NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY, ISLAMABAD

SCHOOL OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

CE-115, CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

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Minerals in Building Stones. Only a small number of mineral species are considered as
important constituents of building stones. These are:
1. Quartz (SiO2). Silica is very abundant in sandstone, granite, and certain varieties
of gneiss. It is white, but is often colored in various shades due to the presence of small
amount of metallic oxides. Common sand is a form of quartz. Flint, jasper, agate, and
chalcedony are different varieties of colored quartz. In purer crystalline conditions quartz
is translucent or sometimes transparent. Its crystals are in the form of regular six sided
prisms terminated by a pyramid summit. Hardness 7. Specific gravity 2.66.

2. Feldspar (K2O. Al2O3. 6SiO2). This is silicate of aluminum with silicate of sodium
of potassium, or a mixture of two. Sometimes K2O is replaced by Na2O or CaO. Granite
and other igneous rocks contain feldspar. It is often colored due to the presence of small
quantities of oxide or iron. When feldspar contains large portions of calcium, potassium,
or sodium, it is liable to cause quicker decay. Potash feldspars are known as ‘Orthoclase’
and are flesh colored. Those containing sodium as their base are grey, such as
‘Oligoclase’ and ‘Albite’ feldspars. Hardness 6. Specific gravity 2.75.

3. Mica. This is a platy mineral which is composed of complex silicates. It has a

perfect cleavage and splits rigidly into thin elastic leaves. It is found in granties, gneisses,
and mica schist. There are two varieties of mica: ‘Muscovite’ H3K. Al3 (SiO4)3 is white in
color, while ‘Biotite’ K2HMg6.Al3 (SiO4)6 is dark brown or black. Mica is a source of
weakness, as it disintegrates quickly, and stones containing over 2% mica are considered
unsuitable for structural purposes. Hardness 2 to 3. Specific gravity 2.7 to 3.2.

4. Hornblende 5(Mg, Ca)O. 6SiO2. This is dark green, brown or black in color. It is a
silicate of calcium or magnesium and occurs in crystals, fiber and grains, and has a glassy
luster. It is a very tough and heavy mineral and is present in a number of igneous rocks in
the form of fibers or four sided prisms. It weathers fairly well. It is brittle, but strong and
durable. Hardness 5 to 6. Specific gravity 2.9 to 3.0.

5. Augite (Mg. Ca) SiO3. This is very much similar to but heavier than, hornblende,
and is distinguished by the angles of its crystals. It is found abundantly as a constituent of
trap. It is also called ‘Pyroxene’. Hardness 5 to 6. Specific gravity 2.3 to 3.6.

6. Silicic Acid (H2O)x.(SiO2)y . This is the chief constituent of cementing material of

all the sandstones.
7. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). This is the basis of limestone, chalk, and calcareous
stones. It may occur as a cementing material of sandstones and shale. Hardness 3.
Specific gravity 2.72.

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8. Gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O). This is hydrated calcium sulphate. Hardness 2. Specific
gravity 2.32.

9. Alumina (Al2O3). This is an oxide of aluminum combined with silica, and is chief
constituent of clay.

10. Kaolin (Al2O3. 2SiO2. 2H2O). It is pure white clay formed by the decomposition
of feldspar, when the later is acted upon by water containing CO2, which dissolves
calcium, potassium and sodium leaving silica, alumina and water.

Important Building Stones

1. Sandstone. Sandstone as a class, is hard and non-absorbent type of stone. It is a
essentially a sedimentary stratified rock consisting of grains of sand and quartz cemented
together by silica in the form of silicic acid, calcium or magnesium carbonate, clay or
lime combined with oxides or iron, etc. Sometimes sandstone contains a little mica also.
The durability of the stone depends upon the cementing material. Sandstone is a porous
stone and is white, bluish with various shades, brown, and even black in color. For
common building works, rough grained sandstone can be used while harder variety
should be selected for ashler masonry and other important architectural works. For
massive buildings the use of sandstone with weaker cementing material should be made
with caution. It is also used as railway ballast and road metal, but when subjected to
abrasion, it does not stand very well. The weight of sandstone is 145 to 150 lbs per cft,
and its crushing strength is 400 to 800 tons per sq ft. sandstones are abundantly found in
Hyderabad, Karachi, Jhelum areas.

2. Limestone. The chief constituents of limestone are the crystallized grains of

calcium carbonate which are cemented by a matrix of same material, with a small portion
of silica, magnesium, iron, and clay. Limestone is stratified in structure. Soft limestone
can easily be scratched by human nails and even hardest variety can be scratched by
penknife. It is easily affected by even weak acids causing effervescence. Limestone is
easily attacked by carbonic acid gas and other acids dissolved in rain water especially in
industrial cities. Limestone is weak against abrasion and its color varies from white to
grey, as well as bluish yellow and even black. Good limestone has a crushing strength of
about 400 tons per sq ft. The average weight of limestone is about 150 lbs per cft.
Limestone is quarried in Karachi, Hyderabad, Rohri, Jehlum, Kohat and Hazara areas.
Some varieties of limestone are:
a. Argillaceous or Clayey Limestone or Kankar
b. Siliceous Limestone
c. Magnesium Limestone or Dolomite.
3. Marble. When limestone becomes crystallized through the combined influence of
great heat and pressure, it is called marble. Marble is metamorphosed stone which has
retained its chemical composition of limestone originally a sedimentary rock. It is white
in color when pure, but is found in various shades depending upon impurities. Marble is
very compact and dense form of limestone and takes a very fine polish. It is especially

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used for decorative purposes. It can be easily sawn, resists weathering action very well. It
is found in Peshawar, Mardan, Chagai and Salt Range.

4. Granite. It is hard crystalline rock of igneous origin which has cooled before
coming to earth’s surface. It consists of crystalline granular mixture of quartz and
feldspar together with very small amounts of mica or hornblende. Silica acts cementing
material. The texture of granite varies from coarse grained to fine grained, and the
crystals of its different constituents are sufficiently large to be recognized by the naked
eye. Generally granites present somewhat mottled appearance and are either light of dark
gray or pink in color depending upon the color of their feldspar. Granite is specially used
for ornamental or monumental works and for inscription purposes. It is also use where
stone is subjected to abrasion like paving blocks, blasting material, road metal, etc. It is
very heavy and strong. It is comparatively costly stone due to higher cost of dressing. Its
crushing strength is over 1000 tons per sq ft with a specific gravity of about 2.7. It is
found in Dargai, Malakand, Chitral, Dir and Swat.

5. Gneiss and Schist. Granite which becomes laminated due to metamorphic action
is known as gneiss. It is a very durable type of stone, generally containing a lesser
percentage of mica, and is a better building stone than granite. Schist represents a layered
structure in the metamorphosed granite along which the stone can be easily split unlike
gneiss. This is due to large quantity of mica and talc layers present. Actually gneiss, in
which the foliation is very fine is commonly called schist. These stones are not quarried
in Pakistan.

6. Slate. It is a metamorphic argillaceous rock which is compact and finely grained.

It does not split along planes of its original bedding, but splits readily along planes at
right angle to its plane of cleavage. It is useful as light and impervious roof covering. The
minerals of slate can not be recognized by naked eye. Slates containing mica, lime, and
carbonaceous matters do not weather well. The color of slate is dark brown or dark grey.
It gives a sharp metallic ring when struck. It weighs about 160 lbs per cft. Slate is found
in Attock, Nowshera, Kaghan and Gilgit areas.

7. Laterite. It is a sandy clay stone containing oxides of iron giving it brick like
color. It is comparatively soft, has a cellular structure and is suitable for light buildings
and as road metal. It weighs about 140 to 150 lbs per cft and has crushing strength of 60
to 100 tons per sq ft.

8. Trap and Basalt. Trap is an amorphous variety of igneous rock formed on earth’s
surface. It contains 40 to 60% silica with feldspar and hornblende. Basalt is just like trap
but contains feldspar, augite, and iron with grains too fine to be easily distinguished. Both
are very strong, hard and durable and their color is generally bluish or greenish grey.
These are suitable for ordinary building works and as road metal. They resist abrasion,
wear and tear also. They weigh about 180 lbs per cft and possess a crushing strength of
over 1000 tons per sq ft. their porosity is hardly 0.1 to 0.2%. These are available in
Chagai and Quetta areas.