNV
and IIW for the selection of elements to model a WPS. The choice of elements will therefore be
based on the recommendations given for non-linear analysis from DNV and the hot spot
approach from IIW, DNV, EC3 together with the academic literature associated with modelling
of weldings.
Part of the numerical approximation consists of dividing the welded joint into finite elements
(domain discretization) referred to as meshing. The finite elements are generally characterized
by their shape and by the number of nodes at the edges of the elements. Figure 7.1 shows typical
elements applied in the numerical analysis of solids. The simplest elements are linear elements
(first order) with two nodes on each edge. Higher order elements such as the quadratic elements
(second order) have one additional node at the midpoint of the element edge.
Tetrahedrons Hexahedrons Pentahedrons

Triangles Quadrilaterals
4-noded
3-noded 4-noded 8-noded
6-noded
6-noded 8-noded 10-noded 20-noded 15-noded

Figure 7.1 - Typical 2D and 3D element types and nodal degrees of freedom; from [78].
The selection of element type involves the consideration of the following points [79], each of
which will be treated in the following sections.
 Shell elements (2D) or Solid elements (3D)
 Linear (first order) elements or Quadratic (second order) elements
 Element shape
 Full- or Reduced integration scheme
 Volumetric locking and Shear locking (Mechanical Analysis)
 Hourglass control (for reduced integration elements – Mechanical Analysis)
7.1.3.1 Shell Elements or Solid Elements

Figure 7.2 illustrates the same fillet welded joint modelled by two different element types: (a)
shell elements and (b) solid elements.
70
(a) (b)
Figure 7.2 - Examples of a welded joint modelled by: (a) shell elements and (b) solid
elements. From the hot spot analysis approach [30].
The applied shape of the model geometry, thus the elements affect the heat flow pattern of the
numerical model. The heat flow in the shell model is two-dimensional, hence the heat flow
normal to the surface is not included and a linear stress distribution through the shell thickness
is assumed. The solid elements are able to model the actual heat flow in all three directions near
the heat source together with varying stresses through the plate but require increased
computational resources. The shell element approximation can therefore be beneficial for thin-
walled structures but if more detailed analysis of the HAZ and weld is needed three-dimensional
solids is required [60]. A comparative study [39] between shell- and solid- elements reveals that
the kinematic constraint of the two-dimensional (plane stress) shell elements result in an
increased magnitude of the longitudinal residual stresses, compared to the solid model. The
recommendations [39, 60] are to apply solid elements near the weld. Optionally they
recommend that the model can be optimized, in regard of computational time, by choosing shell
elements a sufficient distance from the weld where the heat flow resembles the two-dimensional
approximation. The guidelines for the hot spot approach all recommend modelling of welds by
solid elements [27, 80, 30].
7.1.3.2 Linear Elements or Quadratic Elements and Element Shape

The norm recommendations primarily discuss two options in regard of first order vs. second
order elements. These are the first order 8-node solid element and the second order 20-node
solid element (with mid-side nodes at the edges), which both are solid hexahedron elements, see
Figure 7.1. The first order elements with nodal points at the corners result in linear values over
the element, whereas variation over the element is achievable for second order elements due to
the nodal point at the center of the element edge. Second order elements are generally preferred
for accurate stress values, where same accuracy for first order elements will require more
elements [79]. In the case of first order elements should a minimum of four elements in the
thickness direction should be applied [80]. However, the higher order elements are not well
suited for dynamic or large deformation problems [79, 68]. For nonlinear problems, it is stated
that first order elements are preferred in favor of high order elements since small sized first
order elements perform better than larger second order elements [39]. However, first order
elements require validation against locking for incompressible material such as rubber or in the
case of non-linear problems with large plastic strains.
71
7.1.3.3 Full or Reduced Integration Scheme and Locking

Generally, the numerical solution in FEM is obtained by calculating the stiffness matrix of the
element domain and inverting it to solve the element displacements. Calculation of the stiffness
matrix is performed by use of Gaussian integration involving calculation of a specified number
of integration points, so called Gauss points [81]. The accuracy of the Gaussian integration is a
function of the number of Gauss points applied to evaluate the integral. However, the
computational resources applied for the calculation will significantly increase. The application
of reduced integration elements are thus faster to obtain a solution but may result in an
underestimation of the element stiffness. Increased number of Gauss points can on the other
hand overestimate the element stiffness. In non-linear problems (plasticity, creep, in
compressible materials) it is advisable to apply reduced integration relative to full integration
[82]. The use of reduced integration elements may result in instability (hourglassing) if the
stiffness matrix is wrongly calculated to be zero. Abaqus provides elements with hourglass
control. When hourglass control is used, the DNV [79] requires that the hourglass energy should
be monitored and shown to be small compared to the internal energy of the system (typically
less than 5%).
7.1.3.4 Mesh Density

The density of the mesh depends on the accuracy requirements for the analysis at focus and the
available computational resources. Decrease in element size generally results in increased
accuracy but also increases the computational time [83]. The compromise utilized is to increase
the mesh density towards the area of interest, in current case at the HAZ and weld, where large
temperature and stress gradients are expected.
7.1.3.5 Choice of Elements

Based on the arguments from the previous four sections (7.1.3.1-7.1.3.4) the element used for
the numerical approximation of welding is defined as: 8-noded linear element with reduced
integration and hourglass control. The mesh density will near the weld be refined in order to
have a minimum of 4 elements in the thickness direction near the weld.
7.2 Computational Welding Mechanics

The initial and final geometry of welded joints are typically very well known by the structural
Engineer. The intermediate step between these two stages is, however, often unknown.
Computational Welding Mechanics involves numerical modelling of this intermediate step. The
governing assumptions and choices involved with Computational Welding Mechanics, such as
selection of heat input model and approach for addition of filler material, are presented and
discussed in the following.
7.2.1 Modelling Strategy

The modelling strategy of the numerical welding model depends on the purpose. By this is
meant that the necessary accuracy of the numerical model should match the results sought to be
obtained. The following section defines the needed accuracy as a function of the modelling
purpose.
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7.2.2 Accuracy Classification

The choice of numerical accuracy class depends on the complexity- and flexibility- level
considered for a given problem. Determination of accuracy class is used to select the heat input-
and material properties- model performed in the upcoming sections. Table 7.1 indicates which
accuracy class should be selected based on comparison between numerical models and
experiments [39]. The higher the accuracy classification chosen the more detailed the weld
physics is resolved. From Table 7.1 it is noted that different accuracy classes can be used for the
same complexity level. The flexibility level provides further information in order to select the
proper accuracy but if two choices are still available, the weld model must be chosen according
to available computational resources. The flexibility level refers to the deformation ability of the
joint as a function of the added temperature during one weld pass. By this terminology the
multipass weld is considered rigid due to a large joint plate thickness in relation to one weld
pass, whereas a thin plate will experience large deformations, hence designated as flexible.
Accuracy Simulation Complexity Level /

Flexibility Level
Class Accuracy Scope of Welding Simulation
0 Reduced 0 Preliminary design indications -
1 Macroscopic Residual Stresses Rigid
1 Basic
2 Final Deformations (Multipass Weld)
1 Macroscopic Residual Stresses

Rigid/Standard
2 Standard 2 Deformations
(Multipass/One Pass Weld)
3 Transient stresses and Deformations
3 Transient stresses and Deformations Flexible
3 Accurate
4 Microstructure of the weld and HAZ (Loosely fixture thin plates)
Very 4 Microstructure of the weld and HAZ Flexible

4
accurate 5 Hot cracking (Loosely fixture thin plates)
Table 7.1 - Numerical accuracy classification based on the scope of work (complexity level)
and the weld type (flexibility level); Inspired by [39].
Welding effects where the required complexity of the numerical model is larger than level 5 are
not covered in Table 7.1. Non-categorized effects of welding are defined as having a complexity
from which the Finite Element tool alone may be insufficient to account for the complex
physical phenomena. Examples of non-categorized phenomena are weldability and weld
penetration, which has a complexity level of 6 and 7. To resolve these, additional information of
among others the chemical composition and metallurgy is needed. Furthermore, complex
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models are capable of turbulence modelling (such as Large
Eddy Simulation) required to resolve the arc physics.
However, in present thesis, the objective is within the defined accuracy classification system,
where accuracy classes 1/2, i.e. Basic Simulation/Standard Simulation, can be considered
sufficient.
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7.2.3 Thermal Modelling

The key considerations involved in thermal modelling of welding are defined in the following.
7.2.3.1 Thermal Modelling Approach

Fundamental to the study of welding is the study of heat. Previous chapters have established that
a fusion of two materials involves a heating process, and a resulting melting- and solidification-
process. This is in regard of the change in heat over time can be divided into the following three
stages:
 Heating of the groove surface and the applied electrode by arc heat, defined as the heat
input, Q.
 Melting of the base- and electrode- material.
 Cooling phase, initiating when the temperature of the weld pool decreases to the
melting temperature of the material.
The concentrated heat source from the welding arc can be simulated numerically by use of a
heat input model. The basic idea is to simplify the complex physical welding phenomenon by
use of valid approximations [39]. Different types of heat input models exist, which differ from
each other by the required input data and the degree of details used to simulate the heat source
distribution. Common assumptions for all heat sources associated with accuracy class 1-4
(Table 7.1) are listed in the following.
 The base material is stationary in space and time
 The heat source is characterized by a Lagrangian specification, in which the heat source
is moving in both space and time. This corresponds to follow an object in a fluid
motion as time passes.
 The heat source moves by a steady motion and a uniform distribution for each weld
pass run [84]. If an observer is moving with the heat source, this corresponds to a
constant temperature- and geometry- distribution.
 Disregard of the fluid processes.
Furthermore, the thermal properties of the weld, HAZ, and base material are assumed indentical
in the present thesis. This simplification is utilized due to available input data.
7.2.3.2 Selection of Heat Input Model

The heat input model used in present thesis is selected in this section. This is utilized according
to Table 7.2, where two different heat input models are listed.
Accuracy Class Heat Input Model

1-2 Prescribed temperature in weld pool region
3-4 Double ellipsoid heat source model
Table 7.2 - Accuracy categories and heat input model; [39]
The previous section established that an accuracy class range of 1-2 was defined as being in
accordance with the objective in this thesis. This involves selection of a prescribed temperature
in the weld pool region. Choosing AWI as a modelling tool binds the numerical weld modeler to
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choose the prescribed temperature heat input model. This is in accordance with the scope in this
report, but also limits the purpose of AWI to be a determination of stresses and deformations.
The selection of the prescribed temperature model relative to the double ellipsoid heat source
model results in the requirement of additional calibration of the heat model and will further be
elaborated in the following sections.
7.2.3.3 Surface Prescribed Temperature Heat Input

AWI approximates the welding arc heat source by an evenly distributed prescribed temperature
in the weld pool region 𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑐ℎ applied in discrete steps. The temperature is applied on the
intermediate surface between the welding pass about to be laid and the base material and/or
previous deposited weld passes. The principles of the application area of the prescribed
temperature are illustrated on Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3 - Principal sketch of the application of a prescribed temperature at a defined

discrete surface representing the contact surface between the filler material and base material.
The length of each discrete step 𝐿𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑘 is defined according to equation (7.1), where 𝑁𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑠
indicates the number of chunks in relation to the weld length 𝐿𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 :
𝐿𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝐿𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑘 = (7.1)
𝑁𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑠
The time of which the torch temperature is applied on each discrete surface is defined according
to equation (7.2) where the discrete weld length is divided by the welding speed 𝑣:
𝐿𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑘
𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑐ℎ = (7.2)
𝑣
At the defined surface the temperature is linearly ramped from the initial defined temperature,
𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 , and up to the prescribed torch temperature, see Figure 7.4. If no preheat is applied and
the work piece has been sufficiently long time at the workshop, the ambient and initial
temperature can be assumed to be identical. The ramping time 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑝 is a very small fraction of
the time the torch is applied 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑐ℎ and chosen due to numerical convenience [39]. The
exceedance of the torch time results in the prescribed temperature is applied on the adjacent
surface, in the welding direction, marking the initiation of the cooling phase in which the heat
energy is dissipated according to the heat propagation laws defined in Chapter 6.
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Figure 7.4 - Principal sketch of the linearly ramped temperature up to the

prescribed heat input (torch) temperature.
The temperature of the heat source is estimated based on practical experience according to e.g.
[34, 21], where the temperature for the submerged arc welding is set to:
𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑐ℎ = 2500 ℃ (7.3)
Surface heat input models with prescribed temperature [C] over time are not directly applicable
in connection to the WPS, which specifies the heat input in terms of Q [J] (see section 4.3.2).
The “prescribed temperature” must be chosen corresponding to the actual heat input stated in
the WPS, but this conversion is not at all straightforward. The gap between the physically
performed welding and the numerical approximation has been studied extensively. The
analytical equations of Rosenthal [61] and Rykalin [84] link the heat input together with the
temperature of the base material (see Appendix E). The results however, show large deviations
close to the weld why these are not particularly fitting to provide an estimate of the local
temperatures. Instead, it may be more beneficial to simply calibrate the heat input by using
experimental observations.
An alternative heat source model option is the double ellipsoid heat source, which is
traditionally defined in terms of Q [60]. Although this type of heat source model is among the
most widely used (see e.g. [85]) due to its accurate description of the heat source distribution in
the weld pool, this requires some additional experience with both the numerical model and the
actual welding process investigated [21]. As indicated in Table 7.2, this type of heat source
model is not necessary according to the objective in this thesis. Furthermore, this heat source
model is currently not an option in AWI, which instead uses the prescribed surface temperature
approach. Therefore, the solution applied in present work is to calibrate against experimental
data. The approach of this so-called heat source calibration is presented in the following
section.
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7.2.3.4 Calibration of Heat Input

Calibration of the heat input involves an estimation of the correct amount of energy input for a
given amount of time. The energy 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑐ℎ is a function of time and space, see equation (7.4):
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑐ℎ = 𝑓(𝑡𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑐ℎ , 𝐿𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑘 ) (7.4)
The torch time, tTorch is bound to the discrete length of the weld, Lchunk in order for the numerical
model to comply with the welding speed, which is specified in the WPS. The chunk length is
therefore selected to be used as the calibration parameter, where the aim is to reach a value
approximately as sketched in Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5 - Principal sketch of SAW and associated chunk

length and propagation angle of the arc.
The calibration of the heat input is performed by utilizing different chunks lengths and compare
the numerical computed temperatures with experimental measured. One should notice that an
increased chunk length results in a numerical overestimation of the heat, whereas a decrease in
chunk length results in an underestimation.
7.3 Mechanical Modelling

The key consideration involved in the mechanical modelling of welding is defined in the
following.
7.3.1 Approach for Material Modelling

Modelling of the material involves consideration of the material behavior from workshop
temperature and up to melting temperature of the material, T melt. Even the liquid behavior can in
principle be modelled but this is all out of the scope in this report. For solid material modelling
the material properties should for all accuracy classes (1-4) as a minimum be temperature
dependent as defined in section 6.3. In addition, there are generally three material modelling
aspects to consider in relation to the accuracy class needed for the particular objective.
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1. Cut-off temperature
2. Microstructural phase changes effects on material properties
3. Rate-dependent plasticity
The cut-off temperature, Tcut is defined as the temperature above which no changes in the
mechanical material properties are accounted for in the mechanical model. In practice this is
simply performed by setting all mechanical properties constant above the defined cut-off
temperature. This is especially practical when no material data is readily available (as it is
usually the case in the high-temperature range). The microstructural phase change effects on
material behavior and properties was treated in section 6.3, whereas rate-dependent plasticity
will only briefly be referred to in the following. Initially, the recommended modelling choices
for a given accuracy class is indicated in Table 7.3.
Accuracy Rate-dependent
Cut-off Temp. Phase Change Effects
Class plasticity
Volume Transformation Latent
(Creep)
Change Plasticity Heats
1 Tcut ≥ 0.5Tmelt - - Included -
2-3 Tcut ≥ 0.7Tmelt Included Included Included -
4 Tcut ≥ Tmelt Included Included Included Included
Table 7.3 - Accuracy classes and material model approximations. Inspired by [39].
The modeling requirements for utilization of different accuracy classes in Table 7.3 can also be
visualized in relation to the strain decomposition presented in previous chapter (eq. (6.25). This
leads to the following categorization of the strain contributions:
𝜀 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ⏟
𝜀 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 + 𝜀 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 + 𝜀 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 + 𝜀⏟𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠. + 𝜀⏟𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 (7.5)
𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 2−3 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4
For Accuracy Class 1 a cut-off temperature above or equal half the melting temperature can be
selected. This is due to a high temperature range (for T cut > 0.5 Tmelt) and is considered to be of
miner importance for the formation of residual stresses [60]. It can be argued that an appropriate
choice of cut-off temperature will not significantly affect the residual stresses [75]. Neglecting
the material properties approximately above half the melting temperature and still reach
satisfactory residual stress results is explained by increased softening of the material as the
temperature increases (see Young’s Modulus in Figure 6.6). During the cooling phase, where
residual stresses are developed due to local shrinkage, the stiffness of the material will first
significantly start to increase approximately around 0.5 Tmelt, hence the build-up of residual
stresses will mainly be dominated by this range. This is confirmed by [86] which utilize varying
cut-off temperatures from Tmelt (1430°C) and down to 600°C (0.42 Tmelt). The result is an
overestimation of the residual stress by 2% for Tcut=1430°C and 15% for Tcut=600°C. This
expresses the effect of using a too large stiffness in the material model. If the scope of this thesis
instead was hot cracking (accuracy class 4) material properties for large temperatures had to be
included due to hot cracking is generated by the large thermal strains in the weld.
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Phase change effects are considered for Accuracy Class 2-4. In accuracy class 1, the cut-off
temperature results in volume change and transformation plasticity being neglected in the
material model. The latent heat is included in the thermal model, hence incorporated in the
thermal strain [ 39] and is therefore included as the only phase change effect for accuracy
class1.
Rate-dependent plasticity (creep) is only considered for Accuracy Class 4, and is not normally
accounted for in determination of residual stresses [ 60]. This is due to the quite short times in
which the temperature is increased above 0.5 T melt during welding, causing insignificant creep,
and rate independent plasticity models to be sufficient. For estimation of welding effects
involving accurate large temperature material modelling, hot cracking, burn-through etc. the
viscous deformation of steel needs to be included.
7.3.1.1 Selection of Material model

In previous section an accuracy class range of 1-2 was defined as being in accordance with the
scope of work. This corresponds to selection of a cut-off temperature equal to minimum 0.5
Tmelt. This demand is in present thesis met due to omission of a cut-off temperature, hence the
mechanical model includes the mechanical properties at all temperatures. The melting
temperature for steel is from selected to be [34, 60, 21]:
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 = 1500 ℃ (7.6)
The phase change effects are considered in relation to Accuracy Class 1, hence the latent heat is
accounted for whereas the volume change and transformation plasticity is omitted. This is
selected due to the available material properties. Creep effects are further not accounted for due
to negligible effects in the welding cases considered. The selection of a rate-independent result
plasticity model requires application of a strain hardening law. Strain hardening at low
temperatures is important part of residual stress generation, especially for multi-pass welding’s
experiencing multiple thermal cycles. The choice between isotropic or kinematic hardening will
therefore affect the residual stresses [75]. In this report isotropic strain hardening model is
utilized in Abaqus [21].
Another aspect which needs to be considered is that the properties of the weld material, HAZ,
and the base material varies due to change in the crystalline structure as a consequence of the
thermal load. Furthermore, the weld material is composed by a mixture of the electrode and the
melted base material. This variation has not been possible to meet due to lack of material
properties. Therefore, the mechanical properties of the filler material are assumed identical with
the base material [21, 87, 60]. Hence in present report a temperature dependent elastic-plastic
model with isotropic hardening is considered, see equation (7.7). Material properties are
evaluated from workshop temperature and up to the melting temperature and identical material
properties are assumed for weld, HAZ and base material.
𝜀 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜀 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 + 𝜀 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 + 𝜀 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (7.7)
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7.3.1.2 Modelling of Addition of Welding Passes

The concentrated heat from the transient welding arc results in melting of the electrode and part
of the adjacent base material heated above its solidification temperature. To simulate this
addition of filler material the general approach in computational welding mechanics is to first
define the geometry of the weld passes as discrete solid chunks initial to the performed weld, as
illustrated in Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.6 - Conceptual sketch illustrating the predefined weld geometry

defined as discrete solid chunks (C1-C6) together with the base material.
Section cut is utilized at the longitudinal symmetry line of the weld.
This is followed by a deactivation- or removal- procedure of the weld pass geometry [39], varies
from the thermal- to the mechanical- model. In the thermal model all discrete chunks simulating
the weld material are removed before the welding procedure begins, as illustrated in Figure 7.7.
Figure 7.7 - Conceptual sketch illustrating the removal of weld

geometry prior to initiation of welding.
During the application of the heat input model the weld chunks are added at the same pace as
the heat source, see Figure 7.8. The weld chunks temperature are as they are “laid down” equal
to the welding materials solidification temperature, approximately 1500 ⁰C for steel [34].
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Figure 7.8 - Conceptual sketch illustrating the addition of filler

material as a continous procedure coupled to the heat input pace.
Current figure illustrates a snapshot of the ongoing welding procedure.
In the mechanical model two different approaches can be utilized to approximate the initial
removal and deactivation of the weld passes in the mechanical model. These are the quiet- and
the inactive- element approaches. Both have in common that they can add mass according to the
filler rate in the welding procedure specification. According to the recommendations in AWI
there are generally two approaches, which are defined in the following.
7.3.1.3 Quiet Element Approach (Pass-By-Pass Bead Removal)

In this approach all weld chunks are not removed but remain in the model. The weld chunks
remain active up until their corresponding torch step, hence retain the elements and nodes. The
weld chunks will then be removed in a short model change step and reinserted back into the
model strain free. The weld chunk elements representing the weld material not yet deposited are
given “soft” properties at the start of the analysis. This results in an approximately anonymous
behavior, hence minimal effect on the surrounding structure [39]. The time corresponding to
addition of the filler material is the defined mechanical properties activated. Figure 7.9
illustrates the numerical step in which the weld chunk is removed.
Figure 7.9 - Conceptual sketch illustrating the removal of the weld chunk number two
(C2) correpsonding to the instantaneous location of the heat source. The weld chunks to
be removed has soft properties, whereas the weld chunk deposited has properties
according to material behaviour.
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7.3.1.4 Inactive Element Approach (Model-Level Bead Removal)

In the inactive element approach, all of the weld chunks are removed prior to welding and then
reinserted during the corresponding torch step. Similar to the approach utilized in the thermal
model.
7.3.1.5 Selection of Mechanical Welding Pass Procedure

The quiet- and inactive element approaches have different pros and cons. The pros of the quiet
approach are that since the mesh is updated continually the weld chunk elements will adopt to
the dynamic conditions up until they are re-inserted strain free. However, this is also a
disadvantage since the weld chunks not yet deposited can affect the adjacent regions behavior,
hence cause incorrect strains. The inactive approach will first insert the chunk elements at the
corresponding heat source step, hence they will not affect the adjacent regions behavior. This
comes at a cost since the elements may be severely distorted to the degree where negative
element volume errors occur and the solution fails.
In current thesis the more safe/reliable quiet approach will be utilized. This is due to large
strains are expected in the main case of this thesis due the large size of the weld. The large size
of the weld does, however, cause another problem which occurs regardless of the mechanical
element approach chosen. This is to define the correct weld geometry and is particularly
pronounced for multipass welds. This is addressed in following section.
7.3.2 Weld Passes Geometry Modelling:

The considerations involved in the selection of geometry for the individual weld passes in the
numerical model are discussed in the following.
7.3.3 Weld Pass Area Definition

The numerical defined area of the weld passes must be in accordance with the specifications in
the WPS in order to simulate the correct amount of filler material added over time. From the
WPS three parameters can be obtained which together indicate the area to use for a given weld
pass:
 Area of electrode/filler material per pass

 Total weld area
 Deposition rate
The area of the electrode is indicated in the WPS by the diameter. Dividing this area with the
total weld area gives an indication of number of passes needed to fill the weld groove. The
problem by only knowing these two values arises due to a slow weld speed, which will result in
a weld pass area larger than the electrode. Conversely, a large welding speed will result in a
weld pass area less than the area of the electrode. In order to truly get the correct weld pass area
one must know the deposition rate. The deposition rate indicates the amount of weld material
deposited by a given sized electrode and is directly proportional to wire feed speed.
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7.3.4 Weld Pass Shape Definition

The weld area defined in the previous section forms the basis for the shape definition of the
weld passes. The shape of the weld passes adjacent to the base material must be approximated.
This is due to the numerical model is not capable of fluid modelling. This implies that the weld
dilution must be assumed to be zero. Weld dilution, Mdilution represents the amount of base
material that is melted, mbase relative to the total amount of deposited weld material and is
defined in equation (7.8):
𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑀𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (7.8)
𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙,𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑
Modelling of the correct shape of the weld will always be an approximation due to variations
between each performed weld. However, the effect of the numerical defined shape can be
considered negligible [39, 21]. The important thing is to add the correct amount of filler
material over the correct amount of time. Another approach, if available, is to replicate the
shape of the weld passes from the already performed welding [39].
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84
8 VALIDATION CASE: ONE SIDED BUTT WELD
This chapter deals with the establishment of a numerical model capable of performing welding
simulations of a standard weld application. A one-sided butt weld joint has been chosen partly
due to its geometrical simplicity, but even more decisive is the fact that a set of experimental
data, which was obtained during a previous study [21], is available for this particular joint. The
experimental data, which comprises temperature and strain measurements performed during and
after the welding process, serves the purpose of validating the numerical model by comparing
the simulated results against the experimental results. Thus, the numerical model must be built
upon the same setup as the one applied in the experimental ‘validation’ case. The experiences
gained from this case will form the basis of the modelling technique utilized in the main case of
the monopile in the following chapter, where no experimental data are yet available.
8.1 Joint Geometry and Support Conditions

A weld setup corresponding to Plate Set 2 [21] is considered in the validation case. The weld
setup consists of four plates, where the two larger main plates (480x240mm) to be welded have
been constrained (tack-welded) by two smaller plates (80x40mm) at each end of the weld.
Figure 8.1 shows the arrangement of the plates. All plates have a thickness of 10mm.
Figure 8.1 - Isoperimetric view of the validation case geometry with plate dimensions
(mm) and welding direction specified.
A definition sketch of the butt weld cross section is shown in Figure 8.2. The butt weld consists
of two weld passes, a root-pass and a cover-pass. The weld geometry comprises a groove angle
of 60 and a root gap of 3 mm. The plates are externally supported in the vertical downward
85
CHAPTER 8. VALIDATION CASE
direction by an underlying bench and a ceramic backing is applied at the root gap. No external
supports are applied in the transverse and longitudinal direction of the weld.
Figure 8.2 - Definition sketch of the butt weld composed of (1) root-pass
and (2) cover-pass. All measurements in [mm].
The dimensions indicated from Figure 8.1-Figure 8.2 are generally obtained from the model
specification in the reference case [21] in order to reproduce the experimental setup. However,
detailed information about the size of the endplates as well as the layout of each weld pass are
not given exactly, why those are instead estimated from figures. Furthermore, a minor change of
the weld toe is adopted in order to simplify the element design with respect to the numerical
model. The original figures used to recreate the model geometry are given in Appendix F.
8.1.1 Grades and Quality

The plates used in the validation case have steel grade S235 and quality JR according to DS/EN
10025-2 [88]. No further information is given in [21].
8.1.2 Initial Manufacturing Process

As initial preparation prior to the actual welding the steel plates have gone through the
following manufacturing processes.
 The plates are hot-rolled according to DS/EN 10025-1 [89].
 The weld groove of the main plates is prepared by flame cutting. The rear-edges of the
main plates are the original hot-rolled plates. Small-scale irregularities of the groove
angle due to flame cutting are reported [21].
8.2 Experimental Work

The overall purpose with the experiment is 1) to study the thermal impact on the plates from
welding by means of temperature measurements and 2) to study the mechanical response of the
plates with regards to residual stresses obtained indirectly through strain measurements. This
section contains a brief description of the experimental work carried out in the reference case
[21] in order to provide a basic understanding of the experimental data, which will later be used
to validate the numerical model. The description will elaborate on the experimental setup and
86
initial preparation, the welding procedure as well as the measurement techniques performed in
the experiment.
8.2.1 Initial Preparation

As for initial preparation, the main plates to be welded are positioned 3mm apart corresponding
to the width of the root gap. The mutual position of the main plates is subsequently fixed by
means of the two end plates, each of which is tack welded at each end of the main weld. Other
than providing constraint to the main plates, the tack welds will be paid further attention in this
thesis.
8.2.2 Part 1: Thermal Measurements

In the first part of the experiment, temperature measurements in one of the main plates have
been performed during and after ended welding (as function of time). Fifteen thermocouples of
type “K” are installed in holes that are previously drilled in the main plate. The holes have a
depth of 5mm equivalent to the center of the plate thickness. The thermocouples are arranged in
a line transverse to the welding direction as illustrated in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3 – Arrangement of the thermocouples in the main plate, hence the locations
from where the temperatures are measured during welding, from [21].
In order to capture the large temperature gradients in the heat affected zone, the thermocouples
are arranged with decreasing intermediate distances towards the weld. Since the diameter of a
thermocouple is 1.5mm, the innermost measuring point is necessarily offset slightly in the
longitudinal direction of the weld relative to the other fourteen thermocouples. The position of
the thermocouple closest to the weld centreline (14mm) have been estimated based on initial
tests, since the equipment can only obtain temperature measurements up to approximately
1100°C, and moreover to avoid damaging the equipment. The maximal temperature measured at
a distance of 14mm from the weld centre was 673C. Figure 8.4 shows the thermocouples
installed to the main plate.
It should be noted that the original experiments also included thermal measurements during the
initial flame cut weld preparation in order to consider the thermal effect thereof. In this
experiment it was found necessary to locate the thermocouples even closer to the weld
preparation, i.e. within 15mm from the flame cut edge, since the thermal signal in the resulting
plate was rather limited compared to that from welding. Hence, the experiment revealed that the
87
heat effect on the plates from flame cutting were considerably less than that from welding. In
fact, at a reference point located 14mm from the weld centre, the maximal temperature
measured during flame cutting, was approximately 440°C, corresponding to 233°C below the
temperature obtained in the same point during the submerged arc welding process [21].
The thermal effects from the initial flame cutting preparation will not be considered in the
numerical weld model developed in this thesis, thus the flame cutting process and the related
experimental setup will not be elaborated further. However, the influence of flame cutting on
the resulting stress field will be briefly discussed in relation to the model validation.
8.2.3 Welding Procedure

The welding process applied to join the two main plates is submerged arc welding (SAW). The
welding procedure specification for each of the two passes is presented in Table 8.1, where the
heat input is calculated according to equation (4.2).
Run Welding Wire Welding

Efficiency Current Voltage Heat Input
no. Process Diameter Speed
[-] [-] [-] [mm] [Amp] [Volt] [mm/s] [KJ/mm]
1 SAW 121 0.98 4.0 530-540 27.3 5.95 2.41

2 SAW 121 0.98 4.0 525-535 27.3 5.92 2.40
Table 8.1 - Welding Procedure Specification for joining of two S235JR plates (t=10mm)
performed by double-pass Submerged Arc Welding.
The small variations in current and voltage observed between run no. 1 (root-pass) and run no. 2
(cover-pass) depicts the “stability” of the welding equipment. No preheat is applied prior to the
welding in this case. Figure 8.4(a) illustrates the startup of the welding process and Figure
8.4(b) shows the finished welded joint.
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(a) (b)
Figure 8.4 - Experimental setup with installed thermocouples: (a) Startup before welding
and (b) close-up of welded joint. Pictures from [21].
8.2.4 Part 2: Mechanical Measurements

The second part of the experiment deals with the mechanical response of welded specimens due
to the transient heat source from the welding process. The mechanical response, which in this
context implies the residual stresses and strains, are obtained by means of the non-destructive
neutron diffraction technique as previously presented in section 3.4.1.
The neutron diffraction measurements are carried out, similar to the temperature measurements,
in points lined transverse to the weld center, but this time across both plates, see Figure 8.5. The
internal distance between points is 5mm and within each point, measurements are performed in
the three orthogonal directions, i.e. longitudinal, transverse and through-thickness with respect
to the weld.
Measuring points across both plates
5 mm
Figure 8.5 - Neutron diffraction measuring points; from [21].
8.3 Numerical Model – Preprocessing

This section deals with the establishment of the numerical welding simulation model, where the
necessary preprocessing steps as performed in Abaqus CAE and AWI will be defined. Since the
welding simulation model in the present work is based on a one-way coupled sequential
approach as described in Chapter 6-7, the thermo-mechanical calculations are generally treated
in two separate simulations. Initially, the temperature history is obtained from the thermal
analysis of the weld application. The effect of the thermal application is subsequently
89
considered in the mechanical elastic-plastic model through e.g. expansion coefficients and other
temperature dependent mechanical properties. Hence the pre-processing stage covers the
creation of two input files: a thermal and a mechanical. The input files contain the 3D model
geometry, thermal and mechanical boundary conditions, material properties, welding properties,
and division of the model part into finite elements.
It should be emphasized that the numerical model and the related preprocessing steps described
in the following section only regard simulation of the submerged arc welding procedure. Hence,
the simulations will not account for initial manufacturing processes, nor consider heat effects
from the tack-welded end plates.
8.3.1 Analysis Methodology and Model Type

The sequentially coupled thermal-stress simulation requires several simplified assumptions. In
AWI is the heat input model based on a predefined welding torch temperature and each weld
bead/pass is separated into discrete weld chunks along the welding direction. The general
assumptions/analysis methodology used by AWI during welding simulating is summarized in
the following:
 The continuous created weld beads by fusion are assumed to be deposited as discrete
solid chunks. The size and deposition rate is pre-defined selected individually for each
weld bead.
 The weld chunks in the thermal model are activated along with the moving weld torch
by a model change feature in Abaqus.
 The heat input model is simulated by a prescribed temperature with a magnitude equal
to or larger than the materials melting temperature, which depends on the welding
procedure to be simulated. The temperature is applied on the surface on which the
deposited chunk interacts, which implies the surface of either base material and/or the
surface of previously deposited weld beads. This depends on the particular weld bead in
accordance with the current WPS.
 In the mechanical model the beads are chosen to respond to the deformations up until
their corresponding torch step, where the specific bead is initially removed in a short
modelling step and then re-inserted strain free. In order to ensure minimum effect from
the active, but not yet deposited weld beads, the stiffness of the corresponding elements
are reduced significantly. This, so-called, Pass-by-pass bead removal approach is
further elaborated on in section 7.3.1.3.
8.3.2 Units
By default Abaqus is not concerned with units, just numbers. Instead, it is up to the user to
choose appropriate units for the particular problem. In the present work the SI-system has been
chosen for the modelled geometry and the different material input parameters. However, the
values presented throughout the report will be given in the format suited for the purpose.
90
8.3.3 Thermal and Mechanical Properties

The thermal and mechanical input data applied for the Abaqus model are previously defined in
section 6.3. The relevant temperature dependent thermal and mechanical properties are
summarised in Table 8.2.
Mechanical Properties Thermal Properties
 Young’s Modulus  Thermal Conductivity

 Poisson’s Ratio  Density
 Thermal Expansion coeff.  Specific Heat Capacity
 Stress-Strain curves (incl.
strain hardening)
Table 8.2 – Temperature dependent thermal and mechanical properties.
In addition to the properties listed above, the following thermal constants are defined:
Absolut zero temperature : -273.15 [°C]

Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant : 5.6710 -8 [W/m2/°K4]
Emisivity : 0.9 [-]
Film coefficient, HTC : 5.77 [W/m2/°C]
Table 8.3 – Thermal constants as applied in the model definition.
8.3.4 Coordinate System and Model Geometry

Figure 8.6 shows the modelled geometry of the weld application together with the orientation of
the associated coordinate system, where the x-direction is transverse to the welding direction,
the y-direction is normal to the model plane, and the negative z-direction represents the welding
direction.
Figure 8.6 - Model geometry and definition of coordinate system.
As indicated on Figure 8.6 is only half of the physical geometry modelled due to symmetry
conditions at the center of the weld. The parent model geometry during the analysis consists of
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one single part constructed from nine individually defined parts, which are merged together.
The original boundaries from each part are maintained in order to define the weld section from
the base section, and furthermore to define each weld pass in the case of multiple welding
passes. It should be noted that the shape of the weld has been applied to the two end plates,
though no welding is performed in this area. This minor adjustment is simply to refine the mesh
in this area and thereby fulfill the requirements from AWI.
The next step is to subdivide the parent model geometry into several partitions as illustrated in
Figure 8.7. Partitions are generally used to control the location of the element boundaries,
which, in this case, is practical for two reasons. The partitions created in the x-direction,
transverse to the welding direction, divides the filler material into a number of discrete weld
chunks. The partitions in the z-direction, along the welding direction, are applied as element
boundaries at distances of 14mm, 15mm, 21mm, 27mm, 42mm, 52mm, and 72mm from the
center of the weld, and thereby the possibility to obtain numerical results at locations
corresponding to the performed experimental measurements.
Figure 8.7 - Model geometry with yellow marking indicating datum planes used to perform
partition cuts on the model. For this particular model the weld bead is divided into 80
equally sized weld chunks of 6mm.
A close-up view of the double pass weld is shown in Figure 8.8, where the partitions, defined at
the distances 14mm and 15mm from the center of the weld, are indicated.
15 mm
14 mm
Figure 8.8 – Cross-section of the weld geometry.
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8.3.5 Boundary Conditions

The sequentially coupled thermal-stress analysis requires the definition of two types of
boundary conditions, i.e. thermal and mechanical boundary conditions, which will be defined in
the following.
8.3.5.1 Thermal Boundary Conditions

The thermal boundary conditions are obtained by initially separating the model geometry into
eight different surface regions, see Table 8.4. Seven of these are initially defined in Abaqus
CAE, whereas the weld bead surface is defined in AWI. Figure 8.9 illustrates the defined flux
powder surface. The remaining surface definitions are illustrated in Appendix G.
Figure 8.9 - Red surface indicates the defined Flux powder surface. This is defined as having
a width of 40mm from the center of the weld.
Surfaces Film Coefficient Emissivity Ambient Temp. Sink Temp.

2
[W/m /°C] [-] [°C] [°C]
Front 5.77 0.9 20 20

Back 5.77 0.9 20 20
Side 5.77 0.9 20 20
Symmetry - - - -
Bottom 5.77 0.9 20 20
Top 5.77 0.9 20 20
Flux Powder - - - -
Weld Bead - - - -
Table 8.4 - Thermal Boundary Conditions assigned to specific regions of the model.
The Symmetry, Flux Powder and Weld Bead surfaces are restrained from heat transfer by
convection and radiation whereas heat transfer by conduction is unrestrained within the model
geometry. This implies that the symmetry plane located at the center of the weld is assumed to
be adiabatic. The ambient temperature in the workshop during the experiment is assumed to be
20°C. A similar assumption of 20°C is applied with regards to the sink temperature for the base
material since the indoor storage time and the exposure to other external heat sources are
unknown.
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8.3.5.2 Mechanical Boundary Conditions

The mechanical boundary conditions are specified in Abaqus CAE in the initial step of the
structural model, by which they are propagated to all the additional steps in the analysis. The
boundary conditions are defined as displacement/rotation conditions as illustrated in Figure
8.10. The symmetry surface is supported against displacement in the x-direction, and the model
geometry is “fixed” in the initial position by supporting it against displacement in the y- z-
direction at two nodal points, which are located at the bottom and outer side of the two end
plates. From this configuration, the model is restrained from rotation about all axes. The effect
from the gravitational force is not considered in the analysis.
Figure 8.10 - Model geometry supported against displacement in the x-direction for the
symmetry surface, and against displacement in the y- z- direction at bottom node points
in both ends of the end plate.
8.3.6 Elements
Two different types of elements are applied for the geometry in the thermal- and –the
mechanical model. In the thermal model, the geometry is assigned 8-node linear heat transfer
brick elements (DC3D8), whereas the model geometry in the mechanical model is assigned 8-
node linear stress brick elements with reduced integration and hourglass control (C3D8R). The
element pattern and element size is identical in the two models. Figure 8.11 illustrates the
applied mesh pattern. The pattern is created by free meshing and is assigned by sweep meshing
technique, as required by AWI, in the path of the welding direction (z-direction).
Figure 8.11 - Mesh pattern in both thermal and mechanical model. Shown element
size: 2mm by weld (inner region) and 20mm by opposite plate edge (outer region).
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The weld and the inner region of the base material are meshed using small elements, whereas
coarser elements are applied away from the weld. Figure 8.12 shows the assigned mesh
configuration and Table 8.5 list the specific element sizes for this particular model.
Figure 8.12 - Mesh regions assigned to the model geometry.
Model region Dist. from weld center Element size

[mm] [mm]
Inner Region 0 - 42 2
Transition Region 1 42 - 52 2 - 10
Transition Region 2 52 - 72 10
Outer Region 72 - 241.5 20
Table 8.5 - Element sizes for different model regions of the base material.
8.3.7 Welding properties and Pass Controls

The information obtained from the WPS along with the material properties of steel and the
theory regarding SAW forms together the welding properties applied in AWI. The welding
properties applied for a bead length of 6mm (model geometry presented in Figure 8.7), is given
in Table 8.6.
Chunk Torch Interpass Afterpass Weld Material Torch Heat

Length Time Time Time melt Temp. Temp.
[mm] [s] [s] [s] [°C] [°C]
6 1.00 285 2553 1500 2500
Table 8.6 - Parameters entered in AWI representing the WPS and the associated
conditions with the specific welding procedure.
The torch time represents the duration of a single step in which the torch (arc) heat temperature
and the associated filler material are applied at the given chunk length. Hence, the relation
between the chunk length and the torch time defines the ‘step-wise’ transient speed of the arc
and the addition of the filler material, which roughly correspond to the overall welding speed of
6 mm/s obtained from the WPS (Table 8.1).
The interpass time, which implies the “waiting” time between the two consecutive welding
passes (root pass and cover pass), is approximated from the experimental results [21]. The
afterpass time is chosen in order to secure that the temperature at the weld is dissipated to a
steady-state level near the sink temperature of 20°C. In Abaqus, the interpass/afterpass time step
is specified in a so called user-defined step.
95
As it was discussed in section 7.2.3, AWI uses a surface heat input model, from which the torch
heat temperature is applied on the boundary/interface between the weld beads that are part of
the current pass and the adjoining material. This is modelled by use of the ramp temperature
application, in which the temperature is linearly ramped up to target torch temperature of
2500°C applicable for the SAW procedure [21, 34]. The temperature assigned to the weld beads
as they are laid down is the approximated melting temperature of steel [34].
In addition to specifying the welding related input parameters, Abaqus also requires various
time definitions to control the model change feature in the analysis, i.e. to control the time
incrementation for each analysis step/pass. The Automatic control setting is chosen due to its
versatility in cases, such as heat transfer, where the time or load increment may vary through the
step. The increment configuration settings is defined in Table 8.7:
Initial Time Min. Time Max. Time Max. Number of Max. Allow. Temp.
Inc. Inc. Inc. Time Inc. Change
[s] [s] [s] [-] [°C]
0.1 1.0E-007 1.0 1000 500
Table 8.7 – Time incrementation controls / pass controls.
Since the values presented in Table 8.7 basically specifies certain tolerances and error measures
for the analysis to run properly in Abaqus, these are in practice set based on the authors
experience with FEM from a “trial-and-error” approach.
8.3.8 Job Submission and Performance

In the previous chapter, it was described that a number of model simulations is needed to
iteratively calibrate the model heat input against experimental data. Furthermore, it is standard
procedure in FEM to investigate the sensitivity of the numerical model by running multiple
analyses, each of them with a changed key variable. In present case, a large number of models
have been built. This was done partly to get familiar with the routine of modeling welding
simulations in Abaqus, and partly to study the influence from various parameters and their
effect on the corresponding computational time. A list of some of the successfully completed
simulation models have been presented together with their respective variables (mesh density,
chunk length, etc.) and the corresponding duration of the analysis (walltime). These are
provided in Table A.1-Table A.2 in Appendix H.
8.4 Numerical Model – Post Processing

This section will present the thermal- and the mechanical- output/result files, respectively, as
obtained from the finite element analysis in Abaqus CAE. Initially, a heat source model
calibration is performed by comparing thermal results with experimental measurements in
accordance with the methodology presented in section 7.2.3.4. Hereafter follows the mechanical
analysis, in which the residual -strain and -stresses are compared to the neutron diffraction
measurements as well as the numerical results obtained in the reference case [21]. Finally, this
96
leads to an overall verification of the numerical model, where the significance of various
modelling aspects are discussed.
8.4.1 Thermal Analysis

The results from the thermal numerical analysis will in the following in detail be defined and
compared with experimental temperature measurements in order to calibrate the heat source
model.
8.4.1.1 Heat Source and Addition of Filler Material

The submerged arc welding process modelled by a transient heat source and deposition of filler
material is presented in Figure 8.13 for half of the model geometry due to the applied symmetry
condition. The maximum temperature in the model is the heat source temperature of 2500 °C
and the minimum temperature is the sink temperature of 20 °C.
Cross section of inner region
Figure 8.13 - Transient heat source during heating and deposition of the cover pass. Snapshot
from simulation after t=436s, incl. interpass time. Model: chunk length 6mm, element size
2mm. The contour indicates the temperature distribution in [C].
The contour plots from Figure 8.13 indicate the heat propagation pattern away from the heat
source and filler material. The heat propagation is primarily dominated by conduction transverse
to the welding direction (x-direction) towards the adjacent base material. This is partly due to
the thermal boundary condition representing the welding flux powder, hence no convection or
radiation on this surface, and partly due to the large temperature gradient. It is noted that the
contour plot is inadequate to register any significant temperature increase in the base plate due
to the large temperature gradients in the inner region.
The principle of the transient heat source and addition of filler material from the model change
feature in Abaqus is illustrated in Figure 8.14 at the beginning of the analysis.
97
Initial Step (t = Before start) Step 1: Remove all Beads (t = min. time inc.)
Step 2: Apply Torch BC (t = torch time) Step 3: Insert Bead Chunk (t = min. time inc.)
Step 4: Apply Torch BC (t = 2 x torch time)

Figure 8.14 - Application of the surface applied
heat source with integrated element activation. The
duration of each computed step is specified in the
paranthesis in accordance with the table values
presented in section 8.3.7.
In the initial step, the entire model geometry is present in the model. In the first step of the
analysis, all of the weld beads are instantly removed from the model. The actual welding starts
in step 2, where the torch is applied on the boundary at the given torch time duration, followed
by the instant bead chunk deposition in step 3. These two steps together form a single chunk
deposition cycle, which is repeated continuously from step 4 and until the entire weld is laid
down. From the contour in Figure 8.14 it is noted that the solid weld chunk is deposited at an
initial melting temperature of 1500C, whereas the significantly higher torch temperature
applied to the surface is 2500C.
8.4.1.2 Calibration of Heat Input

The amount of heat applied from the heat source to the base material in the numerical model is
calibrated against experimental measurements according to section 7.2.3.4. In the present work,
this is accomplished by maintaining the heat source temperature at a constant level, while
adjusting the deposition rate in order to obtain the proper heat input. The deposition rate, which
is defined as the number of weld chunks deposited over time, can in this connection be
considered as an expression of the total heat input from both torch and filler material, since
these are inherently linked in motion.
The general idea is that the amount of energy applied from the heat source on the adjoining
surface formed by the filler material strongly depends on the torch time and corresponding the
heat source area, both of which are connected to the deposition rate. Therefore, since the
welding speed remains constant according to the WPS, the deposition rate is adjusted by
changing the length of each chunk and the torch time accordingly. Figure 8.15 shows the
principle of the heat input calibration.
98
Figure 8.15 - Heat input calibration by varying the surface length and duration of the heat
source during one time step. Left: 24mm chunk, Right: 6mm chunk.
From this definition follows, that e.g. a large deposition rate leads to a more refined
discretization of the weld bead, whereas the heat source area and the torch time becomes
correspondingly shorter, which ultimately gives a smaller heat input – and for a small deposition
rate, vice versa.
The temperatures in the numerical model are obtained at nodal points corresponding to the
specified location of the thermocouples in the experiment, that is, in the following distances
from the weld centre: 14mm, 15mm, 21mm, 27mm, 42mm, 52mm, and 72mm. Each nodal
point location will henceforth be denoted, x from weld. Their relative positions are illustrated in
Figure 8.16.
Figure 8.16 - Temperature measured at nodal points at specified distances from the center of
the weld, x. The numbers represent the nodal ID assigned by Abaqus, which are irrelevant in
this particular demonstration.
Four different chunk sizes have been chosen for estimating a proper heat source surface lengths:
24mm, 12mm, 8mm and 6mm. The graphs in Figure 8.17-8.20 present the numerically obtained
temperatures over time in the specified nodal points for each of the four chunk selections,
respectively. The results are shown together with the experimentally measured temperatures. It
should be noted that the color coding indicate the temperatures measured at a specific point
distance, which allows for numerical and experimental results to be compared relative to each
other.
99
Figure 8.17 - Calculated and measured transient temperatures for two-pass

welding. Heat source length: 24mm; torch time: 4.034s; element size: 2mm.

100


In order to evaluate and discuss the results given in Figure 8.17-8.20 with regards to the
numerical calibration, it is necessary to initially define the main uncertainties associated with
the experimental results. Generally, the uncertainties increase towards the center of the weld.
This is primarily caused by the large temperature gradient near the heat source resulting in a
large sensitivity to small variations in the thermocouple position. The experimentally measured
peak temperatures for each welding pass are listed in Table 8.8. These together confirm this
tendency when observing the large temperature decrease from moving just a few millimeters
101
away. It should be noted that the peak temperatures are obtained at different time steps since it
takes longer time for heat to propagate the longer distance from the weld. This can be also be
seen by peaks in Figure 8.17-8.20 being slightly shifted horizontally when considering
measuring points further away from the weld.
x to weld Tpeak1 Tpeak2
[mm] [°C] [°C]

14 578 629
15 518 573
21 404 472
27 338 408
42 241 314
52 202 273
72 156 221
Table 8.8 - Experimental temperature-time results

obtained from figures in [21].
Other general uncertainties of the experimental data cover groove surface irregularities from the
flame cutting preparation, response time of the thermocouples and the local change in heat
propagation due to the drilled hole from thermocouple installation. Furthermore, the
experimental temperature-time data have been estimated from plots in [21]. However, these are
estimated to cause only minor uncertainty of ±5% for both time and temperature values.
Attention is now directed back to the thermal history presented in Figure 8.17-8.20, where the
calculated thermal fields are evaluated against the thermocouple measurements. When
considering the chunk lengths effect on temperatures, it is seen that a reduction in chunk length
will affect the temperatures to decrease, hence a smaller net heat input is obtained. However,
generally the tendencies seem to be captured very weel. It is observed that the second
temperature peak in all figures tend to be slightly offset to the left, though the welding speed is
similar. This is probably due to a small underestimation of the interpass time. The relative
temperature deviation [%] between the numerical calculations and the experimental
measurements are listed in Table 8.9 for each of the four chunk sizes.
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Dist. to weld L=24mm L=12mm L=8mm L=6mm

center, x
8.4.1.2.1 Peak 1 Peak 2 Peak 1 Peak 2 Peak 1 Peak 2 Peak 1 Peak 2
[mm] [%] [%] [%] [%] [%] [%] [%] [%]
14 13.7 28.5 -1.9 8.1 -6.2 2.1 -10.6 -2.7
15 17.8 31.6 3.1 12.7 -0.4 6.6 -6.0 1.7
21 12.4 23.3 0.0 8.7 -3.2 3.8 -7.9 -0.4
27 9.2 19.6 -2.7 6.1 -6.2 1.7 -10.7 -2.2
42 4.1 14.3 -8.3 3.2 -11.6 -1.6 -15.8 -5.4
52 2.0 12.8 -9.9 0.7 -13.4 -3.7 -18.8 -7.7
72 -4.5 5.9 -14.7 -5.0 -17.9 -9.5 -21.8 -12.7
|𝑥| 9.1 19.4 5.8 6.4 8.4 4.1 13.1 4.7
Table 8.9 - Temperature difference between the experimental temperatures and the numerically
calculated, expressed in [%]. Only peak values are listed, and the sign indicates whether a calculated peak
value is above (positive) or below (negative), relative to the experimental data.
The chunk length of 24mm reveal a rather large overestimation of temperatures, particularly in
the area closer to the weld, but the difference becomes less significant at distances further away.
Considering the chunk lengths of 12mm and 8mm, both calculations seem to resemble the
measured temperatures quite accurately (see Figure 8.18-8.19), whereas for the small chunk
length of 6mm, the temperatures are below the measurements.
The best agreement between measured and calculated results was evaluated to be a chunk length
of 12mm, even in close distance from the weld where temperature gradients are high. The
average deviation when only considering peak temperatures, was found to be approximately
6%, which must be considered to be acceptable. Therefore, the heat source length of 12mm will
form the basis of the mechanical analysis presented in upcoming section 8.4.2.
8.4.2 Mechanical Analysis

The numerical results in the mechanical analysis will be compared to the experimentally
performed neutron diffraction measurements of elastic strains and the derived residual stresses,
as provided by Langkjær [21]. It should be emphasised that the mechanical analysis is carried
out on a welded application initially being stress free, opposed to the application in practice,
which will contain some stresses from initial fabrication steps, in this case, the flame cut weld
preparation. This will be taken into consideration in the analysis.
Deformations will not be included in this analysis since these are not a part of the validation.
However, deformations have been extracted from Abaqus for the purpose of illustration, as well
as an indirect way of validating model behavior. These are presented in Figure A.38-A.41 in
Appendix J.
The mechanical analysis will mainly focus on the main direction, i.e. the longitudinal, since this
is where the response in terms of residual strains and stresses will be expected the highest. Thus,
the other two directions, transverse and through-thickness, are less significant in comparison.
103
8.4.2.1 Elastic Strains

The overall distribution of longitudinal elastic strains can be visualised by means of a contour
plot extracted from Abaqus, see Figure 8.21.
Figure 8.21 – Contour plot: Elastic strains longitudinal to the weld (z-direction); unit in [-].
As seen from the red contour in Figure 8.21, there is a clear indication of positive elastic strains
(elongation) in longitudinal direction in the weld region, whereas further away from the weld
the large blue area in the plate midsection indicate negative elastic strains (contractions).
Contour plots have been omitted in these secondary directions, but may be found in Appendix I.
Figure 8.22-8.24 shows the elastic strains measured in Abaqus in the three main directions.
Figure 8.22 – Longitudinal elastic strain.
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Figure 8.23 – Transverse elastic strain.
Figure 8.24 – Through-thickness elastic strain.
Figure 8.22-8.24 shows the elastic strains measured in Abaqus in the three main directions
(solid red line). These are held up against the elastic strain numerically and experimentally
obtained by Langkjær [ 21] (presented as a dashed line and unconnected points). Figure 8.22
shows that the numerical model predicts the elastic strains in accordance with the
experimentally measured elastic strains at a distance of 50-100mm (intermediate region) from
the weld centerline. In case of the elastic strains being further away than 170mm from the
centerline (outer region), the elastic strains are underestimated by the numerical model. In the
direction towards the weld centerline from 50mm and inwards (inner region), the numerical
105
model overestimates the elastic strains relative to the experiments. The numerical results from
Langkjær [21] are seen to better represent the experimental results in the outer region and the
dominant part of the inner region. However, the peak values of the elastic strain are
underestimated. Figure 8.23 and Figure 8.24 shows that the second order elastic strains, due to
welding, are underestimated in the outer- and intermediate region, whereas the peak values in
the inner region at the weld centerline are overestimated. The numerical results from the
reference case [21] show a similar tendency, however, the peak at the weld centerline was
omitted.
The observations show that the numerical model is capable of capturing a distribution in
accordance with the experimental results. The underestimation of the elastic strains in the outer
region is explained by the initially performed flame cutting of the weld groove, which is not
considered in the numerical model. This can be seen in Appendix J, in which the longitudinal
elastic strains from Langkjær [21] have been measured after the plates have been flame cut. This
also gives an indication of the distance in which the heat from the weld can be expected to
dominate and alter any existing strains present in the structure, prior to welding. Regarding to
the transverse- and through-thickness elastic strains, it was informed [21], that the deviation
between experimental and numerical results was most likely connected to the experiments,
rather than an error in the numerical results. The explanation given was that a systematic error
had occurred when converting the relative change in lattice spacing to elastic strains (equation
3.1). This was caused by an underestimation of the unstressed lattice spacing d0 (reference
lattice spacing), which was estimated based on measurements close to the edge of the original
hot rolled steel plates. Thus, it was probably a better estimation for the longitudinal direction
[21]. The overestimation of the peak value is expected to be caused by the defined stress-strain
curve in the numerical model. This will be further evaluated after presentation of the residual
stresses.
8.4.2.2 Residual stresses

The numerically predicted residual stresses in the longitudinal direction are presented in Figure
8.25. Corresponding results for transverse residual stresses and through-thickness residual
stresses can be seen in Appendix I. The measured residual stresses in the three main directions
are shown in Figure 8.26-8.28.
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Figure 8.25 – Longitudinal Residual Stress (z-direction); unit in [Pa].
Figure 8.26 – Longitudinal residual stress.
107
Figure 8.27 – Transverse residual stress.
Figure 8.28 – Through-thickness residual stress.
Figure 8.26 shows the experimental results of the longitudinal residual stresses together with the
results from the three numerical models. The solid line represents the work in this thesis and the
dashed and dotted lines indicate the work of Langkjær [21]. By comparing the numerical and
experimental results in the outer region, the effect of the performed flame cutting can be seen. In
the intermediate region, there is strong agreement between the experimental and the numerical
values, though with the numerical values slightly underestimates the width of the area exposed
to tensile stresses. Towards the centerline of the weld, the numerical models which consider
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strain hardening, predict a larger residual stress compared to the perfect-plastic numerical
model.
The reason why the dashed line is not included is explained in the following. As presented in
section 3.4.1, the residual stresses are calculated from the elastic strains directly obtained from
neutron diffraction measurements. When comparison is made between the experimental data
from the longitudinal elastic strain and the longitudinal residual stresses (see Figure 8.22 and
Figure 8.26) disagreements in the number of points can be found. The two original figures from
[21] in which the experimental data are obtained, are given in Appendix J. In addition, the
numerically computed, longitudinal, residual stresses close to the centerline of the weld are not
shown on the original figure, as stress values larger than approximately 350MPa are omitted.
The reason for not showing the computed peak longitudinal stresses towards the weld centerline
and not to use all elastic strain data points to calculate the residual stresses near the weld, is
unknown.
Furthermore, the lack of data in longitudinal residual stresses is indicated in the outer region,
where only one elastic strain point is given. The solution to the missing residual stresses near
the weld has been to apply equation 3.2 from section 3.4.1 since the elastic strain result is given.
Therefore, the three experimental longitudinal residual stress values in Figure 8.26 are
additionally added to the original figure. Comparing the numerical model with the three
calculated residual stress values, an overestimation of approximately 50MPa is registered.
Figure 8.27 and Figure 8.28 shows the transverse residual stresses and the through-thickness
residual stresses. In the transverse direction, it can be seen that the numerical model
underestimates the residual stresses. In the thickness direction, none of the numerical models are
capable of determining any significant stress values. The large deviation between the numerical
model and the experimentally predicted values is considered to be influenced by following two
points:
 The residual stresses are calculated by an equation that includes strain contributions
from all three directions.
 Values for Young’s modulus and Poisson’s Ratio shall manually be selected in the
calculation of the residual stresses.
This implies that incorporation of elastic strains from all directions can lead to an accumulation
of errors in the experimental determination of residual stresses. Hence, if one direction is
overestimated, this will affect the other two directions. Furthermore, the exact choice of material
will probably also influence the results. Therefore, the directly obtained elastic strains from
neutron diffraction measurements, are considered more expedient for validation of the
numerical model.
The following section will try to optimize the numerical model. The transverse and through-
thickness direction is considered second order effect, due to welding, which results in the
longitudinal direction forming the basis for the optimization.
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8.5 Model Optimization

In this section, an attempt has been made to improve the numerical results from previous section
relative to the experiments, particularly close to the inner weld area. This analysis will only
consider the mechanical response with regard to longitudinal strains and stresses. Furthermore,
it should be noted that the analysis will be based on a similar mesh density (2mm) and a similar
chunk length (12mm) of the model revealing the best fit in the thermal part of the analysis.
Additionally, it should be emphasised that the optimisation suggestions will only affect the
mechanical analysis.
8.5.1 Optimization Approach

From the previous section, an overestimation of the peak values are noted in the weld region
compared to experimental data. Two different initiatives have been implemented in the
optimization approach. The first is to modify the stress-strain curve for 20°C to the
recommended in DNV-C208 [79] for true stress-strain (see Figure 6.9, section 6.3.3.5). A
comparison of the two curves are given in Figure 8.29. It can be seen that the stress-strain curve
(dotted blue line) applied up until now increases very rapidly to large stresses, even at small
plastic strain values compared to that defined in DNV (solid red curve). The difference between
the two curves emphasises the fact that strain hardening behavior (data) obtained from similar
materials (steel types), may vary depending on the source. Another difference between the two
curves are the stress at which yield initiates, hence generation of plastic strains. For the blue
dotted line, this is specificed to occur at 232 MPa whereas the red solid line start to account for
this affect already at 212 MPa, hence the maximum limit for elastic strain is lower in that case.
Figure 8.29 - Material curves comparison for s235 (t<16mm) at 20°C.
Motivated by the overestimation of strain-stress results in the inner weld area, compared to the
experiments, a second approach has been attempted to study the sensitity of the results.
Therefore, an annealing function has been applied in Abaqus (refered to in section 6.3.3.4). By
setting the annealing function to a given temperature, all plastic strains in areas above this
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temperature are set to zero. The annealing temperature is set equal to the defined melting
temperature of steel as suggested in [77].
8.5.1.1 Elastic Strains

Figure 8.30-8.32 shows the effects the added changes has on the elastic strains.
Figure 8.30 – Longitudinal elastic strain.
Figure 8.31 – Transverse elastic strain.
111
Figure 8.32 – Through-thickness elastic strain.
Figure 8.30 shows the longitudinal elastic strains. It can be seen that the numerically computed
elastic strains at the center line of the weld is approximately identical with the peak values from
the experiments. In the distance of 5-50mm from the centerline the numerically computed
elastic strains are moved closer to the experimental results. In the outer region, the change has
resulted in a slight increase of the computed elastic strain. Figure 8.31 and Figure 8.32 shows
the elastic strains in the transverse and thickness direction where similar results are obtained.
Hence, the numerically computed elastic strain is approximately identical with the experimental
results at the weld centerline, whereas a slight decrease can be observed for elastic strain values
located more than 50mm away. The findings suggest that the behavior of the welded joint is
approximated more effectively by use of the stress-strain curve from DNV-C208, hence the
applied changes will be maintained.
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8.5.1.2 Residual Stresses

Figure 8.33-8.35 shows the residual stresses with applied annealing temperature and changed
stress-strain curve for a temperature of 20°C.
Figure 8.33 – Longitudinal residual stress.
Figure 8.34 – Transverse residual stress.
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Figure 8.35 – Through-thickness residual stress.
From Figure 8.33 it can be seen that the peak value of the longitudinal residual stresses is
reduced from 401MPa (in Figure 8.26) to 314MPa. The reduction of the peak value is seen to
express the effect of the change in strain hardening as well as reduced accumulation of plastic
strains in the first weld pass deposited. This is because the first weld pass is exposed to
temperatures above 1500°C (melting point) during the deposition of the cover pass. In the
transverse and thickness direction, which are shown in Figure 8.34 and Figure 8.35, the changes
are seen to have only miner impact on the results.
8.6 Model Verification

Model verification is standard procedure when using a FEM tool such as Abaqus. The model
verification has been performed considering the following aspects:
1. Mesh refinement
2. Reaction forces
3. Deformations
4. Element locking and hourglassing
The model verification is presented in Appendix K, whereas the main conclusions will be
briefly summarized in the following.
The main points from the model verification are that almost identically shaped stress and strain
results have obtained if the mesh is changed from 2mm-4mm-8mm-12mm. However, increased
element size causes underestimation of the stress peak in the longitudinal direction. The reaction
forces in the nodal points, which are fixed from translation, are investigated in order to secure
that no significant reaction stress is superimposed to the welding residual stresses. The reaction
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forces obtained at these points are considered vanishingly small, hence practically no reaction
forces are considered to influence the obtained results.
8.7 Chapter Conclusion

In present chapter a numerical model of a double pass one sided butt has been presented. The
definition of the heat source as a prescribed surface temperature resulted in a calibration against
experimental temperature measured over time. The configuration closest to a 4mm single wire
SAW was found to be the applied temperature having a width within the range of 8-12mm for a
temperature of 2500°C. The mechanical result showed good agreement with the experimentally
obtained elastic strain and residual stresses in the longitudinal direction by including annealing
temperature of 1500°C and the application of the stress-strain curve according to DNV [79]
resulting in reduced strain hardening.
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9 MAIN CASE
In this chapter, the deformations and residual stresses induced by welding in the fabrication of
supersize monopile will be analysed and discussed. The particular weld to be analysed is the
outside facing, circumferential butt weld used to join the monopile can sections. Initially to the
performed analysis, the production steps prior to the main weld, will be presented. This is partly
intended to provide an insight into the manufacturing process, as well as demonstrating the
fabrication processes, which may/may not have a significant influence on the final residual
stress state in the monopile foundation. Furthermore, this will form the basis of the general
modeling assumptions related to the analysis. The WPS given by Bladt Industries A/S will serve
as input data for the numerical model and will be reviewed in relation to the utilized model
assumptions. The chapter ends with a discussion of optimization and future work possibilities.
9.1 Production of Offshore Monopile Foundations

This section provides an insight into the manufacturing process of monopile foundations as
carried out at Bladt Industries A/S. Particularly the fraction of the production process considered
in this report will be highlighted in the following. A more detailed description of the other
production steps, all taking place prior to the considered case, is given in Appendix L. The
author’s insight is obtained from a visit (23rd of October 2014). The visit consisted of a full day
guided tour around the production facilities at Bladt Industries A/S headquarter located outside
Aalborg (Denmark).
The complete monopile foundation is produced by Bladt Industries A/S, i.e. from when the steel
plates are received to the finished product are ready for installation. Prior to the case considered
in present work, the following productions steps are utilized in order to produce the monopile:
 Steel plates (presently 117approx.: 12000x3000x111mm varying from case to case) are
delivered at Bladt Industries A/S with edges initially prepared by the steel manufacturer.
 Two steel plates are joined at the ends by a double-sided butt weld performed with
GMAW as tack welding and SAW during rest of the welding procedure. (Leading to:
24000x3000x100mm).
 The plate is bended into the circular “monopile” shape by a four roll bending procedure.
 The two free edges of the plate now facing each other is joined by a double-sided butt
weld performed by SAW, hence a complete circular monopile can-section is created.
 Two circular can-sections are placed end-to-end creating a v-groove on the inside of the
monopile and a narrow gab on the outside as shown on Picture 9.1.
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CHAPTER 9. MAIN CASE
Picture 9.1 - Two circular monopile cans placed approximately towards each other, forming a
v-groove towards the inside of the monopile and a narrow gap on the outside of the monopile.
 The inside v-groove is initially tack-welded by GMAW followed by SAW, which is

shown in Picture 9.2. The Monopile is supported by Esab roller beds, thus the welding
boom and welding head is kept stationary during the welding procedure, though the
monopile is rotating. This setup will result in practically no additional reaction stresses
to occur during welding.
Picture 9.2 - Circumferential welding of the inside butt weld performed by SAW.
 Back gouging is performed from the outside of the monopile (see Picture 9.3), hence
forming a U-groove. The depth is specified in order to secure removal of the weld root
from the inside butt weld. This result in complete weld penetration and removes any
discontinuities.
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Picture 9.3 - Back Gouging from the outside of the monopile by Gräbener circ seam (narrow
gab) milling machine.
The last major production step of the monopile, and the main focus in present thesis, is seen in
Picture 9.4. This is the outside facing circumferential butt weld produced by SAW in the U-
shaped weld groove. The SAW is performed on top of the monopile (welding position PA/1G),
which is horizontally rotating due to the supporting roller beds. Welding on the top of the
monopile is necessary to secure the stability of the flux powder. Due to the large dimension of
the monopile, preheat is performed by a flame torch on the rotating monopile initial to welding
of each pass. The finished result is seen to be a convex butt weld with three cover passes in
present case.
Picture 9.4 - Outside circumferential butt weld produced by SAW. Preheat is performed by
flame torch.
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9.2 Joint Details and WPS

The joint details and the Welding Procedure Specification applied to produce the
circumferential butt weld (shown in Picture 9.4) has kindly been provided by Bladt Industries
A/S and can be seen in Appendix M together with an additional WPS. The results of the
provided information is given Figure 9.1-9.3 where the joint geometry and the welding
sequence which will be utilized in the numerical model is defined for increasing plate
thicknesses. The welding parameters utilized from the WPS are given in Table 9.1-9.3. The
limitations/assumptions applied to create the numerical model from the provided WPS are
discussed in next section.
Figure 9.1 - Joint details and welding sequence for plate thickness
of 30mm. All measures in [mm].
120
Welding G: Gas, T: Wire Wire Nozzle

Run No P: Powder/flux Trade mark Gas
Process Diameter Diameter
E: Electrode
[mm] [l/min] [mm]
1 121 T ESAB OK 4.0

AUTROD 12.22
2-n 121 T ESAB OK 4.0+2x2.5
AUTROD 12.22
Table 9.1 - Welding process used for the weld passes, type and dimensions of filler material.
Stickout Weaving/Stringer Welding

Run No Polarity Ampere Voltage Heat Input
distance run width Speed
[mm] [mm] [A] [V] [mm/min] [KJ/mm]
1 25-30 11-13 DC+ 500-600 26 500-600 1.3-1.9
DC+ 700-800 31-32
2-n 25-30 20-25 750-850 2.9-3.8
AC 600-700 32-33
Table 9.2 - Specification of welding parameters.
121
(a) (b)
Figure 9.4 - Automated ESAB A6S Tandem Master. The SAW is performed at PA-1G
(flat position – rotating cylinder) with a single wire + tandem hybrid configuration.
Min. Preheat Temperature : 50 ⁰C
Interpass Temperature : 225 ⁰C
PWHT : No
Table 9.3 – Thermal requirements in the WPS.
9.3 Model Assumptions/Considerations

This section defines the assumptions and considerations utilized in the numerical model.
Reference is made to Chapter 7 (Modeling Approach) for definition of the general assumptions
utilized in computational welding mechanics.
9.3.1 Steel Grade

The WPS is defined for S355/S420. In the performed analysis, the material properties of s235
have been applied, similarly to the material properties applied in the validation case.
9.3.2 Heat Source

From Table 9.1 and Figure 9.4, it is seen that the circumferential butt weld is performed by
single + twin wire configuration. This means that three independent welding arcs are acting in
the same weld pool, oriented in-line with the welding direction. Additionally, the two welding
heads are connected to a separate power source as well as a feeding unit, which proves the
consumable electrode. The lead arc operates at high current (DC+) securing deep penetration,
whereas the trailing arc applies lower current (AC), which straightens the weld pass. Since no
experimental temperature measurements are available to perform a heat calibration, as in the
previous validation case (Chapter 8), the modelling approach utilized will be based on
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experience gained from SAW with one electrode with a diameter of 4mm. The result of the
calibration showed best result from a prescribed temperature of 2500⁰C with a heat source
length of approximately 10mm. Since the electrode has a width of 4mm this implies that a width
of 3mm may be assumed on each side of the electrode.
The assumption utilized in present welding model (see Figure 9.5) is to apply a prescribed
temperature of 2500°C in discrete steps of 30mm (3mm from the outside of the electrodes in
both directions). Thus, it is assumed that the temperature is evenly distributed in the heat source.
Figure 9.5 - Utilized assumption in the numerical model. Prescribed temperature

of 2500°C is applied in discrete steps with size of 30mm.
9.3.3 Area and Shape of Weld Passes

The area of the weld passes is defined according to the additional WPS provided by Bladt
Industries, in which the number of weld passes is defined relative to the total weld area. This
assumption is utilized since no information of the deposition rate or the finished weld profile is
available.
9.3.4 Tack Welding

The initial tack welding performed by GMAW is neglected in the numerical model. This is
chosen because the effect on the final residual stress distribution is expected to be minimal,
when considering the small amount of filler material deposited (see WPS in Appendix M).
9.3.5 Preheat
According to the WPS, preheat of minimum 50°C must be applied prior to deposition of each
weld pass. However, preheat will only be applied before welding of the first weld pass. The
consequence of this will be examined closer in the thermal analysis.
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9.4 Numerical Model - Pre-Processing

This section presents the governing parameters of the numerical model constructed in Abaqus.
Application of parameters, which were already introduced in the validation case, will not be
further elaborated.
9.4.1 Coordinate System and Model Geometry

Figure 9.6 shows the modelled geometry of two monopile can-sections joined by a
circumferential butt weld on the outside surface of the monopile. Each can-section has a width
of 3m and an outer circumference of 28.3m (d=9m). The convex surface of the inside butt weld,
welded initially to the outside weld considered, is included in the model geometry.
LCIRC,WELD = 28.3m (α=360°)

Figure 9.6 - Model geometry of two monopile can-sections circumferentially
joined and the defined coordinate system.
The coordinate system which will be referred to throughout the analysis has the x-axis as the
hoop direction, hence this is the direction in which the weld is laid. The y-axis is referred to as
the direction perpendicular to the weld, hence this is transverse to the weld and axial to the
monopile. The z-axis has positive direction towards the outside of the monopile, thus this
represents the through-thickness direction.
Different geometry configurations are used in the analysis. Following geometries are presented
in two parts representing the order in which they will appear in the analysis.
9.4.1.1 Increasing Weld Length

The large size of the monopile result in only a sudden length of the monopile, in the hoop
direction, is considered in the analysis. Figure 9.7 shows the three different weld lengths applied
in the initial weld length investigation. All with a plate thickness of 30mm.
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LCIRC,WELD = 150mm (α=1.9°)
Figure 9.7 - Model geometry of outside circumferential butt weld for weld lengths of
150mm, 300mm, and 450mm.
It should be noted, that all measurements performed in the weld length investigation, as well the
forthcoming section, will be measured in a transverse line across the weld center, analogous to
the measured path in the validation case. Hence, x=0 represents the center of the weld.
9.4.1.2 Increasing Plate Thickness

Figure 9.8 shows the defined outside circumferential butt welds for plate thicknesses of 30mm,
60mm, and 90mm. The vertical lines represent boundaries used in definition of the elements.
t = 30mm
t = 60mm
t = 90mm
Figure 9.8 - Outside circumferential butt weld for plate

thicknesses of 30mm, 60mm, and 90mm.
125
9.4.2 Boundary Conditions

This section presents the thermal and mechanical boundary conditions defined for the monopile.
9.4.2.1 Thermal Boundary Conditions

The monopile is divided into different surface zones representing the thermal boundary
conditions of the monopile during SAW. Figure 9.9 shows the defined flux powder surface
where heat dissipation by convection and radiation is assumed to be zero. Definition of the other
surfaces is given in Appendix N. Table 9.4 shows the thermal parameters associated with the
defined surfaces.
Figure 9.9 - Defined flux powder surface. Seen for t=30mm, and weld length of 450m.
Surfaces Film Coefficient Emissivity Ambient Temp. Sink Temp.

[W/m2/°C] [-] [°C] [°C]
Flux Powder - - - 20
Free Outside surface 5.77 0.9 20 20
Symmetry Edges - - - 20
Edges of monopile 5.77 0.9 20 20
Inside Surface 5.77 0.9 20 20
Table 9.4 – Thermal Boundary Conditions assigned to specific surfaces of the model.
Preheat of 60°C are defined on the entire base material located under the flux powder initial to
deposition of the root pass. 60°C is chosen due to reduction in the temperature, by conduction,
prior to the weld has reached across the entire plate.
9.4.2.2 Mechanical Boundary Conditions

The mechanical boundary conditions are specified according to the cylindrical coordinate
system in Abaqus. This secures that the primary axis of the boundary conditions will be related
to the angle, α of the circular monopile. The defined boundary conditions which represent the
continuation of the monopile are presented in Figure 9.10. The blue arrows are support against
rotation in the y-direction and z-direction (rotated 5.7° in the left side and 0° in the right side in
Figure 9.11. The orange arrows are support against translation in the x-direction (rotated 5.7° in
the left side and 0° at right side). Figure 9.11 shows the nodal points supported against
translation. In one side, against translation in the Y- and Z-direction and only the Z-direction in
the other side.
126
Figure 9.10 - Definition of longitudinal boundary conditions for the monopile.

Shown for t = 30mm.
Figure 9.11 - Definition of boundary conditions at nodal points locate on opposite

end surface of the monopile.
9.4.3 Elements
The elements applied for thermal- and mechanical model of the monopile are specified
according to the validation case (7.1.3.5). The elements are assigned to the monopile according
to Figure 9.12 and Table 9.5.
Figure 9.12 - Partitioning of the monopile geometry into different element

regions. Showed for a plate thickness of 60mm.
Distance to Weld Toe Element Size

[mm] [mm]
0 - 15 3
15-50 4
50-200 10
200-1000 20
1000-3000 60
Table 9.5 - Element sizes for different model regions of the base material.
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9.4.4 Welding properties and Pass Controls

The information obtained from the WPS together with the parameters defined in the validation
case is given in Table 9.6.
Weld Chunk Torch Interpass Afterpass Weld Material Torch Heat

Length Length Time Time Time Melt Temp. Temp.
[mm] [mm] [s] [s] [hrs] [⁰C] [⁰C]
150 30 2.25 2095 3 1500 2500
300 30 2.25 2084 3 1500 2500
450 30 2.25 2073 3 1500 2500
Table 9.6 - Parameters entered in AWI representing the WPS and the associated conditions with the
specific welding procedure.
9.5 Job Submission and Performance

Simular to the validation case, the time for the successfully performed analyses are given in
Appendix H together with numbers of elements, passes, etc. Furthermore, an example of a
jobscript has been presented for submitting jobs using HPC cluster computers.
9.6 Post-Processing
In this section, an analysis is carried out of the numerical predicted welding temperature field
and the resulting deformations and residual stresses. An initial investigation of the weld lengths’
influence on the stress field at the center of the weld is performed. The section concludes with a
discussion of how the initial residual stresses impact the results from the outside butt weld.
9.6.1 Weld Length Investigation

The 9m diameter of the supersize monopile results in a circumferential weld length of
approximately 28m. A numerical simulation of the entire weld of this size is presently not
possible due to available computational resources. To overcome this, mechanical symmetry
conditions are specified (see section 9.4). This leads to a reduced size of the numerical model
and maintained mechanical restraint corresponding to the monopile, and in turn the creation of
representative residual stresses. However, the thermal boundary conditions at the defined
symmetry plane is defined as adiabatic (zero heat flux through the surface) resulting in the heat
propagation by conduction purely being in the direction perpendicular to the weld. The heat
conduction will be dominant in this direction due to the large temperature gradient but near the
symmetry surfaces, this may have an effect. Therefore, the residual stresses will be measured
for three different weld lengths at the center of the weld in order to evaluate the necessary weld
length in order to avoid influence from the thermal boundary conditions and the symmetry
planes. Furthermore, this will serve as a validation of the utilized mechanical symmetry
conditions.
128
The investigation is performed with the 5 pass butt weld (t=30mm) defined in Figure 9.8 for
weld lengths of 150mm, 300mm, and 450mm. All models apply an element size of 3mm at the
center of the weld. The evaluation will be based on a comparison between measured residual
stresses for each of the weld lengths. The stresses will be measured in the center of the weld in
the three main directions as indicated on Figure 9.13 by the three red lines.
TOP VIEW FRONT VIEW
Figure 9.13 - Definition of Paths in which residual stresses are obtained. Path 1
(Longitudinal (hoop) residual stress), Path 2 (Transverse (Axial) residual stress), Path 3
(Through-thickness residual stress).
The obtained stress results and the defined paths in Abaqus, for each direction, are showed in
the following, together with the measured results. The plots shown from Abaqus are for a weld
length of 150mm, and the corresponding results for weld lengths of 300 and 450mm are given
in Appendix O.
Figure 9.14 - Longitudinal (hoop) Residual Stresses (S11) and Path 1 (perpendicular to
weld direction) for a weld length of 150mm and plate thickness of 30mm.
129
Figure 9.15 - Longitudinal Residual Stresses for a weld length of 150mm,

300mm, and 450mm (measured perpendicular to the weld direction and at
center of weld where peak stresses are found).
The obtained longitudinal stresses (hoop stresses) illustrated in Figure 9.15 are found to be
approximately identical. Hence, independent of the weld length. The local
variations/fluctuations observed is either due to change in element size and/or due to the path, in
which the stresses are obtained, and is not linear as seen on Figure 9.14. This results in the nodal
points (element corner points) where the stresses are measured will be located with a slight
difference between the three numerical models. The measured values show a maximum
longitudinal tensile residual stress, for all three weld lengths, within the range of (440-446 MPa)
at the weld centerline (y=0mm). This is an overestimation of the maximum defined stress value
(432.6 MPa) in the stress-strain curve input data and will be closer examined in next section.
Figure 9.16 - Transverse (axial) Residual Stresses (S22) and Path 2 (in weld
direction) for a weld length of 150mm and plate thickness of 30mm.
130
Figure 9.17 - Transverse Residual Stress for a weld length of 150mm,

300mm, and 450mm (at center of weld).
The transverse residual stresses given in Figure 9.17 are obtained in the weld length direction.
This result in different length scales, thus in order to compare the stress results, they are
presented in Figure 9.18 non-dimensionally.
Figure 9.18 - Transverse (axial) Residual Stresses for a weld length of 150mm,
300mm, and 450mm (at center of weld) with non-dimensional distance.
From Figure 9.18 it is observed that the transverse residual stress distribution for all weld
lengths generally are identical, hence tension at the end of weld first deposited (indicated as 0)
and compression in the weld end last deposited (indicated as 1). A tendency of anticlockwise
131
rotation of the graph as the function decrease in weld length is seen. This results in maximum
tensile transverse residual stress appearing for a weld length of 150mm, which also estimates
the compression zone as the widest relative to the weld length. The difference between the
results at the center of the weld length (indicated as 0.5) is seen to be approximately identical.
Figure 9.19 - Through Thickness Residual Stresses (S33) and Path 3 (from outside
to inside) for a weld length of 150mm and plate thickness of 30mm.
Figure 9.20 - Through Thickness Residual Stress for a weld length of 150mm,
300mm, and 450mm (at center of weld).
The measured through-thickness stress relative to the weld length is illustrated in Figure 9.20
for the three different weld lengths. The shape of the residual stress distribution is seen to be
approximately identical for the three weld lengths. The small deviations between the curves are
estimated to be caused by the changes in mesh patterns for the three numerical models. This
will, in the thickness direction, become very clear due to the small number of elements, hence
15 measurement points has been applied. The initial investigation of a necessary weld length in
order to avoid any influence of the thermal boundary conditions, at the center of the weld, is
from the presented results seen to be fulfilled for a weld length equal to 150mm. A weld length
132
of 150mm will therefore be utilized in the next section for plate thicknesses of 30mm, 60mm,
and 90mm.
9.6.2 One-Sided Butt weld

The following section will present, compare and analyze the predicted temperature histories for
the circumferential butt weld located towards the outside of the monopile. This is utilized for
plate thicknesses of 30mm, 60mm (see Figure 9.21) and 90mm for a weld length of 150mm.
Figure 9.21 - Outside multipass weld for circumferential assembly of the supersize
monopile. The figure shows the numerical model for a plate thickness of 60mm, diameter
of 9m, and a weld length of 150mm.
This thermal analysis will be followed by a mechanical analysis of the resulting deformations
and residual stresses. However, plate thicknesses of 30mm and 60mm will only be included in
this part due to the numerical welder working on the 90mm plate at time submission of the
report.
9.6.2.1 Thermal analysis

The computationally predicted temperatures (for t=30mm, 60mm, 90mm) due to a specified
transient surface temperature of 2500 °C, are sequentially added in steps of 30mm, and are
presented and discussed in the following.
9.6.2.1.1 Heat flow pattern

Figure 9.22 shows the heat flow pattern during welding of the outside butt weld for plate
thickness of (a) 30mm, (b) 60mm, and (c) 90mm (at a circumferential angle, α of 0.96° in the
hoop direction (x-direction) corresponding to a distance of 75mm from the two weld ends). The
heat pattern is showed immediately after the deposition of the weld pass located approximately
in the center of the corresponding weld.
133
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 9.22 - Temperature field after deposition of (a) 2 nd weld pass. (b) 6th weld pass.
(c) 12th weld pass. Max. Limit of 500 °C is specified for presentation of the figure in
order to highlight the heat conduction.
The size of the weld pass relative to the plate thickness of 30mm is from Figure 9.22(a) seen to
result in an approximately uniform conduction of heat (over the plate thickness) away from the
weld. This behavior is additionally magnified due to the flux powder on the top of each weld
pass, modelled by locally neglecting convection and radiation. The relatively short distance
between the heat source and the convex surface of the inside weld (already deposited), result in
the temperature in this area becoming larger, relative to the base material next to the weld
groove with same distance to the heat source. From Figure 9.22(b)-(c) it can be seen that the
heat flow becomes less uniform for larger plate thicknesses due to the outer boundary of the
plate is located further away, relative to the position of the heat source. Increased plate thickness
will therefore lead to a heat flow propagating freely in all directions in a circular pattern.
134
9.6.2.1.2 Temperature History

The temperature history during multipass welding of the 30mm, 60mm, and 90mm plates is
presented in the following. The interpass time is calculated from the welding speed specified in
the WPS and the length of the individual weld passes. The afterpass time is selected to be 3
hours due to this being the time the welding inspector should wait before checking the welded
structure against cold cracking. The position for the points investigated is in the base material in
positive (y-direction) at a location corresponding to half of the individual butt welds penetration
depth. Following presents a definition sketch of the points measured (Figure 9.23, 9.25, 9.27)
and the obtained temperature results for the three plate thicknesses (Figure 9.24, 9.26, 9.28).
Figure 9.23 - Definition of points in which the temperature history is obtained (for
t=30mm) in the center of the plate in the hoop direction (x-direction = 75mm).
Pass 2
Pass 4
Pass 3 Pass 5
Pass 1
Figure 9.24 - Predicted temperature history in the base material (thickness=30mm) in

the positive (y-direction). Interpass time=35min. Afterpass time=3hrs (total
time=320min).
135
Figure 9.25 - Definition of points in which the temperature history is obtained (for
t=60mm) in the center of the plate in the hoop direction (x-direction = 75mm).
Pass 6
Pass 8
Pass 4
Pass 12
Pass 2 Pass 10
Figure 9.26 - Predicted temperature history in the base material in the positive (y-
direction), in the center of the 60mm plate in the hoop direction (x-direction). Interpass
time=35min. Afterpass time=3hrs.
136
Figure 9.27 - Definition of point in which the temperature history is obtained

(for t=90mm) in the center of the plate in the hoop direction (x-direction).
Pass 12
Pass 15
Pass 18
Pass 8
Figure 9.28 - Predicted temperature history in the base material in the positive (y-
direction) side of the weld, in the center of the 90mm plate in the hoop direction (x-
direction). Interpass time=35min. Afterpass time=3hrs. t=90mm.
The presented thermal cycles for the three plate thicknesses, illustrated in Figure 9.24, Figure
9.26 and Figure 9.28, all consist of a very rapid heating followed by a relatively fast cooling
towards the ambient temperature of 20 °C. The location of the points evaluated result in the
effect of the nearest deposited weld passes leading to the largest peak temperatures in the base
material.
137
The measured peak temperatures for all plate thicknesses are seen to be at the point nearest the
weld, thus 8mm from the surface of the weld, and correspondingly 17, 19, 21mm from the
center of the weld for plate thicknesses of 30, 60, 90mm. The peak temperatures in the base
material are observed to be 524°C (t=30mm), 480°C (t=60mm), and 418°C (t=90mm),
indicating a decrease in peak temperature as the plate thickness increases. The peak temperature
influences the cooling rate, (primary factor determining the final metallurgical composition of
the weld material and HAZ), hence it is seen to be a function of the plate thickness. For further
increase in thickness of the monopile, it is however expected that the thickness limit is reached
(for the applied heat input magnitude), thus resulting in no further variation. This is due to the
peak temperature and cooling rate being linked to the heat flow, as seen in previous section. The
larger the thickness is, the more it will dissipate in a circular three-dimensional manner, whereas
the thickness of 30mm results in an approximately two-dimensional heat flow.
The cooling rate is on Figure 9.29 seen to be approximately independent of the distance to the
weld, but to be a function of the applied preheat. (a) Shows the applied preheat of 60°C on the
base material up to a distance of 30mm from the weld groove. (b) Shows the interpass
temperature before and under deposition of weld pass no. 2 (t=30mm). The specified preheat of
60°C is in (a) seen to decrease until the effect from deposition of weld pass 1 after
approximately 4-5s increases the temperature. The base material further away from the weld
groove has an initial temperature of 20°C and gradually increases due to the preheat conducts
away from the weld area. In (b) during deposition of the weld pass the area not directly exposed
to preheat is seen to have a decreasing interpass temperature.
(a) (b)
Figure 9.29 - (a) Temperature history due to defined preheat of 60°C. (b) The temperature of the base
material initial and during deposition of weld pass no. 2. For plate thickness of 30mm.
The interpass temperature, defined here as the temperature in the base material immediately
before heat effects from subsequent pass, is seen to gradually increase for each weld pass
deposited until an approximately constant level is reached (t=60mm, 90mm). This implies that
the heat from previous deposited weld passes after a sufficient number and forward is able to
maintain the desired minimum preheat temperature of 50 °C. The interpass temperature which
138
falls below the preheat temperature, represents the numerical modelers limitation in only being
able to define preheat prior to the first weld pass. The consequence of this is an overestimation
of the temperature gradient between the ambient tempered base material and the first deposited
weld passes. However, this contributes conservatively to the estimated residual stresses, but is
expected to have a small effect on the stress results due post weld treatment of these passes from
the subsequent passes. This would, however, have had to be treated in more detail if the main
focus was microstructure development during welding. The maximum value of the interpass
temperature is seen to be below the maximum specified temperature of 225°. An interpass
temperature exceeding approximately this temperature will result in reduction of the weld
material strength.
The temperature history has by the same approach as presented, been measured with the only
difference being a change in the hoop direction (x – direction). This showed no difference in
temperature as a function of the measurement location. This could be due to the short weld
length of 150mm, thus almost identical location. However, the same tendency is confirmed in
[90] for several performed measurements in a 3D model with a circumferential angle of 180°.
This confirms the findings in the previous section, hence, the residual stresses are approximately
independent of the weld length due to little heat conduction occurring in the hoop direction. The
reason for this is assessed to be due to the welding speed being significantly larger than the heat
conduction rate. In relation to the cooling rate, this indicates that various zones in the base
material along the weld can be described by a single cooling curve and that the microstructure
formation only depends on the maximum temperature reached locally.
9.6.2.1.3 HAZ and Fusion Zone:

The thermal cycles, presented in the previous section, induce as mentioned in melting of the
base material heated above an estimated initial solidus temperature of 1500 °C and induce
metallurgical changes of the weld region (HAZ) experiencing phase transformation for
temperatures above approximately 600-650 °C. The numerical model does not include these
effects (see discussion of accuracy classes in section 7.2.2) but locating the temperatures above
the solidus temperature experienced in the base material will give an indication of the size of the
fusion zone (FZ). The same approach for temperatures in the range of 600°C – 1500°C will
indicate the size of the HAZ.
Figure 9.30 shows the FZ, hence the predicted region where the melted base material and filler
material are fused together. The depth of the base material melted (heat source efficiency) is
measured to be approximately 3mm for a plate thickness of 30mm. With the specified annealing
temperature of 1500 °C any plastic strains in the previously deposited weld passes heated above
the solidus temperature will vanish. The corresponding results for a plate thickness of 60mm
and 90mm are given in Appendix P and show a tendency of very small reduction in the melting
depth.
139
Figure 9.30 - Estimation of the FZ on right side (positive y-direction) of the one sided
butt weld for plate thickness of 30mm.
Figure 9.31 shows the predicted HAZ having a width approximately equal to the FZ of 3mm.
The outer blue circle represents the tempering zone and partially transformed zone. The green
and red circles represents the recrystallized and grain enlargement zones, hence transformation
from a ferritic to austenite structure. Corresponding results for a plate thickness of 60mm and
90mm are given in Appendix P, and similarly to the FZ show a miner reduction of the width
seen. This is assessed to represent the cooling curves dependence on the plate thickness, hence
the heat flow pattern.
Figure 9.31 - Estimation of the HAZ on right side (positive y-direction) of the one
sided butt weld for plate thickness of 30mm.
For the temperature results presented, it should be noted that no experimental data has been
utilized to calibrate the numerical model. The 30mm length of the thermal load is purely
estimated on the experience gained in the validation case. This can be used as a starting point
but the fact that the welding arc is created by a single + tandem wire electrodes contributes to a
large uncertainty of the real heat source. At present, it has not been possible to find any
information of this particular setup. This result in the actually peak temperature and cooling rate
140
could be another magnitude than the predicted. The found tendency between the different
thickness sections and the heat flow is however assessed to be correct.
9.6.2.2 Mechanical Analysis

The numerically approximated deformations and residual stresses due to welding of the
circumferential one-sided butt weld will be analyzed and discussed in the following for plate
thicknesses of 30mm and 60mm. The close relation between the welding deformations and
residual stresses are analyzed and evaluated in relation to design against fatigue. The section
will end with a discussion of the previous productions steps influence on the obtained results
together with possible future changes.
9.6.2.2.1 Deformations
The undeformed and deformed shape of the monopile due to welding of the one-sided butt
towards the outside surface of the monopile are shown in Figure 9.32-9.33 for plate thicknesses
of 30mm and 60mm, respectively.
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.32 – (a) Undeformed and (b) deformed shape of the one-sided butt weld for t=30mm. A
magnification factor of 6 is applied to demonstrate the deformed shape (out of plane).
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.33 – (a) Undeformed and (b) deformed shape of the one-sided butt weld for t=60mm. A
magnification factor of 6 is applied to demonstrate the deformed shape (out of plane).
141
From Figure 9.32(b) and Figure 9.33(b) it can be seen that the deformation of the monopile is
governed by an angular rotation around the weld line, causing out of plane deformation. This
leads to a local reduction in the monopile diameter and a local increase of the diameter on both
sides of the joint. This deformation is the consequence of transverse plastic shrinkage of the
weld. However, it is not the only shrinkage of the weld, as the weld also experience plastic
shrinkage in the longitudinal direction. Shrinkage in this direction will, however, not lead to
rotative deformation of the monopile due to the defined mechanical symmetry conditions
represents the continuation of the cylindrical monopile. The largest welding residual stresses, on
the other hand, are produced by the dominant longitudinal shrinkage and the large restraint in
this direction. Therefore, both the longitudinal and transverse deformations will due to
shrinkage of the welded joint, be analyzed in the following.
Longitudinal Deformation
The volume of the restrained weld and adjacent base material, exposed to a large amount of
heat, will during the cooling phase become more and more elongated resulting in the
development of permanent plastic deformations. Figure 9.34 shows the permanent plastic strains
from Abaqus for t=60mm in a section cut 75mm from the weld ends (in x-direction). Figure
9.35 gives the measured values for both plates. The corresponding Abaqus results for t=30mm
are given in Appendix Q together with the longitudinal deformations for both plate thicknesses.
Figure 9.34 - Plastic strain (PEEQ) in x-direction (hoop direction) for t=60mm (at x=75mm).
142
Figure 9.35 - Longitudinal plastic strains accumulated during welding of

the circumferential butt weld for plate thicknesses of 30mm and 60mm.
Strain is measured in direction perpendicular to the weld (y-direction).
It is seen from Figure 9.35 that the maximum permanent deformation occurs approximately at
the weld centerline. Away from the weld the deformations gradually decrease in magnitude due
to less heat being exposed to these areas. The peak value is seen to be a function of the weld
size, showing that the deformation of the individual weld passes after deposition must be
influenced by the shrinkage of the adjacent weld passes.
The width of the base material experiencing plastic deformations is seen to be approximately
30mm on both sides of the weld line for both plate thicknesses. This is surprising because the
increase in groove size alone would imply a wider area of the base material experiencing plastic
deformation. Therefore, the identical deformation is considered to indicate the difference in the
heat flow pattern. Hence, an identical heat source has been utilized for all welds, whereas the
heat flow is a function of the plate thickness and is found to result in the largest temperatures for
a plate thickness of 30mm.
Transverse Deformation
The weld will, in addition to the longitudinal shrinkage discussed in previous section, also
experience transverse shrinkage causing transverse deformations. The transverse deformation is
in this section investigated. This is conducted by following the transverse offset of the weld
groove as the joint is being welded. Figure 9.36 shows the computed transverse deformation of
the top right corner of the u-shaped weld groove during the multipass welding of the plate with
a 30mm thickness.
143
Figure 9.36 - Transverse deformation of the top right side of the weld
groove during multipass welding. Plate thickness is 30mm, and groove
deformation is measured 75mm from weld end (x-direction).
The transverse deformation seen in Figure 9.36 expresses the response of the base material,
defined by the thermal expansion coefficient, due to the thermal load from the heat source.
Hence, the expansion of the base material, results in transverse deformations away from the
weld. As the metal cools very fast, as seen in the thermal analysis, it will start to shrink, thus
creating transverse deformation of the groove towards the weld. This process repeats itself for
each weld pass deposited causing an increasingly larger and larger transverse deformation
towards the weld, thus reducing the size of the groove. The result is an angular rotation due to
the butt weld being one sided, thus non-uniform shrinkage, leading to the out of plane
deformation as seen in Figure 9.32-9.33. The difference seen in the local deformations peak of
the groove away from the weld centerline indicates the transverse shrinkage effect. Furthermore,
that the interpass time steps defined in Abaqus (for presentation purpose) are too large to
capture the rather short expansion of the material. A tendency of the first passes resulting in the
largest transverse deformation towards the weld centerline during the cooling time was
expected, due to the fact that the joint thickness increases as welds are being deposited.
However, it is seen that the magnitude of the transverse deformation for a plate thickness of
30mm has an approximately linear relationship for each weld pass deposited relative to the end
deformation reached after complete cooling to workshop temperature. However, when
comparing to the computed transverse deformation for a plate thicknesses of 60mm (results
shown in Appendix Q), it is seen that the transverse deformations of the right side of the weld
groove increases from approximately 0.9mm (for t=30mm) as seen in Figure 9.36, to 1.4mm
(for t=60mm). This indicates that the transverse deformation relative to the number of weld
passes will gradually decrease as the joint becomes stiffer, but at the same time, the magnitude
of the transverse deformation will continue to increase for larger monopile thicknesses.
144
Out of Plane Deformation

The transverse deformation will, as indicated in the beginning of the section, cause out of plane
deformation of the monopile at the welded joint. The obtained results, from Abaqus, for a plate
thickness of 60mm is shown in Figure 9.37. Figure 9.38 shows the out of plane deformations for
t=30mm and t=60mm which has been measured on the outside surface of the monopile.
Figure 9.37 - Out of plane deformations, U3 from Abaqus, for a plate thickness of 60mm.
Figure 9.38 - Out of plane deformations, U3 for welding of the

monopile with a 30mm and 60mm thickness.
From the obtained result it can be seen that the out of plane deformation relative to the plate
thickness decreases as the plate thickness becomes larger. The out of plane deformations due to
the local shrinkage of the weld will, when external load is applied, result in the introduction of a
secondary shell bending moment in the weld located transverse to the main load. The presence
of the additional moment causes an increase of the stresses at the joint relative to the nominal
145
stress in the monopile. The stress concentrations at the joint and particularly at the weld toe
result in reduction of the fatigue life of the monopile. Therefore, the stress concentrations that
appear due to the out of plane deformations, are checked against the amount already accounted
for by the fatigue S-N curve. IIW [27] characterizes the out of plane deformation as an angular
misalignment and for transverse loaded butt welds, an increase in stress up to 30 % are
accounted for in the nominal stress approach. The stress concentrations can be approximated by
equation 9.1, assuming an unrestrained case with equal plate lengths and without consideration
of the straightening effect from the external load.
𝑈3
𝑘𝑚 = 1 + 3 ∙ (9.1)
𝑡
Calculated stress concentrations in the welded joint of the two plate thickness are given in Table
9.7.
Plate Thickness Stress Concentration

[mm] [-]
30 1.334
60 1.213
Table 9.7 - Stress concentrations in the welded joint during external

loading, due to out of plane deformations caused by welding.
From the results in Table 9.7 it can be seen that only the case resulting in a stress concentration
larger than accounted for in the S-N-curve is for a plate thickness of 30mm. The predicted
misalignment of the joint is, however, expected to be overestimated due to the initial and
adverse shrinkage effects of the inside weld, which is not accounted for in the investigation. In
addition to the predicted angular misalignment, it is expected that axial misalignments will be
present due to lack of fit when joining the two circular can sections. This can be caused by
several factors, but given the large size of the monopile (diameter=9m) even the slightest out of
roundness will cause significant lack of fit. Presently a maximum allowable tolerance of 4mm is
required by DNV [41], which in practice is observed to be challenging to fulfill.
9.6.2.2.2 Residual Stresses

The longitudinal (hoop) residual stresses, together with the residual transverse (axial) stresses at
the center of the weld (x=75mm), are presented and discussed in this section. The secondary
stresses occurring in the through-thickness direction (z-direction) as well as the Von mises
stress are given in Appendix R.
Longitudinal Residual Stresses

The longitudinal (hoop) residual stresses are the consequence of the longitudinal shrinkage of
the weld during the cooling phase after end welding, as discussed in previous section. Figure
9.39-9.40 show the longitudinal residual stress results from Abaqus for the two plate
thicknesses.
146
Figure 9.39 - Abaqus results for Longitudinal (hoop) residual stress for t=30mm, seen at
section cut 75mm from the weld ends in the x-direction.
Figure 9.40 - Abaqus results for Longitudinal (hoop) residual stress for t=60mm, seen at
section cut 75mm from the weld ends in the x-direction
From the results in Abaqus in Figure 9.39-9.40 the longitudinal (hoop) residual stresses are
measured on the outside and inside surface of the monopile perpendicular to the weld direction
(at x=75mm). In addition, the stresses are measured in the weld where the peak stress appears.
The results are presented in Figure 9.41-9.43.
147
Figure 9.41 - Measured longitudinal (hoop) residual stresses for

plate thicknesses of 30mm and 60mm, on the outside surface of the
monopile.
Figure 9.42 - Measured longitudinal (hoop) peak residual stresses

for plate thicknesses of 30mm, and 60mm, in the weld where
largest stresses is present.
148
Figure 9.43 - Measured longitudinal (hoop) residual stresses for plate

thicknesses of 30mm, and 60mm on the inside surface of the
monopile.
From the measured values shown in Figure 9.41-9.43, it can be seen that tensile stresses
exceeding the yield stress will be present across the entire, or the majority of the cross-section.
Figure 9.41 shows the measured longitudinal residual stress on the outside surface of the
monopile. It’s seen that the longitudinal shrinkage results in tensile stress near the centerline,
which is balanced by two zones with compressive stresses, nearly symmetrical distributed with
respect to the centerline. It is shown that the simulated stress distribution for the two plate
thicknesses match very well in shape. A tendency of parallel displacement towards larger tensile
stresses is observed for increased weld size. A maximum stress of 324MPa for (t=30mm) and
332MPa (t=60mm) indicates very similar results. The area with tensile stresses lies within a
distance of approximately 50-55mm from the centerline of the weld. The small change in stress
for t=30mm at y=30mm from the weld, is due to change of element size, hence creating small
perturbations in the results. The largest difference in results as function of the plate thickness
appears near the weld centerline. The maximum stress appears on the positive side of the
centerline (t=30mm) in one local increase, whereas two increases symmetrically located on both
sides of the weld centerline is seen for t=60mm. This difference, as well as the local reduction in
stress at the center of the weld, represents the sequence in which the welds are deposited.
Hence, the last weld deposited will be at lower tensile stress due to reduced constraint and that it
will experience no impact from deposition of other weld passes.
Figure 9.42 shows the measured longitudinal residual stress at the point in the weld where the
peak longitudinal residual stress is located. This position of peak stress is found to be at an
approximately equal distance of 13-16mm from the outside surface of the monopile,
independently of the weld size. The peak stress is found to be 441MPa (t=30mm) and 493MPa
(t=60mm) indicating that the maximum longitudinal stress peak as well as the stress distribution
increases with the weld size. This is found to express the effect of increased restraint and the
149
increased shrinkage due to increased number of deposited weld passes. However, the predicted
peak exceeds the maximum value specified as input data. According to the defined stress-strain
curve the ultimate stress for structural steel s235 equals to 433.6MPa at 20°C. The relation
between the overestimated peak stresses together with the defined ultimate stress level is
illustrated in Figure 9.44.
Figure 9.44 - Longitudinal residual stress peaks and maximum

defined ultimate stress level (s235) together with results measured at
integration points of the elements.
Figure 9.44 shows the stress peaks measured relative to the maximum limit specified. The
overestimation has a magnitude of approximately 8MPa for t=30mm (error of 2%) and 60MPa
for t=60mm (error of 14%). One reason for this error is estimated to be caused by the difference
in the point where Abaqus calculates the stress and the point where the stress is measured.
Hence, Abaqus calculates the stresses at the integration point of the elements, whereas the
stresses are measured at the elements nodal points (corner points). Hence, the stress at the nodal
points represents extrapolated values from the integration point leading to reduced accuracy at
the elements nodal points. The stress is therefore obtained at the integration points at the
elements overestimating the stresses (for t=60mm). The result is plotted in Figure 9.44 as black
dots and is further given in Appendix S.
Comparing the plotted points against the results from the nodal points it is seen that the peak
stress should be 414MPa, hence below the ultimate stress level. However, from the adjacent
integration points, values of 464MPa and 467MPa are obtained. This fluctuating result within a
very small area is assessed to indicate two things. First, that all three values are lower than stress
in in the nodal points, hence reducing the maximum error to 8%. If taking average of the stress
results from the three integration points this gives an overestimation of 3.4%. Secondly,
additional unknown factors must contribute to these errors. In the model verification at the end
of this chapter, the overestimation of the peak longitudinal stresses will be held up against
150
various element sizes to see if this has any influence on the result. However, the solution
utilized to this challenge is to apply the known maximum value of 433.6MPa, for values
exceeding the limit and use the error as an indication of the uncertainty of the results in areas
where large stress gradients are present.
Figure 9.43 shows the longitudinal residual stresses on the inside surface of the monopile.
Compared to the peak stresses and the stresses on the outside surface a large difference in
tensile stresses is present on the inside. A maximum stress is measured to 272MPa (t=30mm),
and 140MPa (t=60mm). This indicates in present case, where the inner weld is kept at same size
and outer weld is increased, in a decrease in the tensile residual stresses on the inside surface.
This is surprising, as one would expect that tensile residual stresses would increase across the
entire plate thickness when the weld size is increased. The explanation for the unexpected
behavior is sought answered in the following.
From the Abaqus plots given in Figure 9.39-9.40 the location of the stress peak relative to the
center of the weld, in the thickness direction, is seen to differ. Hence, the zone within the weld
where the longitudinal residual stress peak occurs is at a distance of approximately 13-16mm
from the outside surface for both weld sizes considered. The fairly identical location
independently of the weld size is seen to result in very similar residual stress distributions on the
outside surface for the different plate thicknesses considered, as illustrated in Figure 9.41. The
residual stresses on the inside surface differs, however, for different weld sizes. It’s observed
that an increase in weld size result in increased distance to the stress peak, hence reduced tensile
stresses present on the inside surface. Therefore, the stresses on the inside are seen to vary from
1.15fy (t=30mm) to 0.6fy (t=60mm) (Figure 9.43). This observation leads to following
considerations:
 The distance from the outside weld root to the convex surface of the inside weld is in
the numerical model estimated to be 13mm and constant for all plate thicknesses
considered. Because of this rather thin thickness, the inside surface near the weld will
experience very high temperatures during welding of the outside butt weld. This will
result in plastic deformation and development of residual stresses across the entire cross
section as seen for a plate thickness of 30mm.
 The location of the peak residual stress approximately 13-16mm from the outside
surface implies that, as the plate thickness increases, so will the distance between the
last deposited weld passes and the inside surface. The increased distance will result in
the newly deposited welds acting as a gentle form of post weld heat treatment on the
previous deposited weld passes. Hence reducing the residual stresses towards the weld
root.
 As the heat flow pattern tends to propagate out in the plate in a more circular manner,
for larger plate thicknesses, a larger amount of the heat will not reach the inside surface.
In addition to the stated considerations, it results in an increased number of weld passes in

increased transverse shrinkage as seen in previous section. Therefore, the reduction of tensile
stresses on the inside surface is considered to be a function of this increase. The transverse
residual stresses are considered in the following section.
151
Transverse / axial Residual Stress

The transverse shrinkage of the weld is seen to cause a local decrease in the monopile diameter
towards the weld centerline. The transverse (axial) residual stresses associated with this
shrinkage as well as secondary stress effects introduced due to this shrinkage will be treated in
the following. Figure 9.45-9.46 shows the obtained Abaqus results of the transverse residual
stresses in the weld and base material.
Figure 9.45 - Abaqus results for Transverse (axial) residual stress for t=30mm,
seen at section cut 75mm from the weld ends in the x-direction.
Figure 9.46 - Abaqus results for Transverse (axial) residual stress for
t=60mm, seen at section cut 75mm from the weld ends in the x-direction.
The stresses shown in Figure 9.45-9.46 have been measured along the weld centerline (z-
direction) at the center of the weld in the length direction (x=75mm). The measured result and
the non-dimensional result is shown in Figure 9.47 and Figure 9.48.
152
Figure 9.47 - Transverse (axial) residual stresses measured across the

weld from the outside surface (z = 0mm) to the inside surface of the
monopile. For t=30mm and t=60mm.
Figure 9.48 - Transverse (axial) residual stresses measured across the

weld from the outside surface (z=0) to the inside (z=-1). For t=30mm,
t= 60mm.The thickness distance is made non-dimensional in order to
compare the results with different length scales.
153
From the Abaqus stress results in Figure 9.45-9.46 and the results in Figure 9.47-9.48 it can be
seen that the top cover pass is exposed to compressive axial stresses. The adjacent base material
at the weld toe for t=30mm is also in compression whereas the weld toe for t=60mm experience
axial tension. The largest compressive stress of 50MPa is measured for t=30mm, whereas
19MPa is measured for a plate thickness of 60mm. The depth of the compressive zone relative
to the plate thickness is correspondingly larger for a plate thickness of 30mm. Below the zone
with compressive stresses (measured from outside surface), a region with tensile stresses is
present. The location of the peak stresses 122MPa (t=30mm) and 217MPa (t=60mm) is seen to
be at an equal distance to the outside surface, if measured in mm, and at an identical location of
the maximum longitudinal residual stresses, presented in previous section. The tensile stresses
decrease and a compressive zone appears approximately at the center of the two plates. Toward
the inside surface of the monopile the stresses become tensile with a magnitude of 20MPa
(t=30mm) and 96MPa (t=60mm).
The fluctuating axial stress pattern from the outside surface to inside surface of the monopile is
the result of the transverse shrinkage, and the resulting secondary bending stresses
superimposed on the residual stresses. This can be seen by the tensile stresses at the outside
surface represent the transverse deformation as the width of weld groove decreases in size,
leading to compressive stresses at the cover pass. The tensile stresses at the weld toe is for
presented cases seen to increase up to 0.9fy. The surface towards the inside of the monopile will
oppositely be in tension due to the transverse deformation and resulting angular rotation.
Comparing the stresses with the obtained deformations it can be seen that large deformations
result in a reduction of the stresses whereas low deformations result in large stresses. The
maximum tensile axial stresses location identical to the maximum tensile longitudinal stress
indicate the effect of the longitudinal contraction, represented in the model through poisons
ratio.
The location of the compression zone is seen to be positioned closer towards the outside surface
as the plate thickness increases. Hence the compression zone is located below the root pass of
the inner butt weld for t=30mm, whereas the root pass and following four filling passes is in
compression for t=60mm. This result in approximately the entire area of the root pass for
t=30mm to be in tension.
The bottom passes of the weld for t=60mm would initially not have been in compression due to
the transverse shrinkage effect. However, this effect is also the reason the bottom passes are
seen to be in compression for t=60mm. Because, as more weld passes are deposited this will
lead to an increased restrain of the bottom weld passes, while the compressive transverse
shrinkage will continue to increase. Gradually, the tensile stress will be reduced as the restrain
becomes larger and eventually, the first deposited welds will be in compression. Therefore, it is
expected that welding of plates with larger thicknesses will lead to larger compressive stresses.
In relation to the discussion in the previous section regarding the reduced tensile stresses, the
increased axial compression of the weld area will lead to reduced tensile stresses towards the
inside surface as it was shown on Figure 9.43. The reduction of the tensile stresses occurs
primarily if the stress field from the outside butt weld is considered. Large tensile stresses of
154
yield size magnitude must be expected to be present on the inside surface due to the inside butt
weld. This will be treated further in the discussion at the end of this chapter.
9.7 Model Verification

The numerical model simulating welding of the monopile with a plate thickness of 30mm is
validated in the following. The validation will consist of a mesh convergence study, verification
against hourglassing of the elements, and control of the reaction force magnitudes.
9.7.1 Mesh Convergence

A mesh refinement study is performed for the longitudinal residual stresses, which
overestimates the peak residual stresses relative to the defined maximum limit from the input
data. The study is carried out by running the exact same numerical welding procedure with the
only difference being the element size. The mesh investigation is performed according to the
method stated in DNV-C208-RP [79] and is applied in order to check if the obtained results are
sufficiently accurate. Figure 9.49 shows the three different element sizes applied for the
investigation and Figure 9.50 and Figure 9.51 show the longitudinal stress results.
(3mm)
(5mm)
(8mm)
Figure 9.49 - Element sizes of 3mm, 5mm, and 8mm used for mesh
convergence study.
155
Figure 9.50 - Longitudinal residual stresses for element sizes of 3mm,

5mm, and 8mm.
Figure 9.51 - Peak longitudinal residual stresses for element sizes of

3mm, 5mm, and 8mm.
Generally, the measured results presented in Figure 9.50 shows an identical shaped stress
distribution with a tensile stress zone located 50mm from the weld centerline in both positive
and negative direction. In the compression zone the stress results are seen to deviate for
different element sizes. For an element size of 3mm, the peak magnitude of the compression
zone is estimated lower compared to element sizes of 5mm and 8mm. In addition, it is in the
compression zone for all element sizes observed that the elements “jumps” in magnitude. This
behavior is assessed to be the direct consequence of the deviating mesh pattern between the
156
models as free meshing approach is applied. Furthermore, this jump will be caused by the
transition from finer elements at the weld centerline to coarser elements further away. This can
be seen by the decrease of the jump for an element size of 8mm where smallest deviation is
present. Figure 9.51 shows the maximum tensile stress in the weld as function of the element
size. The stress exceedance of the ultimate stress of 433.6MPa is seen for element sizes of 3mm
and 8mm, whereas an element size of 5mm is seen to be below the limit. This fluctuating result
above and below the ultimate stress limit as function of the element size does not give a clear
answer of why the overestimation occurs in the numerical model.
9.7.2 Reaction Forces

The model is checked against any reaction forces appearing at the fixed boundary conditions
defined at the top and bottom of the monopile. From Figure 9.52, it can be seen that the reaction
forces present is confined to the defined symmetry planes towards the weld. These forces
represent the response due to the longitudinal deformation of the weld region. Hence, no
reactions forces are located at the end sides of monopile resulting in the residual stresses
obtained is assessed free of contributions from any reaction stress.
Figure 9.52 - Reaction Forces in the monopile, due to outside one-

sided butt weld. Seen for monopile thickness of 30mm.
9.7.3 Hourglassing
Hourglass control is applied in the numerical model of the monopile. The hourglass energy
(ALLAE) shall be monitored and shown to be less than 5% of the internal energy (ALLIE) [79]
to verify that no hourglassing is occurring in the model. Figure 9.53 and Figure 9.54 shows the
obtained results for the numerical 3D model of the monopile with weld length of 150mm and
thickness of 30mm. The element size is 3mm. The results show that:
157
ALLAE = 12
ALLIE = 1600
Hence it can be seen that ALLAE < 1% of ALLIE, thus no hourglassing of the elements.
Figure 9.53 - The total artificial strain energy (ALLAE) present in the Abaqus model.
Figure 9.54 - The total Internal Energy (ALLIE) present in the Abaqus model.
9.8 Discussion and Future Work

From the numerically performed investigation of the outside circumferential butt weld, which
joins two consecutive monopile section, excessive residual stresses have been obtained for plate
thicknesses of 30mm and 60mm. In the longitudinal direction, tensile stresses are significantly
larger than the yield stress obtained in almost the entire cross-section. Furthermore, transverse
residual stresses of yield stress magnitude are obtained at the weld toe of the butt weld for a
plate thickness of 60mm. The extensive residual stresses result in the fatigue strength of the
welded joint to be considered independent of the mean stress, in accordance with the fatigue
design standards.
It may be up for discussion if the performed investigation of one part of the total production
process of the monopile, correctly represents the stresses in the weld when the structure is to
begin its service life. Additionally, it raises the question of a possible redistribution of the
residual stresses due to external loading during the service life. Following discussion will be
limited to consider the expected impact from previous production steps by means of the
tendencies found in present work. This will be followed by a discussion with regard to
158
optimization possibilities. Furthermore, some general comments on the limitations and

assumptions utilized to obtain the numerical results in present thesis will be discussed shortly.
9.8.1 Impact from Previous Production Steps

The residual stresses discussed so far represents the last production step expected to cause
residual stresses in the monopile. Initial residual stresses are however introduced by other
manufacturing processes prior to the obtained results. Following discussion address the
influence the initial residual stresses is expected to have on the achieved results. From the visit
at Bladt Industries A/S headquarters in Aalborg is following stages of the production process
considered to result in formation of residual stresses:
 Edge preparation
 Cold forming
 Longitudinal double-sided butt weld
 Inside butt weld
 Back Gouging
From the butt weld considered in the validation case it was found that the inherent stresses due
to flame cutting could be neglected within a distance of approximately 100mm to the weld
centerline. This was considered to be caused by large heat from the welding arc combined with
local “vaporizing” of stresses due to melting. Therefore, the stresses caused by edge preparation
as well as back gauging of the weld groove is considered to have negligible influence on the
obtained results in the weld area. The residual stresses from the inside butt weld are expected to
result in larger tensile stresses at the inside surface of the monopile compared to those predicted.
However, the subsequent preparation of the U-groove by back gauging might be causing some
degree of stress relieve since the plates become less restraint after gauging. The consequences of
these actions together with the influence from cold forming was not accounted for in the
mechanical analysis. Furthermore, the intersection between the longitudinal and the
circumferential welds in the monopile will result in multiaxial longitudinal residual stresses,
which may be expected to be equal or larger than the yield stress.
9.8.2 Optimization Suggestions

The challenges associated with residual stresses are clearly seen for plate thicknesses of 30mm
and 60mm and are only expected to get worse for larger plate thicknesses. As the plate thickness
increases in size, so will the area which need to be welded in an approximately exponential
manner. This will result in the joint becoming continuously stiffer for each weld pass deposited.
Considering the monopiles size together with the extreme lengths of the welds, makes it very
impractical to achieve compressive residual stresses by e.g. hammer- or shot- peening
techniques. Post weld heat treatment would reduce the residual stresses but not entirely remove
them. Applying post weld heat treatment result according to the fatigue design
recommendations in mean stress dependence can be assumed, thus optimization possibilities if
159
part or the entire stress range is compressive. However, to locate a furnace large enough to
contain a monopile to ensure such uniform heat up to a temperature of 550°C - 625°C for
several hours, seems out of reach, especially when considering the energy costs.
The optimization procedure suggested would be to attempt reducing the stiffness of the joint.
This can be achieved by application of a double-sided butt weld with equally sized penetration
depth, thus reducing the area to be welded. However, this will just reduce the problem and for
supersize monopiles with thicknesses approaching 140mm, a significantly larger stiffness will
be present. Especially in comparison to the joint considered in the numerical investigation, in
which the depth of penetration was “only” approximately 48mm (for t=60mm). The question to
be raised is if SAW has reached its capable limit at these thicknesses, in terms of preventing
high residual stress levels to occur, or if another welding procedure may be in order. Rumor has
it that hybrid laser arc welding may be an option for the future.
9.8.3 Heat Source Modeling

Using the Abaqus Welding Interface as a tool for numerical welding simulations implies the use
of the prescribed surface temperature heat source modeling approach. This restricts the user
from having precise control of the heat input in terms of WPS, whereas instead this requires
comprehensive “virtual heat” calibration. Thus the need for experimental temperature
measurements are in order to obtain results in accordance with the WPS. In the validation case,
thermocouple temperature measurements were available, which allowed for a rather precise
heating calibration. This led to a quite accurate determination of the elastic strains as compared
to the neutron diffraction measurements. However, in the main case, the lack of experimental
results made it rather impossible to perform a precise heat source calibration. Therefore, an
educated guess was necessary in order to estimate the heat source length. Based on present heat
source modeling approach, the future of predicting residual stresses will therefore depend on
collecting enough experimental data to gain more experience when constructing the numerical
model. Potentially, this will reveal a pattern allowing for reasonable interpolation between
various welding procedures.
From the results presently available, it will be necessary to perform a rather comprehensive
sensitivity analysis of the residual stresses for various sizes of the heat source, in order to get a
proper indication of the stress magnitude. In the main case, the temperature was only applied in
discrete steps of 30mm. However, it would have been interesting to see if any significant
variation in residual stresses magnitude would have been achieved by applying a heat source
length of 10mm or 50mm instead.
9.8.4 Material Modelling

In the present thesis, it was not accomplished to have the monopile with a thickness of 90mm
ready in time for submission. This future work would therefore be to include the result for
t=90mm in the deformation and stress analysis.
160
The main case was utilized with structural steel s235, whereas the WPS dictated s355/s420.
Thus, the next step would be to perform an investigation of the residual stresses as a function of
the yield strength. Hence, repeat the numerical calculations for s355 at see how this will
influence the residual stresses.
The size of the weld passes used in the main case was assumed from the applied WPS. This can
however be optimized if the total mass and volume of the filler material is measured during and
after end welding. Further will the shape of the weld passes used in the numerical model could
be optimized if a cross-section of the weld profile is available.
The application of material properties will always be associated with some degree of
uncertainty. The question is how sensitive the residual stresses are against changes of the
individual material parameters. This could be subject for another parametric study.
It is expected that CWM will complement the design of WPS in the future due to the possibility
of directly comparing the residual stresses. The challenge of doing this, is that different WPS
requires a new set of experimental data, from which the CWM can be validated against. That is
until a sufficient amount of results are obtained, hence creating a pattern from which there can
interpolated or extrapolated. The deviation of the results from this method, hence in present
thesis the main case, must, however, always be expected to have an uncertainty of 5-25% due to
a uncertainty of the material properties of approximately 5% and due to an estimated variation
of 5% in the performed welding. And that is still assuming a somewhat perfect weld.
161
162
10 CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL REMARKS
The initial problem statement was based on the fact that residual stresses in welds have become
a greater concern in the offshore steel industry, due the increasing demand for larger monopiles.
At the same time, the prospects of being able to improve current manufacturing practice by
gaining additional knowledge on residual stress accumulation in large welded structures, have
made structural engineers eager to learn more about residual stresses, particularly with regards
to optimisation of design in relation to fatigue. Thus, in present thesis, the welding process and
the resulting residual stress field induced during the production of monopile sections have been
studied by means of computational welding mechanics.
The main focus has been to develop numerical welding simulation models using FEM in
Abaqus, in order to obtain sufficiently accurate results within reasonable computational time.
For this purpose, a modeling approach has been established by using a sequentially coupled
thermo-mechanical approach for determining mechanical behavior on macroscopic scale.
Initially, a validation case comprising a double-pass butt weld application was considered. In
this case, the numerical results were compared to experimental measurements of temperatures,
elastic strains and stresses, in order to validate the method. Modeling of the weld heat source
(arc and filler material) was performed using a prescribed surface temperature approach and a
step-wise deposition of chunk elements using the Abaqus Welding Interface (accuracy class 1-
2). This approach required a calibration of heat input in terms of finding the appropriate surface
length. By adjusting this length, an appropriate heat input was obtained, which ultimately
revealed quite good resemblance with the thermocouple measurements in the thermal analysis.
In fact, the average deviation when considering peak values, was within approximately 6% of
the measured points of the best fitted curves.
In the subsequent mechanical analysis, the dominant longitudinal elastic strains and stresses
tended to overestimate the peak values in the center weld, however, the overall distribution
tendency was captured quite well, further away from the weld. Optimisation was attempted by
implementing an annealing function in Abaqus together with a different strain hardening curve,
which altogether showed more fitting results in the inside weld area. Elastic strains and stresses
in the other two directions (transverse and through-thickness) were given less attention. This
was partly due to a systematic error found in the original experiment (neutron diffraction), but
also because these directions were less significant, considering the geometry of the weld.
The experiences gained from the numerical model in the validation case were utilized in the
main case, comprising “Super-size” monopiles. The basis of this case was to implement the
current welding fabrication practice, as performed at Bladt Industries A/S, to a CWM model.
163
CHAPTER 10. CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL REMARKS
It was choosen to focus on the last, and presumably the largest contributer to the resulting
residual stress field, i.e. the large outside facing circumferential (butt) weld. The weld
comprised multiple passes and it was performed by using single wired tandem SAW procedure.
Furthermore, preheat was applied using a flame torch. Since no experimental data were readily
available in this case of procedure, heat source calibration could not be performed. Instead, the
heat source length was extrapolated relative to the best fitting length in the validation case, in
order to correspond to the heat source of the tandem SAW procedure in this case.
Three different plate thicknesses of 30mm, 60mm and 90mm were considered, the thicker the
more welding passes. Motivated by the fact that modeling the entire pipe diameter would be far
from computational effient, a weld length investigation was performed to study its effect on
residual stresses. Lengths of 150mm, 300mm and 450mm were considered for a thickness of
30mm. The results showed no significant variation between the three lengths, hence somewhat
length independent. Therefore, only the shorter 150mm model was considered henceforth.
The thermal analysis allowed for monitoring the temperatures over time. Preheat was only
applied prior to the first weld pass, though in practice it was kept constant during welding.
However, according to the WPS, the preheat temperature should be kept above 50°C. This was
accomplished alone from the heating, due to previous weld passes. Furthermore, the heat
affected zone (HAZ) as well as the fusion zone were estimated, based on contour temperature
plots.
The mechanical analysis was carried out for plate thicknesses of 30mm and 60mm.
Deformations were also considered in the mechanical analysis. The results clearly showed how
local shrinkage in the weld area will cause out-of-plane deformations of the welded plates. Not
surprisingly, the thinner plate showed larger deformations, due to lesser stiffness. The
mechanical analysis reviewed the consequences involved with the multiaxial shrinkage of the
weld during and after cooling of the weld. The circumferential butt weld being one-sided
resulted in the transverse shrinkage which lead to out of plane deformation, causing local stress
concentrations during the service life application of the monopile. The largest deformations
were obtained for a plate thickness of 30mm. However, the deformations are expected to be
overestimated, due to the adverse effect from the butt weld located on the inside of the
monopile.
The longitudinal shrinkage was found to cause local plastic deformations primarily in the weld
metal. Investigation of the resulting residual stresses revealed excessive longitudinal residual
stresses due to shrinkage of the weld, which exceeded yield stress magnitude across
approximately the entire cross section for plate thicknesses of both 30mm and 60mm. A
tendency of reduced residual stresses for increased plate thickness was observed. It was found to
be caused by actions of the transverse deformations. In the light of the inside weld not being
considered, much larger tensile stresses must be expected to be present on the inside of the
monopile, compared to the predicted. The residual stresses results significantly exceeded yield
magnitude which lead to the conclusion that stress reviving actions are recommended. However,
the assumptions utilized do need to be validated further, in order to estmitate the impact
164
CHAPTER 10. CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL REMARKS
involved with these. This involves a sensitivity study of the prescribed heat input as well as
further validation against experimental data, in general.
The debate is still running today, on whether Supersize monopile foundations are the answer to
future offshore wind substructures.
165
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92. Totten GE. "Fatique Crack Propagation". Vol 167: Advanced Material and Processes; 2009.
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elastoviscoplastic deformations and selective reduced integration": Engineering Computations,
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171
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APPENDIX
LIST OF APPENDIXES
Appendix A – Crack Phases ................................................................................................. 174

Appendix B – WPS Example................................................................................................ 178
Appendix C - Gas Metal Arc Welding ................................................................................. 179
Appendix D – Element contributions ................................................................................... 180
Appendix E – Analytical Heat Input Models ........................................................................ 181
Appendix F – Basis of Butt Weld Geometry ........................................................................ 183
Appendix G – Surface Assignings ........................................................................................ 184
Appendix H – Job Submission and Performance.................................................................. 186
Appendix I – Validation Case: Mechanical Analysis ........................................................... 189
Appendix J – Validation Case: Graphs from reference case ................................................ 191
Appendix K – Validation Case: Model Verification ............................................................ 193
Appendix L – Main Case: Monopile Manufacturing ............................................................ 206
Appendix M – Main Case: WPS from Bladt Industries A/S ................................................ 215
Appendix N – Main Case: Surface Definitions .................................................................... 218
Appendix O – Main Case: Stresses Contour......................................................................... 219
Appendix P – Main Case: Heat Affected Zone and Fusion Zone ......................................... 223
Appendix Q – Main Case: Deformations.............................................................................. 225
Appendix R – Main Case: Von Mises and Radial Stress ...................................................... 229
Appendix S – Main Case: Longitudinal stresses, Integration Points .................................... 230
173
APPENDIX
Appendix A – Crack Phases

Supplementary description of the Crack Initiation Phase and the Crack Growth Phase in
extension of the definition of fatigue in Section 2.1.
2.1.1 The Crack Initiation Phase

When the offshore monopile foundation is subjected to fluctuating stresses below the yield
strength of the material this gives rise to linear-elastic deformations. One might think that the
monopile therefore should be able to resist an infinite number of loads. The consequence of the
fluctuating load is however a local plastic deformation on a micro scale level [25]. This is the
first step in the fatigue crack-propagation.
The plastic deformation occurs by cyclic slip of the crystalline planes. Slip is one way for steel
to plastic deform, thus, the resistance against slip i.e. initial micro cracking depends on the
materials crystallographic properties, such as type of crystal lattice, elastic anisotropy, and
allotropy [25]. In terms of a more detailed review of the microstructure reference is made to
[76]. The case of slip during one cycle of the load is showed in Figure A.1.
free
surface
new fresh
surface
intrusion
1st cycle
Figure A.1 – Cyclic slip of the bands in the same plane during one
load cycle leads to crack nucleation i.e. separation of the crystal
planes; from [25].
Cyclic slip requires cyclic shear stress [25] and from Figure A.1 it is seen that the cyclic forces,
compressive and tensile, impose a shear force on the slip bands that is oriented approximately
45 to the cyclic forces. This direction is proportional to the tangential slope of the spheres
interaction point. In Figure A.2 it is further seen that the slip of the crystalline planes i.e. the
ability to plastic deform depends on the proximity of the planes. Slip of the planes will always
occur in the direction where the spheres are closest to each other. This is due to less shear stress
are necessary to cause slip because the overlap is smaller than for loosely packed layers [76].
174
APPENDIX
(a)
(b)
Figure A.2 – Two different packing configurations. Top is closely

packed i.e. fine crystalline structure. Bottom is loosely packed i.e.
coarse crystalline structure; from [76].
The consequence of the slip created during the first compressive load (see Figure A.1) is that a
slip step will be created at the material surface. This action causes changes in the extruded slip
band. First, the extruded slip band is exposed to the offshore corrosive environment that result
in the slip band is covered in an oxide layer. Secondly, the slip results in strain hardening of the
slip band due to increased constrain by the neighboring spheres, resulting from less favorable
packing.
Consequently there will in the following tensile load period be a larger shear stress present at
the slip band but in the opposite direction [25]. The reversed slip is therefore likely to occur in
the same slip band i.e. in the same slip plane direction. Fatigue is however not fully reversible
(if it had been, this master thesis would not have been conducted). The reason is that the
described changes occurring to the extruded slip band are non-reversible. This is seen on Figure
A.3 where the reversed slip will take place on the neighboring slip bands. The single load cycle
is therefore enough to cause crack nucleation in the steel surface. Continuation of this process
will for each forthcoming cycle create an increasing number of persistent slip bands (PSB), i.e.
areas that arise above or fall below the initial surface [91]. These micro extrusion steps, or micro
cracks, will serve as local stress concentrations, which further will contribute to the propagation
along the slip band.
175
APPENDIX
(a)
(b)
Figure A.3 - The formation of slip band during plastic deformation during a
single load cycle leads to crack nucleation; from [76].
On both Figure A.1 and Figure A.3 it is seen that plastic deformation occurs, i.e. slip at the
surface of the monopile. This is primarily due to the fact that no constraint is present at one side
of the steel surface. The result is that stresses lower than the yield strength will cause permanent
deformation, and as a result, the micro crack initiation will primarily initiate at the surface of the
monopile. Other reasons that the fatigue crack is prone to initiate at the surface are locally
increased surface roughness, and surface defects [25].
Due to the fatigue cracks predominantly initiated at the surface, the crack initiation phase is
defined as a surface phenomenon meaning that the fatigue crack is in the initiation phase as long
as it is governed by the surface conditions. Figure A.4 summarizes the points for the fatigue
crack initiation phase (phase 1). In the figure it can bee seen that the crack has an angle of
approximately 45 to the surface as it propagates along one slip band exposed.
Figure A.4 - Stages of fatigue crack propagate; from [25].
2.1.2 The Crack Growth Phase

The crack growth phase starts when the fatigue micro crack has propagated along the slip band
into the sublayer of the structure. There it will face local microstructural barriers such as grain
boundaries that interrupt the propagation direction [92]. This marks the beginning of the crack
growth phase (phase 2) implying that the surface effects such as the reduced constraint on slip,
176
APPENDIX
the surface roughness or small surface defects, gets decreasing influence on the ongoing crack
propagation. Instead, the crack growth is controlled by the material’s resistance [25], hence,
more slip planes will be activated and the crack growth direction will deviate from the initial
slip band, see Figure A.4. The direction of the fatigue crack is now a function of the
macroscopically sized load of the monopile, which is seen by the crack propagating
perpendicular to the load direction.
Figure A.5 shows the macroscopic crack propagation during one load cycle. The tensile stress is
causing the crack to propagate the length, a (1 Striation) deeper into the structure due to slip.
This slip is thought to be in two symmetric slip planes where the local maximum stress is
present. This implies that the slip size, thus, the crack propagation rate depends on the
magnitude of the tensile stress. During the unloading and following exposure of compressive
load the crack tip will be closed but the crack deformation remains due to strain hardening and
will further propagate during the next half cycle of tensile load.
Figure A.5 - McMillian/Pelloux simplified visualization of mechanisms for crack

propagation during one load cycle; from [25].
177
APPENDIX
Appendix B – WPS Example

Example of Welding Procedure Specification from [46]: AWS D1.1:2000
178
APPENDIX
Appendix C - Gas Metal Arc Welding

The principles of the welding process number 135: Gas metal arc welding, also known as metal
inert gas (MIG) or metal active gas (MAG) is showed in Figure A.6.
Figure A.6 - Schematic view of gas metal arc welding process; from [51].
Similar to the SAW process is a consumable and continuously feed electrode applied to create
the arc during the welding operation. The current from the power supply is added to the
electrode by a contact tube located at the mouth of the gas nozzle. The distance the electrode is
transporting the current is thus very short giving low resistance and possibilities of using a large
current [48]. GMAW differs from the SAW procedure by the externally adding of gas for arc
shielding in order to avoid contamination of the weld pool. Another difference is that the
welding procedure can be performed from all directions and only a small amount of slag needs
to be cleaned after end procedure [50].
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APPENDIX
Appendix D – Element contributions

The following equations describe det various element contributions in connection to the
governing equations of the heat balance (Thermal Analysis), presented in section 6.1.3 - Finite
Element Formulation.
C is the heat capacity matrix,
C = ∑ ∫ 𝜌𝑐 N𝑒𝑇 N𝑒 𝑑𝑉 (A.1)
𝑒 𝑉𝑒
K 𝜆 is the conductivity matrix,
K λ = ∑ ∫ 𝜆 B𝑒𝑇 B𝑒 𝑑𝑉 (A.2)
𝑒 𝑉𝑒
K 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 is the convection matrix,
K 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ∑ ∫ ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 N𝑒𝑇 N𝑒 𝑑𝑆 (A.3)

𝑒 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
and K 𝑟𝑎𝑑 is the radiation matrix,
K 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∑ ∫ ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 N𝑒𝑇 N𝑒 𝑑𝑆 (A.4)

The vector of the heat flow input Q𝑖𝑛𝑝 is given as the sum of the volumetric and the surface heat
flow input:
Q𝑖𝑛𝑝 = ∑ ∫ 𝑟 N𝑒𝑇 N𝑒 𝑑𝑉 + ∑ ∫ 𝑞 𝑆 N 𝑇 𝑑𝑆 (A.5)

𝑒 𝑉𝑒 𝑒 𝑆𝑒
The heat flows Q𝑐𝑜𝑛 and Q𝑟𝑎𝑑 are due to the convection and radiation boundary conditions,
respectively.
Q𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ∑ ∫ ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 N𝑒𝑇 N𝑒 T0 𝑑𝑆 (A.6)

Q𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∑ ∫ ℎ𝑟𝑎𝑑 N𝑒𝑇 N𝑒 T0 𝑑𝑆 (A.7)

𝑒 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑑
180
APPENDIX
Appendix E – Analytical Heat Input Models

Analytical heat models are often used because their simplifications results in an easy and
straight forward application [39]. The simplifications applied in models such as Rosenthal’s
[84] or Rykalin’s [34] consist of simplified heat source geometry by assuming a point heat
source, use of constant thermal properties, and neglecting the heat loss from the work piece
surface [75]. The consequences of the used simplifications are that the analytical models have
limited success in accurate predicting the temperature [84]. Especially towards the heat source is
the temperature overestimated due to a singularity condition. Rosenthal’s and Rykalin’s
analytical equations are applied to calculate the temperature distribution in the plate due to the
transient heat source. The results is compared with the findings from [21] in order to evaluate
the practical use of the two analytical equations, from [84] and [34].
Rosenthal’s Equation:
2𝜋 (𝑇 − 𝑇0 )𝜆𝑅 −𝑉(𝑅−𝑥)
= 𝑒 2𝛼 (A.8)
𝑄
Rykalin’s Equation:
2𝑄 −𝑅2
𝑇 − 𝑇0 = 3 𝑒 4𝛼𝑡 (A.9)
𝑐𝜌 (4𝜋𝛼𝑡)2
Where
𝑅 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 (A.10)
Input parameters are given in Table A.1, and corresponds to the one pass weld case given in
Table 6.1 from [21]:
Heat from heat source to workpiece, Q 13994 [J]

Workpiece temperature before welding, 𝑇0 20 [°C]
Volume Thermal Capacity, 𝜚𝑐 4.5x106 [J/m3K]
Thermal Conductivity, λ 41.0 [J/m s K]
Thermal Diffusivity, α 9.1x10-6 [m2/s]
Distance from heat source in x-direction, x 0.01-0.1 [m]
Distance from heat source in y-direction, y 0 [m]
Distance from heat source in z-direction, z 0 [m]
Time, t 0.5-3.0 [s]
Welding speed, V 0.00595 [m/s]
Table A.1 – Input parameters from [21]
Rosenthal’s- and Rykalin’s- equation is solved for the temperature, T along the x-direction, i.e.
behind the heat source. The calculated result is illustrated in the figure below.
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APPENDIX
Temperature distribution on the downstream side of the heat source.
The main difference between Rosenthal’s- and Rykalin’s- equation is that Rosenthal’s
temperature distribution is a function the welding speed, whereas Rykalin’s equation considers
both space and time variations. Figure A.8 reveals that Rosenthal’s equation estimates a
significant larger magnitude and propagation of the temperature compared to Rykalin’s
equation. Both equations does however for x=0, and t=0 have a singularity causing the
temperature to go towards infinity at the center of the heat source. This result in both equations
near the heat source significantly overestimates the temperature, which magnitude is
approximated to be 2500 °C for submerged arc welding [21] and [34]. The temperature
deviation together with a large sensitivity to change of the input parameters, results in an
omission of the analytical equations in current report.
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APPENDIX
Appendix F – Basis of Butt Weld Geometry

This appendix gives the figures from [21] applied to construct the model geometry in the
validation case.
Figure A.7 - Various figures and illustrations from [21], which have been used to
recreate the model geometry in the current validation case.
183
APPENDIX
Appendix G – Surface Assignings

This appendix illustrates the assigned model regions. This is used in relation to definition of
thermal boundary conditions. Following surfaces are defined:
Figure A.8 – Front surface.
Figure A.9 – Back surface.
Figure A.10 – Side surface.
Figure A.11 – Symmetry surface.
184
APPENDIX
Figure A.12 – Bottom surface.
Figure A.13 – Top surface.
Figure A.14 – Flux powder surface.
Figure A.15 – Weld bead(s) surface (defined in AWI).
185
APPENDIX
Appendix H – Job Submission and Performance

This appendix contain tables of model specific parameters together with selected analysis
performance data. This serves the purpose of providing an impression on the analyses relative
duration and its dependence on chosen model parameters.
1. Validation Case: Succesful Job Submissions

A list containing some of the successful model submissions (model log) and their respective key
variables with regards to heat calibration and mesh investigation are listed in Table A.1.
Mesh seed Number of chunks Chunk length Time / chunk Total time
[mm] [-] [mm] [s] [s]
Model 1 6 20 24 4.034 1000
Model 2 6 40 12 2.017 1000
Model 3 6 60 8 1.345 1000
Model 4 6 80 6 1.008 1000
Model 5 3 80 6 1.008 1000
Model 6 2 80 6 1.008 3000
Model 7 2 60 8 1.345 3000
Model 8 2 40 12 2.017 3000
Model 9 2 20 24 4.034 3000
Model 10 4 40 12 2.017 3000
Model 11 8 40 12 2.017 3000
Model 12 12 40 12 2.017 3000
Table A.1 - Model specifications in validation case.
Model 1-4 was performed to study the influence from the number of chunks while maintaining a
constant mesh density of 6mm. In Model 5, the mesh was improved so that only the inner region
close to weld had a finer mesh density of 3mm. The same meshing technique was applied in
Model 6-9 but this time using a mesh density of 2mm. Model 6-9 was performed as part of the
chunk length investigation, while maintaining a constant mesh density (heat calibration). Model
10-12 was used for investigating the effect of varying mesh densities, while maintaining a
chunk length of 12mm. Finally it is noted that at longer afterpass time was applied for model 6-
12 in order to ensure a sufficient cooling period. Some of the corresponding analysis
performance data are listed in Table A.2.
Steps, heat Walltime, heat Steps, stress Walltime, stress Applied PC Specs.
[no.] [hours] [no.] [hours] [-]
Model 1 99 1.03 138 0.99 1 CPU, 24 GB
Model 2 180 1.76 259 1.49 1 CPU, 24 GB
Model 3 260 1.34 379 - 1 CPU, 24 GB
Model 4 340 1.31 499 1.21 1 CPU, 32 GB
Model 5 340 21.93 499 17.26 1 CPU, 24 GB
Model 6 345 27.86 504 24.27 1 CPU, 32 GB
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Model 7 265 21.25 384 21.70 1 CPU, 32 GB

Model 8 185 38.54 264 49.93 1 CPU, 24 GB
Model 9 105 12.04 145 17.96 1 CPU, 24 GB
Model 10 185 4.05 264 3.67 1 CPU, 24 GB
Model 11 185 2.55 264 2.61 1 CPU, 24 GB
Model 12 185 0.77 264 0.89 1 CPU, 24 GB
Table A.2 – Performance data in validation case.
All analyses in the initial validation case was submitted either on a remote computer with 16
CPUs and 24 GB RAM (provided by DTU Byg) or on a privat computer with 4 CPUs and 32
GB RAM. Unfortunately, it was not until late in the process it was realised that the number of
applied CPUs could be manually controlled using ‘parallelization’. Thus all analyses were
performed using a single CPU in this case. By considering the numbers provided in Table A.1
and Table A.2, the tendency shows that an increased number of analysis steps (as function of
number of chunks) in combination with a fine mesh will result in longer computational time.
2. Main Case: Succesful Job Submissions

In the main case it became apparent that more computational power was necessary in order to
successfully run the larger model simulations with a significant number of passes. A
collaboration was made with DTU Compute (Department of Applied Mathematics and
Computer Science, DTU), who could provide access to remote cluster computers (HPC).
Though, these cluster computers could easily perform +80 CPUs and +128GB RAM, the
limitation became the number of available Abaqus licenses. Thus, maximum computer capacity
was approximately 8 CPUs and 128 GB during analysis. In addition, an arrangement was made
with the company Nordbase Engineering ApS, who could provide a more powerful stationary
computer with 6 CPUs and 64 GB RAM, which were being used for creating the large models
in Abaqus.
The following table lists performance data from some of the models applied in the main case.
Weld Plate Mesh density Number of Number of Total walltime, Applied PC

length thickness in weld area chunks elements heat+stress Specs.
[mm] [mm] [mm] [no.] [no.] [≈ hours] [-]
Model 1 150 30 3 25 21971 6 6 CPU, 64 GB
Model 2 300 30 3 50 39528 50 6 CPU, 64 GB
Model 3 450 30 3 75 61231 74 8 CPU, 128 GB
Model 4 150 30 3 15 15500 2 6 CPU, 64 GB
Model 5 150 60 3 80 37060 48 6 CPU, 64 GB
Model 6 150 90 3 155 58805 (+144) 8 CPU, 128 GB
Model 7 150 30 5 25 14099 5 6 CPU, 64 GB
Model 8 150 30 8 25 12032 5 6 CPU, 64 GB
Table A.3 – Performance data in main case.
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APPENDIX
3. Jobscript for use on HPC

A jobscript for submitting analysis jobs on DTU Compute’s HPC computers (cluster) is
provided in the following. Acces to Gbar using Thinlinc application. The bold font in brackets
indicates parameters to be chosen. Elaboration follows beneath Figure A.16 – Jobscript.sh to be
submitted using the Xterminal on Gbar.:
#!/bin/bash
#PBS -N [ANALYSIS NAME]
#PBS -l nodes=1:ppn=[8]
#PBS -l walltime=[WALLTIME]
#PBS -j oe
#PBS -M [E-MAIL]
#PBS -m abe
#PBS -l feature=XeonE5-2680
cd $PBS_O_WORKDIR
ABAQ="/appl/ABAQUS/Commands/abq6131"
$ABAQ job=[HEAT_JOB] cpus=$PBS_NUM_PPN interactive

$ABAQ job=[STRES_JOB] cpus=$PBS_NUM_PPN interactive
Figure A.16 – Jobscript.sh to be submitted using the Xterminal on Gbar.
 [ANALYSIS NAME]: Name of analysis

 [8]: The number of cores applied (check number of Abaqus licenses available)
 [WALLTIME]: The maximum duration of the analysis estimated by the user
 [E-MAIL]: The e-mail address to which notifications will be sent at start/end of analysis
 [HEAT_JOB]: Name of job1-inputfile (.inp) – without “.inp”.
 STRESS_JOB]: Name of job2-inputfile (.inp) – without “.inp”.
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APPENDIX
Appendix I – Validation Case: Mechanical Analysis

This appendix will contain all the figures which have been valued to less important to be
included in the actual analysis. This particularly regards contour plot extracted from Abaqus for
the secondary directions: transverse and through-thickness.
1. Elastic Strains
Figure A.17 - Elastic strains transverse to the weld (x-direction); unit in [-].
Figure A.18 – Elastic strains through-thickness (y-direction); unit in [-].
189
APPENDIX
2. Residual Stresses
Figure A.19 - Residual stress transverse to the weld (x-direction); unit in [Pa].
Figure A.20 – Residual stress through-thickness (y-direction); unit in [Pa].
190
APPENDIX
Appendix J – Validation Case: Graphs from reference case

This Appendix contains the results obtained from the reference case in [21]. These include:
 Longitudinal elastic strain, preparation of weld groove by flame cutting - Figure A.21
 Longitudinal elastic strain, before and after welding - Figure A.22
 Longitudinal residual stress - Figure A.23
Figure A.21 – Longitudinal Elastic Strain from flame cutting; from reference case [21].
Figure A.22 – Longitudinal Elastic Strain before and after welding; from reference case [21].
191
APPENDIX
Figure A.23 – Longitudinal Residual Stress; from reference case [21].
192
APPENDIX
Appendix K – Validation Case: Model Verification

This appendix will contain all the performed model verifications including: 1. Mesh refinement,
2. Reaction forces, 3. Deformations and 4. Element locking and hourglassing.
1. Mesh Refinement
The numerical welding model is simulated by using different mesh densities. This is performed
to get a clear view of the convergence tendencies, hence to evaluate the extent of which the
model is converging towards a satisfactory accuracy level. Generally, this also serves the
purpose of evaluating sensitivity of the model, which can give in indication of how fine or
coarse the elements must necessarily be in order to provide useful indication of model behavior.
Four different mesh densities have been applied, each of which are shown in Figure A.24,
represented by a section cut in the inner weld area.
12mm
8mm
4mm
2mm
Figure A.24 – Mesh refinement: 2mm, 4mm, 8mm and 12mm.
For each of the four different mesh densities, analyses have been performed with regard to
temperatures, strains and stresses. These are presented in the following sections.
1.1 Temperatures
The heat propagation in terms of calculated temperatures are presented on separate figures due
to the large amount of data. Thus, each figure will present the temperature history field output
for a given mesh size, which will be plottet against the experimental data for comparison. These
are presented in Figure A.25-A.28 starting from the rather coarse model mesh of 12 mm and
ending with the finer mesh of 2 mm (analogous to the order in Figure A.24). The temperatures
are obtained from nodal points located as specified in section 8.2.2.
193
APPENDIX
Figure A.25 – Temperature history for validation model: Mesh density 12 mm.
194
APPENDIX
By considering the temperature histories shown from Figure A.25-A.28, it is clear that more
accurate approximations are obtained when the mesh is refined, in this case, approaching a mesh
density of 2mm. The coarse mesh densities of 8-12mm tend to markedly overestimate the
temperatures, especially when considering the peak temperatures within short distance from the
weld. This is due to the fact the rather large elements are not particularly suited to capture the
large temperature gradients, which occur in the weld area (HAZ). However, the numerical
195
APPENDIX
results from the model with a mesh density of 2mm seem to be in very good agreement with the
experimentally obtained temperatures.
1.2 Elastic Strains and Stresses

With regard to the residual elastic strains and stresses, the mesh validation procedure is carried
with an emphasis on the primary longitudinal direction. However, the other two directions, i.e.
transverse and through-thickness, will also displayed merely for the purpose of illustration,
since the longitudinal direction is in primary interest. The path in which the results have been
calculated corresponds to the locations specified in section 8.2.4, i.e. in a line transverse across
the welded application. It should be noted that the numerical results have been mirrored in the
weld center line due to model symmetry, opposed to the experimental measurements, which
have been performed on both sides of the weld.
The elastic strains in longitudinal-, transverse- and through-thickness- direction are shown in
Figure A.29, Figure A.30 and Figure A.31, respectively.
Figure A.29 – Longitudinal elastic strains: four different mesh densities,

together with experimental and numerical results from [21].
In respect to the neutron diffraction measurements, the overall tendency of the longitudinal
elastic strain distribution seems to be captured very well when considering all four mesh
densities. However, the mesh density of 2mm appears to be slightly more fitting in the narrow
area within a distance of approximately 50mm to the weld.
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APPENDIX
Figure A.30 – Transverse elastic strains: four different mesh densities,

Figure A.31 – Through-thickness elastic strains: four different mesh

densities, together with experimental and numerical results from [21].
Considering the other two other directions, the strain variations as function of element size are
most significant in the transverse direction, but as indicated previously, these are of minor
interest in the particular case.
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APPENDIX
The residual stress in longitudinal-, transverse- and through-thickness- direction are shown in
Figure A.32, Figure A.33 and Figure A.34, respectively.
Figure A.32 – Longitudinal residual stress: four different mesh densities,

Figure A.33 – Transverse residual stress: four different mesh densities,

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APPENDIX
Figure A.34 – Through-thickness residual stress: four different mesh

densities, together with experimental and numerical results from [21].
2. Reaction Force in Nodal Points

In addition to the symmetry boundary condition on the weld symmetry surface restraining from
translation in the x-direction (transverse direction), there are two additional mechanical
boundary conditions supporting the model from global movement in the y- z- direction. These
are located at two nodal points as indicated in Figure 8.10 (section 8.3.5.2). These are applied
“virtually” as compared to the boundary conditions from the real-life welding experiment, in
which gravitational acceleration, self-weight of the workpiece, and to some extent, the friction
forces between the underlying ceramic backing and the bottom surface of the steel plates, will
provide support and constraint conditions. Thus it is necessary to investigate if any reaction
force appears in the numerical model, which would otherwise create an additional reaction
stress, compared to the experimental case (see theory section 3.2). This implies that the effect
from friction is assumed negligible small, which is confirmed by [21].
Figure A.35 and Figure A.36 shows the reaction force in through-thickness and longitudinal
direction of the weld, respectively. Furthermore, the reaction forces are illustrated as function of
time in Figure A.37, and finally the maximum and minimum reaction values are summarized in
Table A.4.
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APPENDIX
Figure A.35 – Reaction force in through-thickness direction (y-direction).
Figure A.36 - Reaction force in longitudinal direction of the weld (z-direction).
Figure A.37 - Reaction forces in y- and z-direction plotted as function of time.
200
APPENDIX
Peak Reaction force, Reaction Force,

Vertical (RF2) Longitudinal (RF3)
[N] [N]
Max 6.0 E-11 2.9 E-12
Min -9.3 E-11 0
Table A.4 – Max/Min reaction force magnitudes.
The figures and the table presented above all indicate vanishingly small reaction forces, hence
the numerical computed residual stresses may be considered to be without influence from
additional reaction stress.
3. Deformations
Figure A.38 shows the in-plane deformations transverse to the weld (x-direction).
Figure A.38 - In-plane deformations transverse to the weld (x-direction); unit in [m].
The in-plane deformations of the base plate are seen to reach a maximum positive value at the
center of the plate (in z-direction). The maximum negative value occurs at the tip of the end
plates. The deformation showed occurs due to the transverse shrinkage in the heat affected zone.
The shrinkage mainly develops after end welding, when the heat dissipates from the heated area
and out to the surroundings, known as the cooling phase. The transverse shrinkage reaches
maximum magnitude at the center of weld due to minimal influence from to the restraining end
plates. The end plates working as fixed supports are due to the shrinkage in positive x-direction
given an angular rotation in the negative x-direction.
Figure A.39 and Figure A.40 shows the out-of-plane deformations (y-direction).
201
APPENDIX
Figure A.39 – Out-of-plane deformations transverse to the weld (y-direction); unit in [m].
Figure A.40 – Out-of-plane deformations transverse to the weld (y-direction). The model is
shown with a scaling factor of 10, which exaggerates the deformations.
Figure A.41 shows the in-plane deformations longitudinal to the weld (z-direction).
Figure A.41 - In-plane deformations longitudinal to the weld (z-direction); unit in [m].
202
APPENDIX
4. Element Locking and Hourglassing

In the following, it is clarified why shear- and volumetric- locking of the finite elements used in
the mechanical numerical model can be disregarded due to application of a reduced integration
scheme. Further will the elements with reduced integration be validated against hourglassing.
For model geometries with large slenderness ratio and large bending the result will be Shear
locking. Shear locking is the numerical phenomenon where the fully integrated first order
elements significantly overestimate the shear stiffness resulting in too large shear stresses and
an underestimation of the deformations. Shear locking occurs because an incorrect element
shape is simulated, hence an increase in number of elements across the thickness will reduce
this phenomenon. Another locking phenomenon experienced by fully integrated first order
elements is volumetric strain locking. This element locking type occurs for numerical
simulations of materials with nearly or fully incompressible behavior [93]. This behavior is
suspected to occur in the weld region due to the large plastic strains.
4.1 Shear Locking and Gauss Integration Points

Figure A.42 illustrates an ideal element, which when subjected to bending response with an
optimal deformation shape. The blue dotted lines are contour lines, which in the ideal case
follows the deformation tendency of the element. This is seen by the horizontal dotted lines
bends similar to the outer horizontal surface of the element and the vertical dotted lines remains
straight as the outer vertical surface. This result in angle, A, continuous to be 90 degrees in the
deformed stage. The elements ability to simulate the curved shape is therefore crucial in order to
reach an optimal solution.
Figure A.42 - Solid element subjected to bending – ideal case; from [94].
The deformation abilities of a fully integrated first order element is however not able to
correctly model this deformation pattern [94]. This is illustrated in Figure A.43.
Figure A.43 - Solid fully integrated First Order element subjected to bending; from [94].
The bending moment causes tensile stresses in the upper half of the element and compression
stresses in the lower half, but as illustrated in Figure A.43 is the fully integrated linear element
not able to respond with a curved shape. This result in straight contour lines and change of angle
A compared to the unloaded stage. The change in angle A implies the creation of an artificial
shear stress at the distorted corners (a so-called parasitic shear). This causes the first order fully
203
APPENDIX
integrated element to become excessively stiff and locked when subjected to bending, which
result in an overestimation of the shear stresses.
This problematic is assessed by application of a first order element with reduced integration
which is illustrated in Figure A.44. This solution only applies a single integration point located
at the center of the element, hence the contour lines and angle, A, remains unchanged. The
result is no artificial shear stress and no excessive stiffness. The drawbacks of reduced
integration together with validation of these will be discussed in upcoming section 4.3.
Figure A.44 - Solid reduced integrated first order element subjected to bending; from [ 94].
4.2 Volume Locking and Integration Points

Volume locking occurs if the elements cannot properly represent the incompressible
deformations [74]. The reason is that each integration point of the element continuous to have
an approximate constant volume. This results in an over constraining of the displacement area,
causing the element to act to stiffly. The consequence is creation of “artificial” pressure stresses
at the elements integration points. A fully integrated element first order element (C3D8) has
eight (2x2x2) integration points, whereas a fully integrated second order element (C3D20) has
twenty-seven (3x3x3) integration points. Applying reduced integration resulting in application
of only one integration point per element thus reduces/eliminates volumetric locking [68].
4.3 Hourglass Validation

Up until now the advantages of reduced integration in relation to element locking has been
discussed. The disadvantages are however that reduced integration first order elements can act
without enough stiffness and produce zero energy nodes (hourglassing). Since only one
integration points is applied can the elements deform so that the strains calculated at the
integration point are zero. This is illustrated in Figure A.44 where the dotted lines and angle A
remains unchanged when the bending moment is applied. This indicates that the normal stresses
and shear stresses are zero at the integration point, thus no generation of strain energy. In
Abaqus artificial stiffness and damping are introduced in order to control the hourglass modes
[74]. When hourglass control is used, the hourglass energy (ALLAE) should be monitored and
shown to be less than 5% of the internal energy (ALLIE) [79] to ensure that no hourglassing is
occurring in the model Figure A.45 and Figure A.46 shows the obtained results from the
Abaqus model with an element size of 2mm. The results shows that (ALLAE <1% of ALLIE)
thus no hourglassing.
204
APPENDIX
Figure A.45 - The total artificial strain energy (ALLAE) present in the Abaqus model.
Figure A.46 - The total Internal Energy (ALLIE) present in the Abaqus model.
205
APPENDIX
Appendix L – Main Case: Monopile Manufacturing

This section provides an introductory insight into the manufacturing process of monopile
foundations as carried out at Bladt Industries A/S. The author’s insight is obtained from a visit
(23 October 2014). The visit consisted of a full day guided tour around the production facilities
at Bladt Industries A/S headquarter located in Aalborg (Denmark).
Joining Step 1 – Welding of plates

S355 plates are in current case used to manufacture the monopile foundations with a thickness
of 111mm. The steel plates are initially thermo-mechanically rolled by the steel supplier and
delivered to Bladt Industries A/S as shown in Picture A.1. The steel supplier is in charge of
preparing the edges of the steel plates in order to obtain the specified weld groove
configurations. The side-edges of the plates showed has a single bevel groove approximately
one-third of the plate thickness (1/3t) and the end-edges of the plates has a small bevel groove
(1/10t) combined with a larger j-groove (8/10t). It should be noted that the particular plates
shown here have a different weld groove profile, than the one analyzed due to the provided
drawings by Bladt Industries A/S from which the numerical investigation is based.
Picture A.1 - Structural steel plates used to construct the monopile can sections.
The large monopile diameter used for various wind farm projects results in expected a
circumference up to 30m. To avoid too large transportation complications the steel plates are
delivered to Bladt Industries A/S in smaller parts. Therefore, the first step is to join the end-
edges of the steel plates in order to reach a total steel plate length in accordance with the
required circumferential length. The width of the steel plates corresponds to the height of one
monopile section/can. The width of the plates, hence the can height depends on the given can
location in the monopile but can generally be taken as 3m.
206
APPENDIX
During the entire manufacturing procedure of the monopile an identical joining approach is
utilized. The general principals are listed in the following and correspond to the defined welding
procedure specification.
 Tack Welding – GMAW (End plate + Root pass)

 Preheat
 Welding of the V-groove by SAW (inside of monopile)
 Welding of the U-groove by SAW (outside of monopile)
Picture A.2(a) shows part of joining step one, where two flat steel plates are being welded
together in the ends by SAW in order to obtain the required circumferential length. The U-
groove is being welded in current case, hence initially to Picture A.2(a) has the joint in step one
experienced, preheat, tack welding, and welding of the V-groove by SAW. Picture A.2(b) shows
the completed geometry, together with heat (induction) blankets applied at the edges of the plate
as preparation for roll bending.
(a) (b)
Picture A.2 - (a) Welding of the U-groove by SAW. (b) Steel plate ready to be rolled and preheat is
initially applied to the edges before rolling.
Roll Bending
The flat steel plate joined at the center by the double-sided butt weld is formed into the
cylindrical “monopile” shape by use of rolls. Bladt Industries A/S applies DAVI-MCB40110-
HT hydraulic 4-roller machine upgraded to 100 ton, see Picture A.3(a).
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APPENDIX
(a) (b)
Picture A.3 - (a) DAVI Four-roller model: MCB40110-HT. (b) Four roll bending
procedure; from [95].
The machine is Computerized Numerically Controlled (CNC) in order to secure approximately

identical manufacturing process for each set of plates. The four roll system is characterized by
1-2-1 roll system in which a single roll is placed in front and behind of two rollers located at
identical horizontal position, Picture A.3(b). The four-roll system result in the plate is being
plastic deformed to a cylindrical shape in one continuous cycle. This is performed at workshop
temperature, hence below steels recrystallization temperature (cold formed). The result of the
roll bending procedure is that the two free edges of the steel plate is bend towards each other.
Four-roll bending machines are also applied to create the conical section at the top of the
monopile. The DAVI app iRoll from Apple store gives the plate operator information about how
the machine is to be used for a specific configuration; Thickness, width, and desired bending
radius.
Joining Step 2: Longitudinal Welding

Step 2 in the joining process is to weld the two free edges now facing each other together. The
two edges facing each other are creating a v-groove on the inside of the monopile and a U-
groove on the outside. This result in the same setup as for joining step 1. Picture A.4(a) shows
the first part of creating joint 2, hence an end plate is tack welded to the two side edges in order
to keep the root gab of 2-3 mm constant during welding. This is followed by longitudinal tack
welding the two edges together from the inside of the monopile can, see Picture A.4(b).
208
APPENDIX
(a) (b)
Picture A.4 - (a) End plate tack welded on the two free edges. (b) The two free edges are joined by one
longitudinal weld pass performed by GMAW.
The tack welded circular can section is then moved from the roll bending machine by a DCB
overhead crane (capacity of 60 ton) to an ESAB roller bed. The roller bed acts both as a support
and can rotate the cylinder to the required welding position. When the monopile can is in
position the two edges together with the tack weld is heated initial to the SAW welding. The pre
heat is performed by induction blankets, see Picture A.5.
Picture A.5 - Induction blankets applied to heat the base material initially to longitudinal SAW.
Three identical sized preheat blankets is used and are connected to one power source by a
parallel coupled system. The output is divided equal to the three blankets hence an
approximately uniform heating. The magnetic characteristics of structural steel (not to be
compared with stainless steel) are utilized by use of magnetic clamps, which holds the heat
blankets in place (Hence, avoid use of additional heat on the monopile). Once the preheat
209
APPENDIX
temperature specified by the WPS is reached the induction blankets are removed and Tandem
Submerged Arc Welding is initiated.
Picture A.6(a) shows the first step, hence longitudinal welding of the V-groove located on the
inside of the monopile can. The weld is performed at PA-1G welding position (flat surface –
Pipe rotation) in order to secure stability of the ESAB -OK flux 10.72 powder. The inside
welding is followed by a 180 degree rotation of the monopile by the roller bed in order to weld
the U-groove from the outside at a flat surface, which is seen on Picture A.6(b).
(a) (b)
Picture A.6 - Longitudinal Tandem-Hybrid Submerged Arc Welding on the inside (v-groove) and outside
(U-groove) of the monopile.
Tandem SAW is performed by the automated ESAB A6S Tandem Master with two power
sources. In current case is a configuration of consumable Twin + Single wire applied, see
Picture A.7(a).
210
APPENDIX
(a) (b)
Picture A.7 - (a) close up of the weld electrodes. (b) Longitudinal SAW in progress.
The setup will result in the arc and weld pool is being surrounded by flux powder, which after
the weld arc has passed forms to slag which easily can be removed. This setup is applied in
order to deposit as much filler material as possible, hence reducing the manufacturing time. In
addition, flux powder will protect the weld pool against contamination from the air, as well as
reduce the risk of spatter loss. Altogether this result in large arc efficiency.
Picture A.0.8 - The finished inside butt weld joining the two free edges of the cold formed steel plate.
211
APPENDIX
Joining Step 3: Circumferential Welding

The circular can section is moved to a larger roller bed, where it will be joined with a similar
can section by a double-sided circumferential butt weld. Identical WPS is applied, and the V-
groove is similar facing towards the inside of the monopile. The outside U-groove will however
first be performed after the inside SAW is performed.
Picture A.9 - Two circular monopile cans placed approximately towards each other, forming a V-groove
towards the inside of the monopile.
Picture A.10 shows the Inside circumferential SAW of the V-groove. The monopile cans are
rotated by the ESAB roller beds according to the defined welding speed of the WPS whereas the
‘welding arm’ is stationary. The welder manually control the positon and the weaving width of
the weld pass by laser dot located in front of the deposited flux powder.
212
APPENDIX
Picture A.10 - Inside circumferential butt weld is being welded by SAW.
Back Gouging – Outside

The U-shaped groove is obtained by back gauging as shown in Picture A.11. This is performed
by Gräbener longitudinal and circumferential milling machine. The depth of the U-groove into
the monopile is specified so the weld root from the inside butt weld is removed, in order avoid
any root crack formation.
Picture A.11 - Back gauging of the circumferential U-groove on the outside of the monopile.
SAW – Outside
The last production step in relation to the main assembly of the monopile is seen in Picture
A.12. The SAW is performed on top of the monopile due to the flux powder stability. The
preheat is due to the weld large dimension of the monopile performed by a flame torch on the
213
APPENDIX
rotating monopile initial to welding of each pass. The finished result is seen to be a convex butt
weld where a very small misalignment can be observed.
Picture A.12 - Welding the outside circumferential butt weld by SAW.

Preheat is performed by flame torch.
214
APPENDIX
Appendix M – Main Case: WPS from Bladt Industries A/S

In this appendix, the Welding Procedure Specifications are presented as provided by Bladt
Industries A/S. Two welding procedures were provided as illustrated in Picture A.13-A.14.
Furthermore, a note describing the plate geometry is shown in Picture A.15.
Picture A.13 – WPS 1/2; as provided by Bladt Industries A/S.
215
APPENDIX
Picture A.14 – WPS 2/2; as provided by Bladt Industries A/S.
216
APPENDIX
Picture A.15 – Note describing the plate joint geometry; as provided by Bladt Industries A/S.
217
APPENDIX
Appendix N – Main Case: Surface Definitions

In this appendix, the additional surface definitions for the main case are given.
Figure A.47 – Free end surfaces
Figure A.48 – Symmetry surfaces.
Figure A.49 - Free Outside surface.
Figure A.50 – Free inside surface.
218
APPENDIX
Appendix O – Main Case: Stresses Contour

In the following, stress results extracted from Abaqus in three main directions are presented for
a weld length 300mm and 450mm, respectively.
Von Mises stress
Figure A.51 - Von Mises stress for weld Length of 300mm and plate thickness of 30mm.
Figure A.52 - Von Mises stress for weld Length of 450mm and plate thickness of 30mm.
219
APPENDIX
Longitudinal Residual Stress
Figure A.53 - Longitudinal residual stress for weld Length of 300mm and plate thickness of 30mm.
220
APPENDIX
Transverse Residual Stress
Figure A.55 - Transverse residual stress for weld Length of 300mm and plate thickness of 30mm.
221
APPENDIX
Through-Thickness Residual Stress
Figure A.57 - Through-Thickness residual stress for weld Length of 300mm and plate thickness of
30mm.
Figure A.58 - Through-Thickness residual stress for weld Length of 450mm and plate thickness of
30mm.
222
APPENDIX
Appendix P – Main Case: Heat Affected Zone and Fusion Zone

In this appendix are the obtained Abaqus results indicating the fusion zone (FZ) and the heat
affected zone (HAZ) for plate thicknesses of 60mm and 90mm presented.
The fusion zone is illustrated in the following:
Figure A.59 – Fusion zone indicated for a plate thickness of 60mm.
Figure A.60 – Fusion zone indicated for a plate thickness of 90mm.
223
APPENDIX
The Heat affected zone is illustrated in the following:
Figure A.61 – Heat affected zone indicated for a plate thickness of 60mm.
Figure A.62 – Heat affected zone indicated for a plate thickness of 60mm.
224
APPENDIX
Appendix Q – Main Case: Deformations

In this section is the calculated deformations of the monopile due to circumferential welding
presented for plate thicknesses of 30mm and 60mm.
The deformations and plastic strain for a plate thickness of 30mm is computed to:
Figure A.63 – Plastic Strain for plate thickness of 30mm [-].
Figure A.64 – Hoop/longitudinal direction: Deformation for plate thickness of 30mm [m].
225
APPENDIX
Figure A.66 – Radial/through-thickness direction: Deformation for plate thickness of 30mm [m].
Figure A.67 – Axial/transverse direction: Deformation for plate thickness of 30mm [m].
226
APPENDIX
The deformations for a plate thickness of 60mm is computed to:
227
APPENDIX
228
APPENDIX
Appendix R – Main Case: Von Mises and Radial Stress

In the following are the von mises stress together with the stress in the thickness direction
(radial) given for a plate thickness of 60mm.
Figure A.72 – Von Mises stress, t=60mm. Unit in [Pa].
Figure A.73 – Stress through thickness, t=60mm. Unit in [Pa].
229
APPENDIX
Appendix S – Main Case: Longitudinal stresses, Integration

Points
This appendix shows stresses obtained in the integration points (blue text) of the elements in the
weld center for a plate thickness of 60mm. The values measured are listed in Table A.5:
Element 530: 467MPa
Element 521: 464MPa
Element 538: 414MPa
Element 522: 426MPa
Table A.5– Measured stresses in integration points.
Figure A.74 – Longitudinal Residual Stresses obtained in the integration points.
230
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Christian and Daniel visiting the steel manufacturer, Bladt Industries A/S.
Photo is taken in front of transition piece.

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Residual Stresses in Welds of

Supersize Monopiles for Offshore Wind Substructures

Master’s Thesis, March 2015

Residual Stresses in Welds of

Master’s Thesis, March 2015

Michael Joachim Andreassen, Adjunkt, Ph.d

Jens Henrik Nielsen, Lektor, Ph.d

Henning Agerskov, Docent, emeritus, Ph.d

Department of Civil Engineering - Technical University of Denmark,

Department of Civil Engineering

Release date: 16 march 2015

Comments: This report is submitted as the full requirement to achieve the

Rights: © Technical University of Denmark, 2015

Christian Ammitzbøll Madsen Daniel Sommerlund Pedersen

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... vii

Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... ix

Chapter 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1

Chapter 2. Fatigue Mechanisms .............................................................................................. 11

Chapter 3. Residual Stress ....................................................................................................... 17

Chapter 6. Thermo-Mechanical Analysis................................................................................ 49

Chapter 7. Modeling Approach ............................................................................................... 69

Chapter 8. Validation Case: One sided butt weld .................................................................. 85

Chapter 9. Main Case ............................................................................................................. 117

Chapter 10. Conclusions and Final Remarks ....................................................................... 163

References ................................................................................................................................ 166

Appendix …............................................................................................................................. 173

1.1 Background – Offshore Wind Substructures

Figure 1.2 – Monopile foundation overview; from [5].

1.2 Design and Fabrication Considerations

𝜎𝑅𝑆 = 𝜎𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝜎𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝜎𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝜎𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑡 + 𝜎𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 (1.1)

Figure 1.5 - Effect of superimposing cyclic stress onto existing

 The welding residual stresses created by welding of a convex single-U circumferential

1.5 Scope of Work

1.6 Case Geometry

1.6.1 Validation Case

Figure 1.6 - Full penetration one-sided butt weld.

1.6.2 Main Case

Picture 1.1 – Transition pieces and monopiles on a barge as fabricated at Bladt

2.1 Fatigue Definition

Figure 2.1 – Modes of fatigue cracking.

1. Sufficiently large peak value of tensile stresses

Figure 2.2 – Phases of fatigue crack propagation; from [ 25].

2.2 Welds in relation to Fatigue

2.2.1 Stress Concentrations

Peak stress at root of notch

2.2.1.1 Global Design Consideration

Figure 2.4 - Axial misalignment of circular monopile sections; from [24].

Figure 2.5 - Effect of plate thickness on stress distribution; From [24].

2.2.1.2 Weld Geometry

Figure 2.6 - Weld shape parameters; from [24].

2.2.2 Weld Defects and Irregularities

Figure 2.7 - Typical welding defects; from [31].

Figure 3.1 - Residual stress distribution in equilibrium with itself

3.1.1 Order Classification

In a practical assesment of welded structures in terms of the mechanical effects on a

3.1.2 Fabrication Causes

3.2 Residual Stresses and Deformations due to Welding

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT

longitudinal contraction of unrestrained (unattached) weld, (b) longitudinal shrinkage of

3.2.1 Residual Stress Propagation

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT

PRODUCED BY AN AUTODESK EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT