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Area, 2015, 47.4, 422–428, doi: 10.1111/area.12206

A human needs approach to revealing nature’s

benefits for visitors to the coast
Cheryl Willis
Centre for Rural Policy Research, University of Exeter, Exeter, Devon EX4 4RJ
Email: C.A.Willis@exeter.ac.uk

Revised manuscript received 18 May 2015

The positive influence on psychological well-being of interactions in nature appears to be particularly

important in understanding the profound connections that people have with natural environments. Such
influences have been recorded as being associated with increases in self-esteem, feelings of rejuvenation
and renewal as well as stress reduction. To a large extent, these understandings have been garnered
through laboratory experiments to elicit preferences for different environments, frequently comparing
contrasting scenes such as urban and rural. This paper aims to describe and evaluate a methodology for
assessing and measuring, in-situ, how interactions at the coast contribute to a range of dimensions
associated with psychological well-being. It describes the development and the empirical testing of this
methodology, which is based on the premise that certain human needs can be satisfied through
interactions in nature that positively influence psychological well-being. Specifically, indicators of human
needs were incorporated into a survey using a Likert scale to capture the extent to which needs were
satisfied in two case-study locations along the Jurassic Coast, Dorset. Based on the results of this study,
it is concluded that this approach has merit as a methodology for determining the multiple ways in which
psychological well-being is influenced as a result of a specific visit to a unique setting and one that can
be replicated for use in different environmental location.

Key words: psychological well-being, coast, perception, human needs, surveys

through mental fatigue, can be restored through contact

Introduction
People experience the natural environment in different
ways and gain important benefits from doing so. A
growing body of literature has evidenced that such ben-
efits are important to human psychological well-being in
providing opportunities for experiences that may be
described as restorative, including relaxation, enhancing
positive emotions, mood and self-esteem (Hartig et al.
1991 2001; Kaplan 1995; Kjellgren and Buhrkall 2010;
Pretty et al. 2005; Ulrich 1979). Within this literature, two
schools of thought appear to dominate discussions of the
types of responses people have to nature, which broadly
can be grouped into emotional and cognitive. Ulrich
(1979; Ulrich et al. 1991), for example, highlights positive
emotional responses and stress reduction, while Kaplan
and Kaplan (1989) describe attention restoration theory in
which they assert that directed attention, a key requisite
for effective human functioning, which is depleted
with nature.
Discussions around the kind of environmental settings
that give rise to such benefits highlight the importance of
those involving water, and coastal environments in par-
ticular are significantly associated with restorative prop-
erties. Recent findings have even suggested that coastal
settings offer greater potential for well-being benefits than
even open countryside or green parks (Ashbullby et al.
2011; Natural England 2012; White et al. 2010 2013).
The reasons behind these findings vary, from an evolu-
tionary appeal to the coast, which White et al. (2010, 490)
suggest ‘may make sense given physiological adaptations
to both terrestrial and aquatic habitats’, to ideas about the
aesthetic appeal and symbolism of coastal features, such
as the horizon, which Gee and Burkhard (2010) suggest
may inspire positive thoughts about freedom, hope and
escapism. Moreover, Ashbullby et al. (2013) note that
coastal areas appear to contain all the ingredients as

The information, practices and views in this article are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily reflect the opinion of the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG).
© 2015 Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)
 Nature’s benefits for visitors to the coast
noted by Kaplan (1995) required for attention restoration
(being away, fascination, extent and compatibility).
Beaches, for example, provide space, freedom and the
ability to explore, which is related to the dimension of
‘being away’, while interest in natural coastal features and
changing tides and sea conditions fits with ‘fascination’
and also ‘extent’. This is because the beach provides a
sense of a whole other world and sufficiently engages the
mind. Finally, the ability of the beach to allow individuals
to engage in a range of different activities fits with the idea
of ‘compatibility’.
While the benefits of interacting in nature and at the
coast in particular appear to be evident for a variety of
reasons, capturing and measuring them and understand-
ing the ways in which they contribute to psychological
well-being remain a challenge, not least because well-
being as a concept is debated and continually evolving.
Kumar and Kumar contend that
the interrelationship between man and nature has a strong
bearing on the psychological well-being of the individual
which remains un-captured by most of the conventional
valuation methods. (2008, 818)
Therefore this research set out to develop a methodology
to capture the impact of interactions of visitors to a coastal
site on a wide range of dimensions that appear to con-
tribute to psychological well-being.
Measuring psychological well-being
Methods for measuring human reactions to nature appear
to have been dominated by those using photographs to
elicit responses to and preferences for different environ-
ments (Berman et al. 2008; Berto 2005; Han 2003; Hartig
and Staats 2006; Herzog et al. 2003; Ulrich and Addoms
1981; White et al. 2010). Such studies, while valuable in
advancing understanding of the power of natural scenes for
eliciting emotional and cognitive responses in participants,
tend not to relate to specific visits in specific environments
where responses may be different (when not compared
immediately alongside contrasting scenes, for example). In
addition, some studies have a narrow focus on psychologi-
cal well-being, without due consideration for how experi-
ences in nature contribute to a range of dimensions that
make up a fuller picture of psychological well-being and
how it arises for people in different situations.
Notwithstanding the complexity surrounding the
concept of psychological well-being, the literature is rich
in discussion about the components necessary for this
state to manifest in a person. Important insights on the
meaning of psychological well-being can be gleaned from
Diener et al. (2009), who equate psychological well-
being with optimal human functioning. Certain attributes
are thought to be central to this state, such as meaning
423
and purpose in life, supportive and rewarding relation-
ships, competency, self-acceptance and optimism. Ryff
and Keyes (1995) also proposed a multi-dimensional
model of psychological well-being, which they assert
comprises six distinct dimensions: autonomy, environ-
mental mastery, personal growth, positive relations with
others, purpose in life and self-acceptance. They argued
that such a multi-dimensional view of psychological well-
being was more meaningful and comprehensive in
accounting for whether people are not simply ‘happy’ but
also whether people had a sense of quality and purpose to
their lives and were realising potentials. Ryan and Deci
(2000) also contribute to this discussion by proposing the
existence of three psychological needs: competence,
autonomy and relatedness, which when satisfied yield
enhanced self-motivation and psychological well-being.
These bodies of work provide important insights into the
multi-dimensional nature of psychological well-being and
point to sets of ingredients hypothesised to be required
for a person to be psychologically well and functioning
optimally.
The overlap in the constructs above provides a basis for
considering them as universal human needs that require
satisfaction in order for psychological well-being to result.
This provides an innovative way to begin to build methods
for measuring the extent to which different environments
are able to satisfy these needs. Central to the development
of this approach is Dodds (1997), who purported that
there exist certain underlying conceptions about what
constitutes ‘the good life’ that are common to all people.
Maslow (1943) and Max-Neef (1992, 199) claimed
similar views and developed typologies of human needs
that Max-Neef claimed were ‘finite, few and classifiable’.
He categorised needs into the following: subsistence, pro-
tection, affection, understanding, participation, leisure,
creation, identity and freedom. Maslow, on the other
hand, arranged his typology of human needs as a hierar-
chy, asserting that ‘physiological’ needs, such as food and
shelter, must be satisfied first before ‘higher needs’, such
as belonging, esteem and self-actualisation, can be satis-
fied (Maslow 1943, 6). Church et al. also explored this
idea in the context of cultural ecosystem services and
concluded that ‘underpinning cultural diversity is a rela-
tively small number of fundamental human needs that
require satisfaction if well-being is to be achieved’ (2011,
643). The work around cultural services, variously defined
as ‘the non-material benefits’ of nature (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment 2003, 8) and ‘the environmental
spaces and cultural practices which give rise to non-
material benefits’ (Church et al. 2014, 5), suggests also
that interactions in nature can lead to the satisfaction of
human needs and positive influences for human well-
being. The empirical research described in this paper was
developed to expand understandings of how visits to the
Area 2015 47.4, 422–428 doi: 10.1111/area.12206
© 2015 Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)
424 Nature’s benefits for visitors to the coast
coastal environment serve to satisfy human needs and
lead to psychological well-being and how this might be
measured.
Developing a human needs approach to
revealing nature’s benefits
The overlaps detected in the theoretical accounts of human
needs and psychological well-being were used to con-
struct a core set of seven needs. These were: belonging and
connectivity, which incorporate a sense of relatedness,
attachment and connection to nature, identified by all
considered researchers as important to psychological well-
being. The need to know and understand is concerned with
inquisitiveness about the environment, curiosity and a
desire to learn. It was considered an important need by
both Maslow (1943) and Max-Neef (1992) and reveals the
range of ways in which people seek to understand the
world around them and also something about people’s
motivations for visiting certain settings. Aesthetic apprecia-
tion refers to a human appreciation of nature that appears
to be an in-built human response as well as identified as a
basic human need (Kaplan 1995; Kellert and Wilson 1993;
Maslow 1943). Leisure and recreation refers to the need to
enjoy time in diametric opposition to ‘work’ time and is
about engaging in activities that are enjoyable and that
enable a sense of relaxation. Max-Neef identified ‘leisure’
as a fundamental human need, for which he used adjec-
tives such as ‘play’, ‘relax’ and ‘have fun’ (1992, 206). The
need to experience freedom and escapism, from physical
or psychological constraints, even if only temporarily, was
also identified as important to achieving psychological
well-being and this resonates with Kaplan’s construct of
‘being away’, as well as with the idea of ‘autonomy’ and the
sense that one’s actions are congruent with the self (Ryan
and Deci 2000; Ryff and Keyes 1995). Self actualisation
and transcendence are associated with an amalgam of
ideas about personal growth, fulfilment, competency and
esteem. Shostrom, for example, lists adjectives to describe
the self-actualised person that include ‘energetic’, ‘moti-
vated’, ‘involved’, ‘optimistic’ and ‘confident’ (1964, 212).
Furthermore, transcendence includes ideas of spiritual
well-being, which is less well studied than other influences
on psychological well-being (Keniger et al. 2013) and yet
understood to be an important influence, leading to expe-
riences that are optimal and in which people come to
identify with ‘something other than the purely personal’
(Koltko-Rivera 2006, 306).
To test the extent to which interactions in a coastal
setting served to satisfy these needs in visitors, indicators
of each were generated (see supplementary inform-
ation file 1), using existing literature and scales that have
been used to test similar constructs, such as the ‘flourish-
ing’ scale (Diener et al. 2010), the ‘psychological well-
Area 2015 47.4, 422–428 doi: 10.1111/area.12206
© 2015 Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)
being scale’ (Ryff and Keyes 1995), the ‘mystical
experience’ scale (Hood 1977) and the ‘connectedness to
nature’ scale (Mayer and Frantz 2004). To accommodate
time constraints of conducting this survey in-situ and
during visitors’ leisure time, the resultant human needs
scales were kept short, with three to six items making up
each. The response scale was a five-point continuum,
ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Statistical
tests to determine internal consistency of the scales
showed high internal consistency for each, with Cronbach
Alpha coefficients ranging from 0.72 to 0.90. The approach
developed is potentially a powerful one because it com-
bines and refines insights from a range of previous litera-
tures into one tool that measures the satisfaction of human
needs from a specific visit and the influence on multiple
dimensions of psychological well-being.
Testing the human needs methodology at the
Jurassic Coast
The methods used in this study were designed to capture
experiences in the landscape as they took place. While
this necessarily limits data to a snapshot in time and
space, it was felt that this approach offered the potential
for a much more faithful representation of how people
experienced the Jurassic Coast and how it influenced their
psychological well-being during that particular visit. A
number of qualitative interviews were also conducted
shortly after these visits to fully contextualise them and to
reveal some of the causes of human needs satisfaction and
the ways in which this was felt to contribute to psycho-
logical well-being.
The Jurassic Coast (officially the Dorset and East Devon
Coast World Heritage Site) covers 95 miles from East
Devon to Dorset. It has been designated World Heritage
status due to its geological significance since the cliffs and
foreshore along this stretch contain an almost complete
record through the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous
periods of geological time, recording 185 million years of
the Earth’s history (Jurassic Coast website 2015). Its des-
ignation as a World Heritage Site thus brings with it a
certain shared cultural appreciation and wide recognition
of the significance of the site. However, it is hypothesised
that the motivations for visiting this coastline may not only
be bound up with its geological significance, but may also
be underpinned by well-being benefits derived from visits.
This site therefore provides a distinct opportunity to
explore the diverse experiences of a range of visitors and
how various human needs are satisfied.
The human needs scale was incorporated into a survey
and data were collected from two case study sites
(Charmouth beach and Durdle Door) at three phases span-
ning the tourist season in 2011, in June, August and
October. This strategy was chosen to ensure the maximum
 Nature’s benefits for visitors to the coast
number of visitors could be captured and also to allow for
comparisons to be made between responses at different
times of the year. Two case study sites were chosen along
the coast to capture a snapshot of experiences at both sites
and to enable data to be compared between sites. It was
expected that visitors to both sites could be motivated by an
interest in the geology of the coast as well as by broader
recreational motives such as the visitor centre at
Charmouth and the opportunity for water sports, coastal
walks and general relaxing on the beach. The two sites
therefore provide the opportunity to capture the extent
to which a range of human needs were satisfied through
visits, whatever the motivation for visiting. Distinctions
were also not made between ‘visitors’ and ‘locals’ because
the random sampling method used meant that each indi-
vidual had an equal chance of being asked to complete the
survey. The postcode of the visitor was collected, thereby
enabling some comparisons to be made between visitors
who could be considered ‘local’ and those who had
travelled further.
Results
Five hundred and fifty surveys were undertaken and a
further 40 semi-structured interviews were collected. The
raw scores for each human need rating were summed for
both case study sites and a mean score calculated for each
human need category in SPSS (v18). This enabled descrip-
tive statistics to be derived for each human need and an
assessment to be made of the extent to which each was
satisfied (as inferred from the strength of agreement with
each statement). The mean scores relate to the Likert scale
used, so a mean close to 1 implies a high satisfaction with
this need. The survey revealed that all human needs were
highly satisfied at the Jurassic Coast, with mean scores
ranging from 1.75 to 2.41 (Table 1).
The highest score, taking both case study sites together,
was for aesthetic appreciation. Further understanding of
Table 1 Descriptive statistics for each human need
category
Standard
Human need Mean* deviation Mode
Aesthetic appreciation 1.75 0.61 1 faction than males in aesthetic appreciation, leisure and
Leisure and recreation 1.76 0.57 2 recreation, self-actualisation and transcendence. This
Need to know and understand 1.96 0.63 2 finding is consistent with other studies, such as that by
Freedom and escapism 1.97 0.63 2
Self-actualisation 1.99 0.59 2
Transcendence 2.09 0.66 2
Belonging and connectivity 2.41 0.73 2 restorative.
* Likert scale used ranged from 1 = strongly agree to 5 =
strongly disagree
425
this need and how it was satisfied was gathered through
the qualitative interviews. These were analysed using
NVivo (9), using human needs and related descriptive
words as ‘parent nodes’ to which interview text was
coded. Related to aesthetic appreciation, respondents
used words to describe the physical appeal of the coast-
line such as ‘beautiful’, ‘amazing’, ‘rugged’, ‘spectacular’,
‘stunning’, ‘distinctive’ and ‘dramatic’. The landscape at
each case study site appears to have a unique character
that fascinates and captivates visitors and induces emo-
tional responses to it. Responses to this environment
included feelings of being energised and at the same time,
relaxed, calm and peaceful; ‘I felt relaxed and also kind of
energised and sort of invigorated by everything’ (female,
Charmouth, October). Such a state is consistent with psy-
chological well-being and attention restoration in which it
is proposed that a person who is relaxed and feeling
restored is most likely to have greater feelings of compe-
tence and energy (Kaplan 2001).
The lower score for belonging and connectivity could
be explained by the sample population of visitors, which
indicated that over a quarter (27%) have never visited the
site previously and thus had not developed a sense of
attachment or identity with the location. A repeated meas-
ures test of difference in scores would make for interesting
future work to determine if any change occurred with this
need if the test was carried out with the same participants
during subsequent visits. For some, however, a sense of
belonging was apparent through the interviews, though
not always specifically related to the Jurassic Coast, but to
the coast and the sea in general as one respondent illus-
trates: ‘I always find being by the sea fairly homely and
peaceful. I’ve always lived by the sea and being away
from it, I find quite confusing’ (male, Durdle Door, June).
The quantitative approach to measuring human needs
satisfaction at the Jurassic Coast enabled comparisons to
be made in terms of socio-demographic variables. A
Mann-Whitney U test (used to test for differences
between two independent groups on non-parametric
data) was carried out to test whether any differences
existed between how males and females had rated dif-
ferent human needs. The test showed a statistically
significant difference existed in the way that males
and females rated human needs. The median scores for
each (Table 2) show that females indicated higher satis-
Hartig et al. (2007), which concluded that females are
more likely than males to perceive an environment as
In terms of differences in responses from different age
groups, a Kruskal-Wallis test (which allows for tests of
difference for three or more groups) revealed that there
Area 2015 47.4, 422–428 doi: 10.1111/area.12206
© 2015 Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)
426 Nature’s benefits for visitors to the coast
Table 2 Median scores for human needs satisfaction
across both case study sites for males and females
Median
Human need Male Female Z*
Need to know and understand 2.0 2.0
Aesthetic appreciation 2.0 1.5
Leisure and recreation 2.0 1.7
Freedom and escapism 2.0 2.0
Self-actualisation 2.2 2.0
Transcendence 2.2 2.0
* Significant at P < 0.05
was no significant difference in the way that each age
group rated items, except in the categories of ‘belonging
and connectivity’ (χ2 = 13.6, p < 0.05, n = 524) and ‘need
to know and understand’ (χ2 = 14.2, p < 0.05, n = 530). In
these two categories, the lowest scores were found in the
16–24 age group. Scores appear to suggest higher satis-
faction in these two categories as age increase. For dis-
tance travelled, a statistically significant difference was
found in how people who had travelled different distances
rated items in the category of ‘belonging and connectiv-
ity’. This difference was that scores showed higher satis-
faction for those who had travelled the least distance
(0–10 miles). This group could be considered ‘local’ and
would arguably have more of a connection and attach-
ment with the site (median for this group = 1.5 compared
with medians for the other human needs categories of
2.5). There was no statistical difference found in the sat-
isfaction of human needs at different times of the year.
Discussion and conclusion
The satisfaction of human needs is considered integral to
a sense of psychological well-being and the empirical
findings (both quantitative and qualitative) from the case
study sites at the Jurassic Coast suggest that a range of
human needs are satisfied in this landscape. Interviewees
spoke passionately about the physical landscape at the
Jurassic Coast and how it evoked different emotional and
cognitive responses. For example, respondents talked
about how the landscape enabled a sense of relaxation
and of being uplifted emotionally; as one female at
Durdle Door commented, ‘I felt total peace and a sense of
achievement, a sense of awe and wonder also I think’.
Also noted was how the landscape inspired a sense of
reflection and an ability to put things into perspective: ‘the
power of the elements all around us and our place in this,
it really puts things into perspective’ (male, Charmouth,
October). This reflection appears for some to be inspired
by the surrounding cliffs, which serve to highlight the
Area 2015 47.4, 422–428 doi: 10.1111/area.12206
© 2015 Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)
timelessness of nature compared with the brevity of
human existence; a reminder that is quite literally
engrained in the cliffs at the Jurassic Coast and that evokes
feelings of awe and inspiration. The sea also plays an
important role in responses to the case study sites, largely
N
eliciting feelings of calm and peacefulness, although it
−2.55 528 was also noted that at different times of year, in stormy
−3.81 537 weather for example, the sea would also induce feelings
−2.64 538 of energy and reverence: ‘you feel a bit closer to nature, a
−3.71 539 bit more alive when the sea is crashing about’ (female,
−2.96 526 Durdle Door, October).
−3.58 530 The strength of this human needs approach is in its
ability to refine and develop previous understandings of
how a range of human needs are satisfied through contact
with nature and how this leads to psychological well-
being. This approach also avoids the challenges involved
in asking people to articulate the ways in which their
experiences enhance psychological well-being, as it is
recognised that these often ‘remain at the edge of speech’
(Curtin 2009, 458). By presenting respondents with a
pre-defined set of statements and asking them to respond
intuitively in-situ, they are also much more able to
provide a faithful account of responses in the moment
rather than having to imagine themselves in the scene, as
has been used in previous studies already referred to.
Despite these strengths, some caution must be exer-
cised in interpreting results as simply the result of the
landscape acting on the individual. As Costanza et al.
note,
the relation between specific human needs and perceived
satisfaction of them can be affected by mental capacity,
cultural context, information, education, temperament
and the like, often in quite complex ways. (2007, 269)
This highlights that needs satisfaction and psychological
well-being are shaped by a range of influences acting on
the individual. Steps taken in this research to try to ensure
that what was being recorded was as much a result of the
setting as possible include asking explicitly for people to
consider their answers in light of their surroundings and to
pin-point feelings to the current moment. Qualitative
data, however, suggested that the benefits felt by respond-
ents resulted from the complex interplay of the physical
landscape, the activities in that landscape and the mean-
ings people attributed to the landscape and to their inter-
actions, reflecting similar findings to those reported in
Stephenson’s (2008) ‘cultural values model’. Future
research to untangle these relationships would be valu-
able, as would further investigation into the influence of
length of stay on responses. Despite some limitations, this
study does make a valuable contribution to understanding
the Jurassic Coast as a setting in which interactions serve
to satisfy a range of human needs and enhance psycho-
logical well-being.
 Nature’s benefits for visitors to the coast
Acknowledgements
Research presented here was conducted during an ESRC
Studentship under its Capacity Building Clusters Award (RES-187-
24-0002) in partnership with Dorset County Council, held jointly
by Geography and Politics departments at the University of Exeter.
The author would like to give special thanks to an excellent
supervisory team (Dr Stewart Barr, Dr Rob Fish, Prof Michael
Winter), to the journal editors, the anonymous reviewers of this
paper and of course to all participants who took part in this study.
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Supporting information
Additional Supporting Information may be found in
the online version of this article at the publisher’s
web-site:
Supplementary information file 1. Human need scale
items.