Cement-

The wonder material of the

Century!!

CHEMISTRY PROJECT
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 INDEX
SR NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1 Introduction 3
2 Chemical 5
analysis
3 Manufacture of
cement
4 Types of
cement based
on their setting
5 Materials used
with cement
6 Setting and
hardening of
cement
7 Physical
properties
8 Wearing of
cement
9 Field tests for
cement

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 INTRODUCTION

CEMENT is a material with adhesive and cohesive properties which

make it capable of binding mineral fragments into compact mass.
Its remarkable property of setting, strength development, ease of
handling, bond with reinforcement, mould ability and relative
imperviousness has made it a favourite construction material.
Cement is the most common type of cement in general usage in many
parts of the world, as it is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco
and most non-specialty grout. It is a fine powder produced by grinding
Portland cement clinker (more than 90%), a limited amount of calcium
sulfate which controls the set time, and up to 5% minor constituents (as
allowed by various standards). "Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic
material which shall consist of at least two-thirds by mass of calcium
silicates (3CaO.SiO2 and 2CaO.SiO2), the remainder consisting of
aluminium- and iron-containing clinker phases and other compounds.
Normally, an impure limestone which contains SiO2 is used. The
CaCO3 content of these limestones can be as low as 80%. Secondary
raw materials (materials in the raw mix other than limestone) depend on
the purity of the limestone. Some of the secondary raw materials used
are: clay, shale, sand, iron ore, bauxite, fly ash and slag. When a cement
kiln is fired by coal, the ash of the coal acts as a secondary raw material.
Cement is essentially a finely ground mixture of calcium silicates
(3CaO.SiO2) and aluminates (3CaO.Al2O3) which sets to a hard mass
when treated with water. This property makes cement capable of joining
rigid masses like bricks, stones, tiles etc. into coherent structures. The
cements have property of setting and hardening under water due to
certain physicochemical process and are, therefore, called hydraulic
cements. During setting of cement, the physical changes taking place are
gel formation and crystallization and chemical changes are hydration
and hydrolysis.

The process of solidification of cement paste involves:

(i) Setting, and

(ii) Hardening.

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Setting is stiffening of the original plastic mass into initial gel
formation. After setting, hardening starts due to gradual start of
crystallization in the interior of the mass. The strength developed by
cement at any time depends upon the amount of gel formed and the
extent of crystallization. A mixture of cement, sand, small pieces of
stone (gravel) and water are known as concrete and sets to an extremely
hard structure.

PROPERTIES:
 It gives strength to masonry.
 It is an excellent binding material.
 It is easily workable.
 It offers good resistance to moisture.
 It stiffens or hardens early.

COMPOSITION OF CEMENT:

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 The ordinary cement contains two basic ingredients:
argillaceous and calcareous.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF GOOD CEMENT:

INGREDIENT PERCENT
Lime CaO 62
Silica SiO2 22
Alumina Al2O3 5
Calcium sulphate CaSO4 4
Iron oxide Fe2O3 3
Magnesia MgO 2
Sulphur & S 2
Alkalies

FUNCTIONS OF CEMENT INGREDIENTS:

1. LIME: This is the important ingredient of cement and its

proportion is to be carefully maintained. The lime in excess
makes the cement unsound and causes it to expand and
disintegrate. On the other hand if lime is in deficiency the
strength of cement is decreased and it causes cement to set
quickly.
2. SILICA: This is also an important ingredient of cement that
imparts strength due to formation of di or tricalcium silicates.
3. ALUMINA: It imparts quick setting property to cement. It acts
as a Flux and lowers the clinkering temperature.
4. CALCIUM SULPHATE: It is present in the form of gypsum
and increases initial setting time of cement.
5. IRON OXIDE: Imparts colour, hardness and strength to
cement.
6. MAGNESIA: Gives hardness and colour.
7. SULPHUR: Useful in making sound cement.

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MANUFACTURE OF ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
Limestone and clay are first crushed separately. They are then mixed
together in the required quantities and ground together finely. This
grinding can be done either by the dry or the wet process. Wet process is
suitable if limestone and clay are soft. If the raw materials are hard, dry
process is preferred. Dry process is cost effective because fuel
consumption is less when the raw materials are burnt in a rotary kiln.

Manufacture of Cement

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VARIOUS TYPES OF CEMENT ON THE BASIS OF
SETTING OF CEMENT ARE:-

1. Hydraulic cements.Hydraulic cements are materials which set and

harden after combining with water, as a result of chemical reactions
with the mixing water and, after hardening, retain strength and stability
even under water. The key requirement for this is that the hydrates
formed on immediate reaction with water are essentially insoluble in
water. Most construction cements today are hydraulic, and most of these
are based upon Portland cement, which is made primarily from
limestone, certain clay minerals, and gypsum, in a high temperature
process that drives off carbon dioxide and chemically combines the
primary ingredients into new compounds. The reaction and the reaction
products are referred to as hydration and hydrates or hydrate phases,
respectively. As a result of the immediately starting reactions, a
stiffening can be observed which is very small in the beginning, but
which increases with time. After reaching a certain level, this point in
time is referred to as the start of setting. The
consecutive further consolidation is called setting, after which the phase
of hardening begins.

2. Non-Hyraulic cements.They don’t require the availability of water

to set into a hard compressed material. Some of the cement categorised
under it are Calcium aluminate cements, Supersulfated cement etc.

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MATERIALS USED WITH CEMENT

1. Fly Ash

Fly ash is the finely divided mineral residue resulting from the
combustion of coal in electric generating plants. Fly ash consists of
inorganic, incombustible matter present in the coal that has been fused
during combustion into a glassy, amorphous structure.

2. Rice husk

Rice husks are a class A insulating material because they are difficult to
burn and less likely to allow moisture to propagate mold or fungi. It was
found out that rice husks when burned produced amounts of silica. For
these reasons it provides excellent thermal insulation.

3. Lime mortar

Lime mortar is created by mixing sand, slaked lime and water.

Limestone is burnt in a kiln to form quicklime. The quicklime is then
slaked (mixed with water) to form slaked lime, either in the form of lime
putty or of hydrated lime powder. This is then mixed with sand and
water to form mortar.

SETTING AND HARDENING OF CEMENT

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The setting and hardening of cement occurs in various steps, abiding all
the chemical reactions taking place in it.

1. When water is mixed with cement, the product sets in a few hours and
hardens over a period of weeks.
2. These processes can vary widely depending upon the mix used and
the
conditions of curing of the product, but a typical cement mixture sets in
about 6 hours, and develops a compressive strength of 8 MPa in 24
hours. The strength rises to 15 MPa at 3 days, 23 MPa after a week and
35 MPa at 30 days. In principle, the strength continues to rise slowly as
long as water is available for continued hydration, but concrete is
usually allowed to dry out after a few weeks, and this causes strength
growth to stop.
3. Setting and hardening of cement is caused by the formation of water-
containing compounds, forming as a result of reactions between cement
components and water.
4. Usually, cement reacts in a plastic mixture only at water/cement
ratios between 0.25 and 0.75. The reaction and the reaction products are
referred to as hydration and hydrates or hydrate phases, respectively.
5. As a result of the reactions (which start immediately), a stiffening can
be observed which is very small in the beginning, but which increases
with time. The point in time at which it reaches a certain level is called
the start of setting. The consecutive further consolidation is called
setting, after which the phase of hardening begins.
6. Stiffening, setting and hardening are caused by the formation of a
microstructure of hydration products of varying rigidity which fills the
water-filled interstitial spaces between the solid particles of the cement
paste, mortar or cement.
7. The behaviour with time of the stiffening, setting and hardening
therefore depends to a very great extent on the size of the interstitial
spaces, i. e. on the water/cement ratio.
8. The hydration of these compounds and the properties of the calcium
silicate hydrates produced are therefore particularly important. The
simplified reaction of alite with water may be expressed as:
2Ca3OSiO4 + 6H2O ---à 3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O + 3Ca(OH)2
This is a relatively fast reaction, causing setting and strength

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development in the first few weeks.
9. The reaction of belite is:
2Ca2SiO4 + 4H2O ---à3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O + Ca(OH)2
This reaction is relatively slow, and is mainly responsible for strength
growth after one week.
10. Calcium sulfates dissolve completely and alkali sulfates almost
completely. Short, hexagonal needle-like ettringite crystals form at the
surface of the clinker particles as a result of the reactions between
calcium- and sulphate ions with tricalcium aluminate.
11. This third period (accelerated period) starts after approximately four
hours and ends after 12 to 24 hours. During this period a basic
microstructure forms, consisting of C-S-H needles and C-S-H leafs,
platy calcium hydroxide and ettringite crystals growing in longitudinal
shape. Due to growing crystals, the gap between the cement particles is
increasingly bridged. The density of the microstructure rises and the
pores fill: the filling of pores causes strength gain.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

STRENGTH OF CEMENT

Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly

lower tensile strength (about 10% of the compressive strength). As a
result, concrete always fails from tensile stresses — even when loaded
in compression. The practical implication of this is that concrete
elements subjected to tensile stresses must be reinforced.

The ultimate strength of concrete is influenced by the water-cement

ratio (w/c) [water-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm)], the design
constituents, and the mixing, placement and curing methods employed.
All things being equal, concrete with a lower water-cement
(cementitious) ratio makes a stronger concrete than a higher ratio.

The characteristics of the cementitious content, coarse and fine

aggregates, and chemical admixtures determine the water demand of the
mix in order to achieve the desired workability. The 28 day compressive
strength is obtained by determination of the correct amount of
cementitious to achieve the required water-cement ratio. Only with very

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high strength concrete does the strength and shape of the coarse
aggregate become critical in determining ultimate compressive strength.

The internal forces in certain shapes of structure, such as arches and

vaults, are predominantly compressive forces, and therefore concrete is
the preferred construction material for such structures.

ELASTICITY

The modulus of elasticity of concrete is relatively linear at low stress

levels but becomes increasingly non-linear as matrix cracking develops.
The elastic modulus of the hardened paste may be in the order of 10-30
GPa and aggregates about 45 to 85 GPa. The concrete composite is then
in the range of 30 to 50 GPa.

EXPANSION AND SHRINKAGE

Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. However if

no provision is made for expansion very large forces can be created,
causing cracks in parts of the structure not capable of withstanding the
force or the repeated cycles of expansion and contraction.

As concrete matures it continues to shrink, due to the ongoing reaction

taking place in the material, although the rate of shrinkage falls
relatively quickly and keeps reducing over time (for all practical
purposes concrete is usually considered to not shrink any further after
30 years). The relative shrinkage and expansion of concrete and
brickwork require careful accommodation when the two forms of
construction interface.
Because concrete is continuously shrinking for years after it is initially
placed, it is generally accepted that under thermal loading it will never
expand to it's originally-placed volume.

WEARING OF CEMENT:
Bacterial corrosion

Bacteria themselves do not have noticeable effect on concrete.

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However, anaerobic bacteria (Thiobacillus) in untreated sewage tend to
produce hydrogen sulphide, which is then oxidized by aerobic bacteria
present in biofilm on the concrete surface above the water level to
sulphuric acid which dissolves the carbonates in the cured cement and
causes strength loss. Concrete floors lying on ground containing pyrite
are also at risk. Using limestone as the aggregate makes the concrete
more resistant to acids, and the sewage may be pretreated by ways
increasing pH or oxidizing or precipitating the sulphides in order to
inhibit the activity of sulphide utilizing bacteria.

4. Chemical attacks

1. Carbonation & leaching

Due to some chemical reactions taking place on the surfaces of the

concrete some times the cement mixtures yield SO2 and CO2 gases.
This mostly is visible when the concrete is exposed to various forms of
chemical attacks in form of acid rains.

2. Chlorides

Chlorides, particularly calcium chloride, have been used to shorten the

setting time of concrete. However, calcium chloride and (to a lesser
extent) sodium chloride have been shown to leach calcium hydroxide
and cause chemical changes in Portland cement, leading to loss of
strength, as well as attacking the steel reinforcement present in most
concrete.

3. Sulphates

Sulphates in solution in contact with concrete can cause chemical

changes to the cement, which can cause significant microstructural
effects leading to the weakening of the cement binder.

5. Physical damage

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Physical damages of concrete can already occur during the casting and
de-shuttering processes. The corners of beams for instance, can damage
during the removal of its shutter because these areas are less effectively
compacted by means of vibrations. Other physical damages can be
caused by the use of steel shuttering without base plates. The steel
shuttering pinches the top surface of a concrete slab due to weight of the
next slab being constructed.

FIELD TESTS OF CEMENT:

The following are the field tests:

 Open the bag and take a good look at the cement. There should not
be any visible lumps. The colour of the cement should normally be
greenish grey.
 Thrust your hand into the cement bag. It must give you a cool
feeling. There should not be any lump inside.
 Take a pinch of cement and feel-between the fingers. It should give a
smooth and not a gritty feeling.
 Take a handful of cement and throw it on a bucket full of water, the
particles should float for some time before they sink.
Take about 100 grams of cement and a small quantity of water and
make a stiff paste. From the stiff paste, pat a cake with sharp edges. Put
it on a glass plate and slowly take it under water in a bucket. See that the
shape of the cake is not disturbed while taking it down to the bottom of
the bucket. After 24 hours the cake should retain its original shape and
at the same time it should also set and attain some strength.

CONCLUSION:
Ordinary Portland cement is no ordinary material. It is a chemical which
has to be carefully understood and used. Continuous research by cement
technologist and scientist have significantly improved this material and
helped the engineer understand the significance of its various
characteristics much better for various types of applications.

However the performance of this is greatly dependent on field quality

control and practice. Each step of selecting materials, batching, mixing,

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transporting, placing, compacting, finishing and curing has to be
carefully executed to obtain strong and durable concrete or masonry.
Cutting corners by procuring cheaper materials, equipment, tools and
work force ultimately result in spending more on repairs at a later stage.
It is established that the concrete made from Ordinary Portland cement
is the most economical and durable material for various types of
construction applications. It is upto the engineers to correctly utilize the
Ordinary Portland cement and prove that it is not just an ordinary
building material but it is an extraordinary chemical.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Effect of Cement Characteristics on Concrete Properties:-

Johansen, Vagn C. Taylor, Peter C and Tennis, Paul D.

Concrete Countertops by Fu-Teng Cheng:-

Fu-Teng Cheng

Concrete Manual (ICBO):-

ICBO

Properties of Concrete:-

Adam M. Neville

ONLINE REFERENCES:-

1. Google…………………………………………………………………
www.google.com

2. Wikepedia……………………………………………………………
www.wikepedia.com

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