Beruflich Dokumente
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297±308, 1999
# 1999 British Occupational Hygiene Society
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Fig. 2. Organization and use of ISO standards concerned with human thermal environments.
a The values given have been established allowing for a maximum rectal temperature of 388C for the persons con-
cerned.
va 0:2 ± 0:9 msÿ1 , storage. They are also presented in terms of the
maximum allowable water loss compatible with the
M 46:4 ± 272 W=mÿ2 , maintenance of the hydromineral equilibrium of the
body.
Icl 0:1 ± 0:6 Clo, The predicted sweat rate can be determined from
the required sweat rate and the limit values. If the
tsk 32:7 ± 38:4 8 C, required sweat rate can be achieved by persons and
it will not cause unacceptable water loss, then there
see Mairiaux et al. (1987).
is no time limit due to heat exposure over an eight
An approximation of 368C for tsk can be made
hour shift. If this is not the case, then allowable ex-
and this may be a more sensible value to use in
posure times (duration limited exposures, DLEs) are
many applications.
calculated from the following equations:
Predicted values for evaporation from the subject
When
(Ep), sweat rate (SWp) and skin wettedness (wp) are
determined for the standard subject by a method Ep Ereq =8 and SWp <Dmax ,
shown in Fig. 3. Predictions are made taking into
account required values (wreq, Ereq and Sreq) and then DLE=480 min and SWp can be used as a
limit values (wmax, SWmax). The required sweat rate heat stress index. If the above conditions are not
is compared with the maximum limit values for skin satis®ed then
wettedness (wmax) and sweat rate (SWmax) which can DLE1 60 Qmax =SWp ,
11
be achieved by persons. These are presented for ac-
climatised and non-acclimatised persons at work DLE2 60 Dmax =SWp :
12
and rest (see Table 3).
In the case where thermal equilibrium cannot be DLE is the lower value of DLE1 and DLE2. If DLE
achieved, there will be heat storage and hence the is determined by DLE1 (i.e. heat storage) then the
body core temperature will rise. Limiting values are worker must rest until there is no longer a risk of
presented for warning and danger, in terms of heat heat stress. If DLE is determined by DLE2 (that is,
302 K. C. Parsons
dehydration), then no further exposure is allowed assessing hot environments allows identi®cation of
during the day. the relative importance of dierent components of
If workers carry out a number of types of work the thermal environment and hence can be used in
during the day and under dierent thermal con- environmental design.
ditions ISO 7933 provides a method for assessing The method presented in ISO 7933 is powerful
sequences of `tasks' (including work and rest) based and pragmatic. In its present form however it has
on a time weighting of Ereq and Emax values. An recognised limitations in terms of its validity for
example of the use of ISO 7933 in practical appli- specialist environments, many of which occur in
cation is provided below. practice. It also has limitations in terms of its usabil-
If Emax is negative (that is, condensation will ity. It is presented as a rather academic standard
occur) or if exposure time is short (that is, <30 and apparently complex. These are issues that are
min) or if the conditions are beyond the scope of the addressed by a number of papers in this special
standard (for example where specialist clothing or issue. Of particular note has been the programme of
equipment are worn or there is a high level of direc- research undertaken by laboratories under a
tional radiation) then the method used in ISO 7933 BIOMED European programme. Improvements
is inappropriate without modi®cation. Physiological have been proposed in terms of the representation
measurements on individuals should be taken of the thermal properties of clothing, prediction of
according to ISO 9886. mean skin temperature, method of interpretation
A computer program is provided to allow ease of and other factors including usability. Some of this
calculation and ecient use of the standard. (Annex work is presented in this special issue and will con-
D of ISO 7933 (1989)). Computer program listings tribute towards a revision of ISO 7933. It is of inter-
are also available in Parsons (1993) and Mairiaux est that when ISO 7933 was proposed as a
and Malchaire (1990). This rational method of European standard it was not accepted in its exact
form but only with minor but important modi®-
cations. The European (and British) standard (EN
12515, BS EN 12515) emphasised the limitations in
the scope of the ISO standard as these limitations
had been shown to be of practical importance par-
ticularly by research in the German mining industry.
Table 3. Reference values for criteria stress and strain used in ISO 7933 (1989) for the assessment of hot environments
to heat strain and can be interpreted in terms of as well as the expertise required to use such equip-
likely dehydration, water and electrolyte require- ment and interpret results. An example is the use
ments and can be used as an indication of the ther- of the widely available infra-red ear thermometer
mal eciency of clothing. for measuring core temperature. If used in the
Annex I of the standard presents a comparison of wrong conditions or without great care in
the dierent methods concerning their ®eld of appli- measurement then existing devices have been
cation, their technical complexity, their discomfort shown to give misleading results. If used in a per-
and the risks that might involve. Measurement sonal monitoring system to protect health the con-
methods are described in Annex II and limit values sequences could be signi®cant. When physiological
are proposed in Annex III of the standard. measurements were ®rst proposed in standardis-
The principle of the standard is therefore to pre- ation, it was envisaged that they would be rarely
sent information to allow the informed selection used in industry and mainly by experts for
and correct application and interpretation of phys- research. The restricted scope of existing standards,
iological measures. The standard does not rec- the need for eective assessment of hot environ-
ommend methods nor does it propose how to ments, particularly when protective clothing and
develop and use a personal monitoring system. A equipment is worn and the readily available instru-
recently identi®ed need for a standard is to pro- mentation have all led to personal monitoring sys-
vide the speci®cation for the instrumentation to tems being seriously considered as standard
make physiological measurements. There has also working practise. ISO 9886 provides important in-
been some debate about the rapid technological formation and more practical guidance is needed
advances without guidance on how appropriate to allow appropriate development and use of per-
equipment will be for monitoring a state of health sonal monitoring systems.
ISO 7726. THERMAL ENVIRONMENTS Ð It also provides methods of measurement and speci-
INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS FOR MEASURING ®cations of measuring appliances (see Table 5).
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
No speci®c instrument is standardised, only
This standard provides de®nitions of the basic speci®cations. The standard can therefore serve
parameters (air temperature, mean radiant tempera- as a guide for manufacturers of the instruments
ture, humidity, air velocity) and derived parameters as well as for specifying measuring requirements,
(natural wet bulb temperature, globe temperature). in a contract between an investigator and a client.
Risk assessment of thermal strain on clothed workers in hot environments 305
Table 6. Six methods for estimating metabolic heat production (ISO 8996)
I (A) classi®cation according to rough information where the risk not necessary
kind of activity of error is very great
(B) classi®cation according to information on technical
occupation equipment, work organisation
II (A) use of tables of group high error risk; accuracy215% time study necessary
assessment
(B) use of estimation tables for
speci®c activities
(C) use of heart rate under not necessary
de®ned conditions
III measurement risk of errors within the limits of time study necessary
the accuracy of the measurement
and of the time study; accuracy
25%
ISO 8996: ERGONOMICS: DETERMINATION OF The third type of method is to calculate the meta-
METABOLIC HEAT PRODUCTION bolic heat production from measures of oxygen con-
sumption, and carbon dioxide production during
This standard provides methods and data for esti-
activity and recovery. This method is complex and
mating the metabolic heat production of humans. It
would not normally be used in work. For a full
provides fundamental support to other ISO stan-
description the reader is referred to the standard.
dards in the series, for assessing hot, moderate, and
The methods and data provided in the standard
cold environments. The standard can also be used
are comprehensive, so implementation of the stan-
for the assessment of working practices, the meta- dard into a computer system is bene®cial (for
bolic cost of speci®c jobs or sports activities, the example; Parker and Parsons, 1990). Although one
total metabolic cost of activity and for other appli- of the most extensive databases available on this
cations. topic, the inherent errors in use of the methods and
The methods are derived from a number of stu- derivation of the data should be taken into account;
dies concerned with determining metabolic rate, and see Parsons and Hamley, 1989. The standard pro-
some are well established. The data are mainly from vides guidance on the level of accuracy one could
the work of Spitzer and Hettinger (1986) in the lab- expect with each method (Table 6).
oratories of the University of Wupertaal, Germany. All metabolic rate values are provided in units of
Six methods of estimation are presented in three W/m2 of the body surface area. The values are
types (Table 6). based on the standard man (see Table 11). They
The ®rst is by use of tables, where estimates are should be corrected for `non-standard' individuals
provided based on a description of activity. These or populations; for example, this will be particularly
range from general description (for example, low, relevant when the activity involves tasks such as
high, etc.) to speci®c descriptions of occupations walking upstairs (overcoming gravity) where human
(for example, bricklayer) and methods of summating body weight will be important. For conditions
where the physical level of work varies, a time
components of tasks (for example, basal metabolic
weighted average procedure is recommended; an
rate plus posture component plus movement com-
example is shown in Table 12.
ponent, etc.) Examples of the methods involving the
use of tables are provided in Tables 7±9.
The second type of method is by the use of heart
rate. The total heart rate is regarded as a sum of ISO 9920: ESTIMATION OF THE THERMAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF A CLOTHING ENSEMBLE
several components and, in general, is linearly re-
lated to the metabolic heat production for heart This international standard presents methods for
rates above 120 beats per minute. This method is estimating the thermal characteristics (resistance to
shown in Table 10. dry heat loss and evaporative heat loss) of a clothing
Resting 65 resting
Low 100 sitting at ease/standing
Moderate 165 sustained handlarm work
High 230 intense work
Very high 290 very intense to maximum activity
306 K. C. Parsons
Table 8. Classi®cation by occupation (examples from ISO Table 10. Estimation of metabolic heat production using
8996 (1989)) heart rate. (ISO 8996 (1989))
Table 12. Example calculation of average metabolic rate NEW WORK TOWARDS ISO STANDARDS
over a period where a number of tasks and activities are
carried out. ISO 8996 (1989) New work items and areas where standards may
be developed include contact with hot, moderate,
Duration (s) Metabolic rate
(W/m2) and cold solid surfaces, quantities symbols and
units, requirements for users with special needs,
Walk in factory 4 km/h 35 165 thermal environments in vehicles, working practices
Carry sack of 30 kg 50 250 for cold environments, and the thermal performance
Standing 25 70
Time weighted average=200 W/m2 of buildings. Of particular importance to heat stress
assessment will be the revision of ISO 7243 to allow
the WBGT index to be applied to work situations
etration. This emphasises that the Icl values pro- that involve the wearing of protective clothing, of
vided in the standard are very much a starting point ISO 7933 for the same reason and an increase in
for determining the insulation provided by clothing scope to include a wider range of environmental
in practical applications. A more detailed method conditions, and of ISO 9886 to include the speci®ca-
for accounting for wind and human movement is tion of physiological measurement instrumentation
proposed in this special issue (Parsons et al., 1999). and further guidance on interpretation of results.
The evaporative resistance of clothing (RT) is the
sum of the resistance of the external air layer (Ra)
and the clothing layer (Rcl). and can be estimated
EXAMPLE OF THE APPLICATION OF
from Icl for `normal permeable clothing' by INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR THE
RT 0:061=hc 2:22
Icl ÿ Ia
1 ÿ 1=fcl ASSESSMENT OF HOT ENVIRONMENTS
Table 13. Example of clothing insulation values for a clothing ensemble (ISO 9920 (1995))
a Value calculated from Clo values and not value for material.
308 K. C. Parsons
it will be useful for some situations except where ISO 8996 (1990) Ergonomics Ð determination of meta-
specialist protective clothing and equipment and bolic heat production. ISO, Geneva.
ISO 9886 (1992) Evaluation of thermal strain by physio-
high levels of directional radiation are involved. The logical measurements. ISO, Geneva.
standard will use the environmental measurements ISO 9920 (1995) Ergonomics of the thermal environment
listed above with the estimates of clothing insulation Ð estimation of the thermal insulation and evaporative
and activity level. A computer program will be resistance of a clothing ensemble. ISO, Geneva.
ISO 7730 (1994) Moderate thermal environments Ð deter-
required to make the analysis. Where appropriate, mination of the PMV and PPD indices and speci®cation
the standard can provide an indication of thermal of the conditions for thermal comfort. ISO, Geneva.
strain and guidance on acceptable exposure times to ISO 10551 (1995) Ergonomics of the thermal environment
the conditions. Ð assessment of the in¯uence of the thermal environ-
ment using subjective judgement scales. ISO, Geneva.
ISO 9886 provides guidance on physiological
ISO/TR 11079 (1993) Evaluation of cold environments Ð
measurements and, in the particular example given, determination of required clothing insulation, IREQ.
it may be necessary to monitor physiological re- ISO, Geneva (technical report).
sponses. The standards can also be used to con®rm ISO 11399 (1995) Ergonomics of the thermal environment
the above standards and ®ne tune working practices Ð principles and application of international standards.
ISO, Geneva.
during training and in simulations. It is the only Mairiaux, P. L. and Malchaire, J. (1990) Work in hot en-
method appropriate for monitoring the health of in- vironments. In Monographs in Occupational Medicine.
dividuals and should be used for those wearing Masson, Paris, (in French, ISBN 2 225 82036 8).
specialist protective clothing and equipment, par- Mairiaux, P. L., Malchaire, J. and Candas, V. (1987)
ticularly face masks and for extreme environments. Prediction of mean skin temperature in warm environ-
ments. European Journal of Applied Physiology 55, 686±
It is important to recognize in the use of the stan- 692.
dards that they should be used as tools to provide McCullough, E. A., Jones, B. W. and Huck, J. (1985) A
an integrated assessment approach. If they are used comprehensive data base for estimating clothing insula-
in conjunction with contextual factors and with a tion. ASHRAE Transactions 91(2), 29±47.
Olesen, B. W. and Dukes-DuBos, F. N. (1988)
knowledge of the rationale and the limitations of International standards for assessing the eect of cloth-
each, they can oer a major contribution to the de- ing on heat tolerance and comfort. In Performance of
sign of work in hot environments. Protective Clothing, eds S. Z. Mansdorf, R. Sager and
A. P. Nielson, pp. 17±30. ASTM, Philadelphia.
Parker, R. D. and Parsons, K. C. (1990) Computer based
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