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Application of an
environmental
psychology model
to in-store buying
behaviour
Susan H.C. Tai & Agnes M.C. Fung
Published online: 15 Apr 2011.

To cite this article: Susan H.C. Tai & Agnes M.C. Fung (1997)
Application of an environmental psychology model to in-store buying
behaviour, The International Review of Retail, Distribution and
Consumer Research, 7:4, 311-337, DOI: 10.1080/095939697342914

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 Application of an
environmental psychology
model to in-store buying
behaviour
Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung
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Abstract
Although the in uence of the environment on behaviour has long been
acknowledged by many environmental psychologists, not many studies have been
done in a retailing context, and so far no study can provide a framework to
determine how environmental cues might impact on store patronage. The main
objective of this study is to explore the relationship between environment and
human behaviour in a retailing context by adopting the Mehrabian Russell
Model (M-R Model) so as to test the predictability and applicability of the
model through measurement of the information load, the emotional states
induced and the approach–avoidance behaviour of shoppers in two types of CD
stores in Hong Kong.
The Ž ndings show that in-store environment stimuli (expressed in terms of
information rate) are positively related to the level of pleasure experienced in the
store. In turn, environment-induced emotional states in the store are positively
related to in-store shopping behaviour. Therefore, shopping behaviour favour-
able to retailers can be induced through manipulation of the store’s atmospheric
elements. The Ž ndings show that the in-store environment is dynamic in nature
and the model is not as simple as that predicted by Mehrabian and Russell in a
one-way direction. In-store behaviour also has positive effects on the pleasure
felt in the store and the in-store rating of environmental stimuli.

Keywords
Environmental psychology, in-store behaviour, M–R model, Hong Kong.

Introduction
Environmental psychology is a scientiŽ c study of the effects of the
environment on human behaviour (Loomis 1976). The in uence of the
The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research 7:4
October 1997
0959–3969 © Chapman & Hall 1997
 312 Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

environment on in-store behaviour has long been acknowledged by many

environmental psychologists. The store itself can offer an unique environ-
ment or atmosphere that may in uence a shopper’s patronage decision
(Baker, Grewal and Parasuraman 1994). From the retailer’s point of view,
store atmosphere is the effort to design a buying environment to produce
speciŽ c psychological effects in buyers which will enhance the probability
of buyer purchasing (Kotler 1973). From the shopper’s point of view, store
atmosphere is the consumer’s perception of the quality of the surround-
ings. This quality may not be the same as that deŽ ned by the retailer and
the deŽ nition varies from shopper to shopper. However, retailers seldom
direct their attention to the effects of in-store environment or atmosphere
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on shopping behaviour.
In Hong Kong, a new type of CD store is emerging which is very
different from the traditional. Typical of the new approach are the outlets
of His Master’s Voice (HMV) and Tower Records. The characteristics of
these innovative CD stores are:

1 they offer international records;

2 they are large in size;
3 they are located in very popular areas;
4 they employ the store atmosphere as a means to promote popularity and
sales.

Comparatively, the characteristics of traditional CD stores are:

1 they are located throughout Hong Kong’s territory;

2 they specialize in the sale of Canto-pop (Cantonese pop song);
3 they are more or less the same;
4 the store size is relatively small at about 200 square feet.

Due to the differences in store atmosphere, innovative and traditional CD

stores may have different effects on in-store shopping behaviour. Although
previous studies have provided impressive and persuasive Ž ndings showing
the importance of the effect of store environment on behaviour, these
studies started only at the macro level. In order to provide more evidence
to persuade Hong Kong retailers to utilize store atmosphere as a marketing
tool, this study is at a micro-level. The CD store is used as a vivid example
to show the usefulness of store atmosphere in achieving retailers’
objectives. In this paper, the phrases ‘store environment’ and ‘store
atmosphere’ are used interchangeably.
The main objective of the study is to explore the relationship between
environment and human behaviour in a retailing context by using the
Mehrabian Russell Model (M-R Model) so as to test its predictability and
applicability through measurement of the information load, the emotional
states induced and approach–avoidance behaviour of the shoppers in two
types of CD store in Hong Kong.
 In-store buying behaviour 313

Literature review

Retail atmospherics refers to all of the physical and non-physical elements

of a store controlled by the retailer in order to enhance shopper behaviour
favourable to the retailer (Eroglu and Machleit 1989). The in uence of
retail store environments on consumer perceptions and behaviour is a topic
that has received relatively little attention and it is treated only as an
important component in store image (Lindquist 1974). The concept of
atmospherics was Ž rst introduced by Kotler (1973) in which store
atmosphere is deŽ ned as the effort to design buying environments to
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produce speciŽ c emotional effects in the buyer that enhance purchase

probability. From the shopper’s perspective, it can be expressed in sensory
terms. The main sensory channels for atmosphere are sight, sound, scent
and touch. Atmosphere design is particularly important for the retailer
when the number of competitive outlets increases; or when product and
price differences are small; or when product entries are aimed at distinct
social classes or lifestyle buyer groups.
Since Kotler introduced the atmospherics concept, many researchers
have utilized two approaches to studying store in uence on shopping
behaviour (Figure 1). Some have focused their investigation on the
in uence of speciŽ c atmospheric elements, such as music, colour, social
factors or lighting, on shopping behaviour. The other group of researchers
have favoured treating store atmosphere as a holistic concept and have
focused on the overall effect of atmospheric in uence on shopper
behaviour. Some have utilized the environmental psychology model in
their study.
Under Approach 1, Ž ve atmospheric elements are very popular among
researchers. They are colour and lighting (Bellizzi, Crowley and Hasty
1983), social factors (Baker, Levy and Grewal 1992), ambient factors
(music and lighting) (Kellaris and Kent 1992; Milliman 1982; Baker et al.
1992), crowding (Eroglu and Harrell 1986) and point-of-purchase display
(Phillips and Bradshaw 1990; Quelch and Cannon-Bonventre 1983). There
are two common points in these research studies: (1) skilful manipulation
of all these atmospheric elements will lead to consumer behaviour
favourable to the retailer (e.g. time or money spent in the store); (2) these
elements have been proved to have a variety of physical and psychological
effects on people which will in turn affect behaviour.
Under Approach 2, the investigation focuses on the overall effect of
store atmosphere (without model-based investigation). However, research
has not focused on the in uence of store atmosphere on shopping
behaviour speciŽ cally. A number of researchers have admitted that sensory
information from atmospheric cues in uences cognitive or affective states
which can alter shopping behaviours and store atmospherics and affect
customers’ product perception (Gardner and Siomkos 1986). Customer
 314 Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

Kotler’s atmospherics concept

Approach 1 Approach 2
Investigation Investigation
of specific of the overall
atmospheric effect of store
element atmosphere
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Model-based Non-model-
investigation based
investigation

Figure 1 Research approach to store atmosphere

behaviour, particularly among those with higher stimulation needs, is also

related to the perceived physical character of a shopping area (Grossbart
1975; Mittelstaedt 1977). Literature concerning impulse buying suggests
that in-store stimulus acts as an inducer which sparks an impulse in
shoppers leading to approach behaviour (and increase in purchasing). It
has also found that there is a direct relationship between situational factors
(retail atmospherics) in the store and impulse buying (Rook 1987).
Increased use of the store itself helps to remind shoppers of unsatisŽ ed
needs and hence triggers the impulse to buy (Stern 1962).
In-store stimulus is also linked with investigation of the effects of
mood/emotion on behaviour. Darden and Babin (1994) indicated that
retail environment has an affect-inducing capability. A good mood-
inducing store will lead to a good shopping experience, which will have
positive effects on shopping intention due to the mood-protection
mechanism of human beings (Swinyard 1993). Moreover, Dawson et al.
(1990) further elaborates on the way satisfaction obtained from, or
preference for a store are shaped by the cues provided by the situation as
well as the transient emotion induced by the cues.
For Approach 2 with model-based investigation, some researchers have
focused their study directly on the overall in uence of store atmosphere on
shopper’s behaviour by the utilization of a psychological model as the
conceptual framework to aid the predictability of the study. Donovan and
Rossiter (1982) Ž rst employed the Mehrabian-Russell environmental
psychology model (M-R model) as a framework in their study of
 In-store buying behaviour 315

atmospherics. It indicated that store atmosphere is represented psycho-

logically by consumers in terms of two major emotional states – pleasure
and arousal – and that these two emotional states are signiŽ cant mediators
of intended shopping behaviours within the store. The emotional respon-
ses induced by the store environment can affect the time and money that
consumers spend in the store. Later, many researchers have employed the
M-R model to pursue the study of atmospherics (Gardner 1985; Golden
and Zimmer 1986; Bellizzi and Hite 1992; Babin and Darden 1995).
The proximate environment that surrounds the retail shopper is never
neutral. A retail store consists of many cues, messages and suggestions
which also affect emotional states of the in-store shoppers. The emotional
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states act as the transient variables which in turn affect shoppers’

behaviour (Markin et al. 1976; Kotler 1973; Dawson et al. 1990; Gardner
1985). Therefore, store atmosphere can affect in-store shopping behaviour:
time spent (Donovan and Rossiter 1982); amount of purchase (Rook 1987);
future patronage (Swinyard 1993; Golden and Zimmer 1986); and
evaluation of the store and product (Gardner 1985).

Conceptual framework: Mehrabian-Russell environmental

psychology model

The main purpose of the study is to apply an environmental psychology

model established by Mehrabian and Russell (1994) to study the in uence
of atmosphere on in-store buying behaviour. The M-R model is based on
the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) paradigm (Figure 2), relating
features of the environment (S) to approach-avoidance behaviours (R)
within the environment. The model makes two assumptions: (1) people’s
feelings and emotions ultimately determine what they do and how they do
it; (2) people respond with different sets of emotions to different
environments which, in turn, prompts them to approach or avoid the
environment.
In this study, a modiŽ ed model (Figure 3) is constructed for the purpose
of testing in a CD-retailing context. The model consists of the following
three components:

Approach or
Environmental Emotional States:
Avoidance
Stimuli Pleasure Arousal
Responses

(S) (O) (R)

Figure 2 Original Mehrabian-Russell model

 316
Environmental Stimuli Holistic Environment Moderator Internal Response Behaviour
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Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

MEASUREMENT
Information Rate:
Novelty
•Expectation MEASUREMENT
•Common Approach Behaviour
•Familiarity MEASUREMENT Shopping enjoyment
Favourable
•Novelty Emotional state: Desire to explore the store
emotional
•Fantastic Extra time spent
states
•Interesting Pleasure Extra money spent
Complexity Pleased Communicate with floor staff
•Complete range of product Sensory Satisfied Desire to return in the future
•Product variety perception of the Comfort
•Up-to-date product environment Bored
•Atmospheric monotony stimuli
•Atmopsheric innumerable Arousal
Excited Avoidance Behaviour
Density Wide awake Unfavourable Shopping discontentment
•Restricted movement Gloomy emotional Desire to leave the store
•Privacy Active states Avoid interaction with the store
•Crowded exhibit Avoid personal communicate
•Proper exhibit density To avoid future visit
Scale
•Simple decor
•Large area
•Systemic decor
•Large scale

Figure 3 ModiŽ ed Mehrabrian-Russell environmental psychology model applied to CD retailing

 In-store buying behaviour 317

Stimulus factors (S)

Stores and store design in the form of atmosphere project massive amounts
of information to shoppers with cues such as display, colour, lighting,
layout, departmentalization. All of these features constitute sensory
stimulation and are intended to generate a high level of sensory
involvement on the part of customers. However, it is difŽ cult to measure
the stimulus factors because there are numerous stimuli involved in any
environmental setting and information rate is theoretically a unidimen-
sional variable. Mehrabian and Russell proposed the information rate
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concept to characterize an everyday environment. Information rate is

deŽ ned as degree of stimulus from novelty and complexity. Novelty
implies the unexpected, the surprising, the new and the unfamiliar.
Complexity refers to the number of elements or features and to the extent
of motion or change in an environment. The more novel and complex the
environment, the higher the information rate. The four information rate
measures are stated in Table 1.

Emotional states as the mediating variables (O)

Mehrabian and Russell offer three basic emotional states that mediate
approach–avoidance behaviours in the retail environment. The emotional
responses, known by the acronym PAD, are: Pleasure – Displeasure,
Arousal – Nonarousal and Dominance – Submissiveness. Pleasure refers to
the extent to which a person feels good, joyful, happy or satisŽ ed in the
environment and arousal relates to the extent to which a person feels
excited or stimulated, alert or active in a situation. The model states that
any environment has emotion-inducing capacity and produces different
emotional states, characterized in terms of the dimensions mentioned
above, in an individual. Mehrabian and Russell hypothesized that pleasure
would be signiŽ cantly related to overall approach–avoidance behavioural
measures. Arousal would have an interactive effect with pleasantness so
that arousal would be positively related to approach behaviours in pleasant
environments, but negatively related in unpleasant environments. Dom-
inance would be positively related to approach behaviours, but, for
theoretical reasons and because of lack of empirical support, the
dominance dimension has usually been deleted in studies using the M-R
model. The measures of emotional states are summarized in Table 2.
It is found that respondents’ ratings on the Mehrabian and Russell
emotional instrument upon entering the store signiŽ cantly predicted
approach–avoidance measures such as liking of store, enjoyment of
shopping in the store, willingness to spend time in the store, willingness to
spend more money in the store and willingness to return (Donovan and
 318 Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

Table 1 Measures of information rate

Information rate Information rate measures

dimension
Novelty 1 The music and news in the CD store are out of your
expectation.
2 *The music and news in the CD store are common.
3 *The music and news in the CD store are familiar.
4 The music and news in the CD store are novel.
5 The music and news in the CD store are fantastic.†
6 The music and news in the CD store are interesting.
Complexity 1 There are wide variety of CD product.
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2 This CD store contain a complete range of CD.†

3 The product in this CD store is up-to-date.†
4 *The store atmosphere of the CD store is monotony.
5 The store atmosphere of the CD store is innumerable.
Density 1 The exhibit and decor are densely located.
2 *Your movement in the CD store is restricted.†
3 You get some private space to enjoy the music.
Size 1 The CD store is large in scale.
2 The area of the CD store is large.
3 *The decor and exhibit are simple.
4 The decor and exhibit are systematically arranged.†
5 This is a CD specialty store.†
Notes
* Some items are purposely reversed so as to test the consistency of the answers.
Items reverse scored prior to statistical analyses.
† ModiŽ cation recommended by the focus group members.

Table 2 Meausures of the emotional states

Emotional states Emotional states measures

dimensions
Pleasure 1 You feel pleased in this CD store.
2 You feel satisŽ ed in this CD store.
3 You feel comfortable in this CD store.
4 *You feel bored in this CD store.
Arousal 1 You feel excited in this CD store.
2 You feel wide-awake in this CD store.
3 *You feel gloomy in this CD store.
4 You feel active in this CD store.
Notes
* Some items are purposely reversed so as to test the consistency of the answers.
Items reverse scored prior to statistical analyses.
 In-store buying behaviour 319

Table 3 Measures of approach–avoidance variables

Approach–avoidance variables
You like the store environment.
You enjoy shopping in the store.
You will actively communicate with the store staff if it is necessary.
You are active in CD trial.
You are active in browsing and exploring the CD store.
Time spent in browsing this CD store is more than intended.
Money spent in this CD store is more than intended.
You will return to this CD store in the future.
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Rossiter 1982). Pleasure was a signiŽ cant predictor over all measures.
Arousal was a signiŽ cant predictor only of afŽ liation measures. However, as
predicted by the M-R model, when pleasant and unpleasant environments
were analysed separately, arousal was a signiŽ cant predictor of approach–
avoidance behaviour.

Behavioral responses (R)

All responses to an environment can be divided into approach or avoidance

behaviours. Eight behavioural dependent variables, adapted from the study
by Mehrabian and Russell (1974), are used to measure the general
approach–avoidance intentions. ModiŽ cations have been made to Ž t the
CD retail shopping intention in Hong Kong. The eight statements are
listed in Table 3.

Hypothesis and methodology

The model assumes a direct relationship between information load of an

environment and the emotion elicited in the environment. Therefore, an
environment with high information load will induce pleasure and arousal
feeling states in an individual. The positive (negative) emotional states will
lead to approach (avoidance) behaviour.
Therefore, the three hypotheses are formulated as follows:

Hypothesis 1: Degree of pleasure and arousal evoked by an environ-

ment is a direct function of the information load of the
environment.
Hypothesis 2: Emotional states are signiŽ cantly related to overall
approach–avoidance behavioural measures.
 320 Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

Hypothesis 3: Pleasure and arousal are positively related to approach

behaviours in innovative CD stores, but negatively
related in traditional CD stores.
Before the questionnaire was designed, two focus groups consisting of
high-school students were conducted in order to Ž nd out the terms which
the shoppers used to describe their perception of (1) environmental
stimuli, and (2) environment-induced emotional states within the CD
store. The consumer survey follows the methodological analyses of the
Donovan and Rossiter study, though some modiŽ cations are made to
account for the retail outlets’ differences in order to secure the measure-
ment of:
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(1) The information load of two types of CD store.

(2) The emotional states induced in the two types of CD store.
(3) Approach and avoidance behaviour of shoppers in two types of CD
store.

Questionnaire design

The questionnaire consisted of four parts in order to achieve the objectives

mentioned above. A 5-point Likert scale was used for respondents to
evaluate their degree of agreement with each statement. In part one, the
four information-rate measures: novelty, complexity, density and size, were
deŽ ned. Part two assessed the emotional states induced in the CD stores
visited by the respondents with eight measures of the pleasure and arousal
dimensions. Part three measured the respondents’ behavioural intentions
in the store. Part four covered the actual and planned time/money spent in
the two types of CD stores and the demographic proŽ le of the
respondents.

Sampling

Quota sampling was used to ensure that the respondents were selected
across a wide age range. A sample of 300 elements was selected, 150 of
them selected from those who came out of an innovative CD store and
another 150 from those who had visited traditional stores. The survey was
conducted by personal interview from October 1995 to December 1995. As
far as their demographic proŽ le is concerned, nearly half of the
respondents are students, 42 per cent of them belong to the group with
less than US$ 400 monthly spending income and 66 per cent of them are
under the age of 25. As for educational level, 51 per cent of the
respondents are within the secondary and matriculation level and 44 per
cent are within the tertiary education level.
 In-store buying behaviour 321

Research Ž ndings

Results of factor analysis of environmental stimuli, emotional states and

approach–avoidance behaviour

Environmental stimuli (information rate) The factor analysis yielded four

factors with eigen values greater than 1.0, accounting for 67.5 per cent of
the variance. VARIMAX converged in six iterations and extracted
dimensions labelled as novelty (factor 1), scale (factor 2), complexity
(factor 3) and density (factor 4). The rotated solution is demonstrated in
Table 4. Discrepancies are found between this research and previous
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studies because adjustment and modiŽ cation have been made to adapt the
information rate measures in CD retailing. Instead of Ž ve factors as in the
Donovan and Rossiter (1982) study, only four factors are extracted by this
study.

Emotional states (pleasure and arousal) Factor analysis (principal compo-

nents) of the eight pleasure and arousal items extracted two factors with

Table 4 Factor loadings for the information rate measures†

Measures Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4

Novelty .87025 .16064 .13979 .03590
Interesting .78803 .20762 .17312 .17608
Fantastic .76322 .25869 .24001 .19166
Common* .72180 .32470 .23508 .13792
Familiar* .71657 .07681 .15323 .03272
Surprise .59067 .35104 .19753 .18978
Simple decor* .22561 .82501 .16500 .13292
Large area .35521 .68394 .35983 .23389
Systemic decor .12024 .68340 .25799 .10824
Large scale .33229 .66406 .32124 .22789
Specialty store .42433 .63884 .28856 .20351
Complete product .24277 .22836 .84863 .17317
range
Variety product .15320 .23156 .76582 .21540
Up-to-date product .15539 .19004 .65942 .08204
Atmospheric Monotony* .35042 .40271 .61318 .16204
Atmospheric .44928 .29274 .58369 .14856
Restricted movement* .05778 .06901 2 .00326 .83929
Privacy .23453 .29235 .03854 .79227
Crowded exhibit 2 .15036 2 .15605 2 .06546 .67343
Proper exhibit density .03866 .06249 .27463 .65608
Notes
* Some items are purposely reversed so as to test the consistency of the answers.
Items reverse scored prior to statistical analyses.
† Sorted by size.
 322 Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

Table 5 Factor loadings for the emotional states measures†

Measures Factor 1 Factor 2

Comfort .89521 .18842
Bored* .82552 .19792
SatisŽ ed .79337 .26439
Pleased .75115 .31954
Wide-awake .24625 .84997
Excited .18194 .84465
Active .21404 .82179
Gloomy .32445 .72306
Variance 55.7% 16.8%
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Notes
* Some items are purposely reversed so as to test the
consistency of the answers. Items reverse scored prior to
statistical analyses.
† Sorted by size.

eigen values greater than 1.0, accounting for 72.5 per cent of the variance.
The rotated solution of the two factors is shown in Table 5. VARIMAX
converged in three iterations. The two factors are labelled as pleasure
(factor 1) and arousal (factor 2). The two-factor rotated solution showed a
clear boundary between the pleasure and arousal items consistent with
expectations of the M-R model and with the Donovan and Rossiter (1982)
Ž ndings. The two-factor solution was therefore retained for the present
analysis.

Behavioural measures (approach–avoidance) Factor analysis (principal

components) of the eight behavioural items extracted two factors with
eigen values greater than 1.0, accounting for 71.9 per cent of the variance
(Table 6). The two factors are overall behaviour (factor 1) and staff
communication (factor 2). The Ž rst factor captures all the behaviour

Table 6 Factor loadings for behavioural measure†

Measures Factor 1 Factor 2

Exploring .90562 2 .05333
CD trial .90171 .02497
Time spent .86883 2 .10457
Shopping environment .84810 .12834
Like .83849 .15995
Future patronage .72195 .08042
Money spent .61793 .00378
Communication .03592 .98842
Variance 59.1% 12.8%
† Sorted by size
 In-store buying behaviour 323

measures except the measure of ‘staff communication’. VARIMAX

converged in three iterations.
If the measure of ‘staff communication’ is removed, the analysis yields
only a single factor. ‘Staff communication’ is purposely removed from the
factor analysis because this behaviour is seldom demonstrated due to the
self-service and do-it-yourself nature of the CD store. The analysis of the
behavioural measures matches with that detected by Donovan and Rossiter
(1982) and the Ž nding of the M-R model. The behavioural measures are
unidimensional in nature because of their high factor loading as a single
factor and the low shared variance.
Since the scale is obtained by summing responses to individual items, an
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alpha coefŽ cient is used to measure how strongly the items on a scale are
related to each other. Reliability correlations between individual items and
the rest of the scale computed are as shown in Table 7. All the items get an
acceptably high reliability score (more than 0.8) so it is justiŽ ed and
reasonable to utilize the various subscales for the remaining analysis.
However, ‘Density’ gets a very low alpha coefŽ cient compared with the
other measures and caution is needed in the subsequent analysis.

Table 7 Reliability estimates (coefŽ cient alpha) for the

index measures

Measures CoefŽ cient alpha a

Information rate
Novelty .8981
Complexity .8684
Density .1687
Scale .8870
Emotional states
Pleasure .8749
Arousal .8671
Dependent measures
Overall behaviour .8733

Results of regression analysis of the interrelationships among environmental

stimuli, emotional states and approach–avoidance behaviour

Information rate and emotional states (emotional states as dependent varia-

ble) In term of multiple R and R2, information rate is a signiŽ cant
predictor only of arousal in this study, accounting for 53 per cent of the
variance (Table 8). The in uence of environmental stimuli over the
pleasure dimension is relatively limited (adjusted R2 5 21 per cent),
though all the information-rate measures extend pleasure states rather than
 324 Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

Table 8 Beta coefŽ cients for information rate dimensions used

to predict emotional states

Dimensions Pleasure Arousal

Novelty .07 .54
Complexity .27 .21
Scale .34 .35
Density .15 .29
Multiple R .47 .73
R2 (adjusted) .21 .53
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decreasing them. The in uence of information rate on pleasure is not

strong enough to reach a signiŽ cant level. The reason may be that people
seldom fed displeasure in either kind of CD store. Besides, one of the
consumer shopping motives is as an antidote to loneliness or boredom. If
people do not feel pleased by the experience, they will not bother even to
enter the store. That is why only 21 per cent of the variance is explained
thus.
Moreover, the effect of environmental stimuli (information rate) on
arousal is relatively notable. It is especially so for the connection between
novelty and arousal. This discovery synchronizes with the optimal
stimulation theory (Wohlwill 1956) to a certain extent. The more
respondents Ž nd the environment novel, the higher the chance people will
demonstrate exploratory behaviour satisfy curiosity by clarifying the
uncertain (novel) stimuli. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 is partly conŽ rmed.
Only arousal evoked by the environment is a direct function of the
information load of the environment. Pleasure, on the other hand, does not
behave according to the hypothesis. Overall environmental stimuli has
limited in uence on the pleasure felt by shoppers. Novelty seems to have
a relatively great impact on arousal.

Emotional states and approach–avoidance behaviour (behaviour as dependent

variable) The results show that both pleasure and arousal are signiŽ cant
predictors of the overall dependent behavioural measures. The emotional
states proved to be an important predictor of global approach–avoidance
behavior (all the dependent variables except the variable of ‘staff
communication’), accounting for 80 per cent of the variance in intended
approach–avoidance behaviour with a beta of more than 0.50. If more
speciŽ c within-store behaviour is considered, the effect of emotional states
(pleasure and arousal) differs. Generally speaking, pleasure and arousal
increase each speciŽ c behaviour rather than reducing it (Table 9).
The effects of emotional states on ‘CD trial’ (R2 5 77 per cent), ‘desire
to explore’ (R2 5 75 per cent) and ‘time spent’ (R2 5 62 per cent) are
signiŽ cant. The three behavioural dependent variables are somewhat
related to one another because the more the respondents try the CDs and
 In-store buying behaviour 325

Table 9 Beta coefŽ cients for pleasure and arousal as a predictor of approach–
avoidance responses

Dimension APR- Like Enjoy Comm- CD Explore Time Money Future

AVO unicate trial spent spent patronage
Pleasure .63 .65 .61 .13 .51 .71 .52 .38 .36
Arousal .54 .46 .45 2 .07 .64 .53 .63 .13 .50
Multiple R .89 .80 .76 .15 .88 .87 .81 .38 .61
R2 (adjusted) .80 .63 .57 .02 .77 .75 .62 .11 .37

explore the store, the more time they will spend in the store. The
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relationship between pleasure and the three dependent variables can be

explained by the mood-protection mechanism as a positive mood will lead
to generous and helpful behaviour rather than control (Isen 1970).
The effects of emotional states on ‘staff communication’ (R2 5 2 per
cent), ‘money spent’ (R2 5 11 per cent) and ‘future patronage’ (R2 5 37
per cent) are relatively insigniŽ cant. Since all CD stores are self-service in
nature, shoppers can freely navigate through the store without consulting
any staff. In fact, the more active the shoppers, the more they will be
absorbed into their exploration of the store and the less dependent on  oor
staff for supervision. That is why the beta coefŽ cient of arousal on ‘staff
communication’ is negative (2 0.07). Besides in-store environment, other
factors will also affect the amount of money spent and future patronage of
a given CD store. In a real-world situation, small percentage increases in
behaviour by the customers can yield a substantial dollar increase in both
turnover and proŽ ts. The Ž ndings are consistent with Markin et al.’s
(1976) Ž nding that an aroused shopper will spend more time and effort in
the transaction with the store environment. Therefore, emotional states
can affect the overall approach–avoidance behavioural measures, except for
the speciŽ c measure ‘staff communication’. Hypothesis 2 is conŽ rmed.

Information rate and approach–avoidance behaviour (behaviour as dependent

variable) The Ž ndings also show that in-store environmental stimuli
(information rate) affects behavioural dependent measures, accounting for
67 per cent of the variance (Table 10). Though it is less effective than
emotional states in eliciting overall approach–avoidance shopping behav-
iour, information rate tends to affect in-store dependent behavioural
variables positively (with positive beta coefŽ cient), except for the variable
of ‘staff communication’.
This shows that information rate can stimulate time and effort spending
within the CD store (Table 10). Such a phenomenon synchronizes to a
certain extent with the prediction of stimulation psychological theory.
People like stimulation. When the environmental stimulation departs from
optimal, tension results and people will be driven to clarify (explore more
or try the CD) the stimulation so as to maintain the optimal or
 326 Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

equilibrium. It seems that the information rate (environmental stimulation)

enhances the activity of shoppers in-store. Furthermore, the scale of an
environment seems to have an obvious relation with the variable of ‘desire
to explore’ (beta coefŽ cient 5 0.58) and ‘CD trial’ (beta coefŽ cient 5 0.52)
in the store. A larger-scale environment provides more space for the
shopper to navigate and explore compared with a small-scale store. A large-
scale CD store also tends to have CD trial installation which can induce
more product trial. Therefore, the information rate of an environment
affects the overall approach–avoidance behaviour of the people within it. If
individual behavioural responses are considered, the information rate of an
environment has signiŽ cant positive effects only on willingness of time
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spent and effort paid by the shoppers. The scale of a store has a
relationship with the time and efforts paid by the shoppers.

Table 10 Beta coefŽ cients for information rate as a predictor of approach–

avoidance responses

Dimension APR- Like Enjoy Comm- CD Explore Time Money Future

AVO unicate trial spent spent patronage
Novelty .40 .28 .27 2 .16 .36 .35 .38 .27 .23
Complex .44 .32 .40 .05 .36 .33 .34 .26 .40
Scale .49 .40 .40 .02 .58 .52 .43 .29 .34
Density .29 .27 .27 2 .02 .23 .24 .27 .13 .26
Multiple R .82 .64 .68 .16 .77 .75 .73 .49 .62
R2 (adjusted) .67 .41 .46 .01 .52 .55 .54 .23 .38

Approach–avoidance behaviour and emotional states (emotional states as

dependent variable) The predictive power of behaviour on pleasure is
acceptable, accounting for 57 per cent of the variance, but its predictive
power on arousal is relatively restrained, accounting for only 37 per cent of
the variance. The in uence of in-store behaviour tends to intensify
pleasure rather than retrench it, as the beta coefŽ cient is positive. In-store
behavioural in uence on arousal is generally positive, with the exception of
‘shopping enjoyment’ and ‘desire to explore’ although the in uence of
behaviour on arousal is barely admissible (beta coefŽ cient marginally more
than 0.20 (Table 11).
If the speciŽ c behavioural variables are considered, ‘CD trial’ and ‘desire
to explore’ have comparatively more effect on pleasure (beta coefŽ cients of
.31 and .38). Therefore, the more shoppers explore the store and try to
listen to CDs, the more happiness and satisfaction they will gain. The
positive relationship between the two behavioural variables and pleasure
can be explained by the theory of psychological stimulation (Wohlwill
 In-store buying behaviour 327

Table 11 Beta coefŽ cients for speciŽ c behaviour measures as a

predictor of emotional responses

Dimension Pleasure Arousal

Liking of shopping .19 .07
Shopping enjoyment .11 2 .03
CD trial .31 .15
Desire to explore .38 2 .05
Time spent .17 .28
Money spent .00 .11
Future patronage .16 .21
Multiple R .76 .62
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R2(adjusted) .57 .37

1956). In the course of exploratory behaviour (CD trial and exploring the
store), shoppers obtained gratiŽ cation and fulŽ lment (pleasure). Therefore,
in-store shopping behaviour has a signiŽ cant effect on pleasure but not on
arousal.

Emotional states and information rate (information rate as dependent

variable) Even though emotional states tend to enhance the informa-
tional rate of an environment rather than reduce it, this study cannot show
any signiŽ cant predictive power of emotional states on the informational
rate because the maximum variance accounted for by emotional states is 29
per cent (Table 12). The results are not consistent with the concept of a
mood-protection mechanism. The reason may be that multi-attribute
analysis is used to measure the environmental stimuli. Shoppers may not
perceive the store along with the attributes (novelty and complexity). Some
of the information-rate measures may not be appropriate measures for each
subject because they may apply the same adjectives quite differently.
As most of the respondents have visited both types of CD stores before,
the long-term effects of exposure to existing CD stores featuring a
particular level of intensity, complexity, incongruity of stimulation will
reduce the stimulation ability of the stores. Shoppers have already adjusted
their adaptation level, and the environmental stimuli have become to a
great extent within the subject’s expectation. Such phenomena may limit
the study’s capacity to prove the effect of emotional states on the
information rate.
Moreover, there is a positive relationship between arousal and novelty,
with a beta coefŽ cient of 0.54. In a given environment and everything
being constant, the more aroused a person, the greater the amount of
novelty will be discovered within the environment. The Ž nding is
consistent with Raju (1977). Therefore, the result shows that emotional
states do not have any signiŽ cant effect on informational states.
 328 Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

Table 12 Beta coefŽ cients for pleasure and arousal as a predictor of perception of
the information rate

Dimension Novelty Complexity Scale Density

Pleasure .07 .27 .34 .15
Arousal .54 .21 .35 .28
Multiple R .54 .34 .48 .32
R2 (adjusted) .29 .11 .23 .10

Comparison between the innovative and the traditional CD stores

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Respondents are split into two groups: innovative CD store customers and
traditional CD store customers. Respondents from innovative CD stores
generally reported a higher level of emotional states than those from
traditional CD stores (Table 13). Level of arousal of customers of
innovative CD stores particularly outweighed that of customers of
traditional stores. It is inferred that respondents in innovative CD stores
feel relatively more pleasure and arousal than those in traditional CD
stores. The F probability for all the emotional states measures is greater
than or equal to 0.05.
For innovative CD stores, the proportions of variance accounted for by
pleasure and arousal in predicting dependent behavioural measures are
quite acceptable (adjusted R2 5 51 per cent). On the contrary, the
in uence of pleasure and arousal in predicting behavioural measures in
traditional CD stores is relatively poor, accounting for only 12 per cent of
the variance, though emotional states generally increase dependent

Table 13 Emotional states comparison between innovative and traditional CD

stores

Emotional states Traditional CD store Innovative CD store

Pleased 3.68 3.94
SatisŽ ed 3.07 3.68
Comfort 2.87 3.48
Bored 3.03 4.11
Excited 2.78 3.78
Wide-awake 2.67 3.62
Gloomy 3.22 3.87
Active 3.48 4.05
Note
Some items are purposely reversed so as to test the consistency of the answer.
Items reversed scored prior to statistical analyses.
A 5-point Likert scale is employed. 1 5 strongly disagree, 2 5 disagree, 3 5 neu-
tral, 4 5 agree, 5 5 strongly agree
F . 0.05 p , 0.05 (separate variance estimate)
 In-store buying behaviour 329

Table 14a Innovative CD store: beta coefŽ cients for pleasure and arousal as a
predictor of approach–avoidance responses

Dimension APR- Like Enjoy Comm- CD Explore Time Money Future

AVO unicate trial spent spent patronage

Pleasure .56 .65 .51 .27 .34 .38 .27 .31 .42
Arousal .42 .24 .10 .02 .67 .56 .53 .14 .27
Multiple R .72 .65 .50 .27 .70 .68 .47 .32 .38
R2 (adjusted) .51 .41 .24 .06 .48 .38 .21 .09 .14
n5 150
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Table 14b Traditional CD store: beta coefŽ cients for pleasure and arousal as a
predictor of approach–avoidance responses

Dimension APR- Like Enjoy Comm- CD Explore Time Money Future

AVO unicate trial spent spent patronage

Pleasure .31 .43 .43 .15 .13 .32 .24 .06 .33
Arousal .21 .23 .09 2 02 2 .07 .22 .10 .18 .13
Multiple R .37 .49 .42 .15 .14 .39 .26 .19 .35
R2 (adjusted) .12 .23 .24 .01 .01 .14 .06 .02 .11
n5 150

measures rather than reducing them. Besides, the effects of emotional

states in innovative CD stores on speciŽ c behavioural variables are more
noteworthy than those in traditional CD stores, with the beta coefŽ cient
ranging from (0.65 to 0.02) and (0.43 to 2 0.07) respectively (Tables 14a
and 14b).
In a more pleasant environment (innovative CD store), arousal tends to
increase all the behavioural dependent variables (with positive beta
coefŽ cient), especially variables concerning extra time and effort allocation
in the CD store. In a less pleasant environment (traditional CD store),
arousal does not reduce the dependent variables except the variable of ‘CD
trial’ and ‘staff communication’. In a more pleasant environment (in-
novative CD store), pleasure is signiŽ cantly associated with overall
approach–avoidance behaviour (beta 5 0.56) and the affective variables of
‘like’ (beta 5 0.56) and ‘enjoyment of shopping’ (beta 5 0.51), but this is
not so in the less pleasant environment (traditional CD store) with a beta
coefŽ cient of less than 0.50.
This may be the reason why in the more pleasant environment
(innovative CD store), arousal is signiŽ cant in predicting the variables of
‘CD trial’ (beta 5 0.67), ‘desire to explore’ (beta 5 0.56) and ‘extra time
spent’ (beta 5 0.53). All three variables signiŽ ed the allocation of extra
effort and time resources spending of the shoppers.
 330 Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

Conversely, in a less pleasant environment (traditional CD store),

arousal is not in the hypothesized direction of relating negatively with the
dependent variables. Although not signiŽ cantly, arousal is positively related
to all the behavioural dependent variables. In comparison with the
innovative CD store, the traditional one is weaker in prompting shoppers
to allocate more effort and time resources to explore the store or examine
the products, as the effect of arousal on the variable of ‘CD trial’
(beta 5 2 0.07), ‘desire to explore’ (beta 5 0.22) and ‘extra time spent’
(beta 5 0.10) is limited. The fragile relationship may be due to the fact that
hardly any traditional CD stores have installed any CD trial equipment.
Also, traditional CD stores are generally small, which further reduces time
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and effort by shoppers in transactions with the stores.

The variable of ‘staff communication’ is weak in both environments. No
matter in which type of CD store, arousal fails to induce signiŽ cant
communication with  oor staff (beta coefŽ cient less than 0.5). The main
reason may be that communication with  oor staff is not usually necessary
due to the self-service tradition of CD stores in Hong Kong. Neither type
of CD store can induce a signiŽ cant positive relationship between
emotional states and amount of extra money spent in the stores. Both of
them account for less than 10 per cent of the variance. However, if we look
into the extent to which CD stores induce impulse purchasing, innovative
CD stores are again superior, accounting for 9 per cent of the variance as
compared with 2 per cent in traditional CD stores. Moreover, if
respondents are asked directly about the actual and planned purchase, a
similar picture emerges in which the superiority of the innovative CD store
becomes more obvious.
Comparing extra money spent in the both types of CD stores, the
innovative CD store is doing better than the traditional one in inducing
impulse purchase. For respondents who visit the innovative CD store, 53.7
per cent have impulse purchased. Only 12.6 per cent of respondents have
impulse purchased in a traditional CD store. This may be attributed to the
differentiated store atmosphere of innovative CD stores. (Tables 15a and
15b).
Traditional CD store customers usually plan purchases as is evidenced
by the fact that the variance (0.182) of the traditional CD store is smaller
than that of the innovative one (0.766). Since all the CDs are standardized
and the customers are loyal to their own idols, singers or bands rather than
individual CD stores, there is a limited effect of emotional states on the
variables of ‘extra money spent’ and ‘future patronage’. Therefore, with
the exception of some speciŽ c variables, pleasure and arousal induced in
both traditional and innovative CD stores are positively related to
approach–avoidance behaviour, but emotional states in uence differently
between the two types of CD store. In a more pleasant (innovative) CD
store, arousal signiŽ cantly predicts variables of ‘CD trial’, ‘desire to
explore’ and ‘time spent’. In a less pleasant traditional CD store, arousal
 In-store buying behaviour 331

Table 15a Number of CDs purchased at both types of CD store

No. of CDs Innovative CD Traditional CD

purchased store store
% Cum. % % Cum. %

3 4.7 4.7 — —
2 10.1 14.8 1.3 1.3
1 38.9 53.7 11.3 12.6
0 43.0 96.7 84.7 97.3
2 1 3.4 100 2.7 100
Total 100% 100%
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Table 15b Percentage of planned and actual money spent in both types of CD
store

Innovative CD store
Planned purchase before store entry Actual purchase after
store entry
0 CD 63.8% 0 CD 24.2%
n 5 96 2 or , 2 57.9%
3 to 4 CD 13.7%
5 to 6 CD 4.2%
2 or , 2 36.2% 0 CD 25.9%
n 5 54 2 or , 2 42.6%
3 to 4 CD 20.4%
5 to 6 CD 7.4%
7 to 8 CD 3.7%

Traditional CD store
Planned purchase before store entry Actual purchase after
store entry
0 CD 55.3% 0 CD 50.6%
n 5 83 2 or , 2 43.4%
3 to 4 CD 6.0%

2 or , 2 44.7% 0 CD 37.9%
n 5 67 2 or , 2 60.6%
3 to 4 CD 1.5%
%

generally increases behavioural dependent measures (except ‘CD trial’ and

‘staff communication’).
Overall, the Ž ndings show that respondents experience positive emo-
tional states in both types of CD stores. However, respondents felt a higher
level of emotional state in innovative CD stores than they did in traditional
ones. The interaction between pleasure and arousal is partly conŽ rmed by
 332 Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

the study. In a more pleasant environment (innovative CD store), arousal

particularly increases the allocation of extra effort and time spent in the
store. In a less pleasant environment (traditional CD store), arousal does
not reduce shopping-related behaviour except for CD trial and commu-
nication with the staff.
Table 16 shows the predictive power of emotional states in both kinds of
CD stores over the dependent behavioural variables in terms of the
proportion of variance explained. Generally speaking, the innovative CD
store is superior in inducing shopping behaviour favorable to the retailers.
Environmentally-induced emotional states in innovative CD stores have
more in uence and predictive power over the global dependent behavioural
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variables and each individual in-store behaviour under investigation. So

pleasure and arousal are positively related to approach behaviour in
innovative CD stores. This partly validates hypothesis 3. However,
environmentally induced emotional states in traditional CD stores do not
act in the hypothesized direction and are not negatively related to the
dependent behaviour measures. Rather, emotional states induced in
traditional CD stores enhance approach behaviour though it is in an
insigniŽ cant way. So the second part of the hypothesis is not proven.

Table 16 Proportion of variance (adjusted R2) accounted for by emotional states in

predicting dependent behavioural variables

Dependent behaviour measures Innovative CD Traditional CD

stores stores
Overall approach ( 1 ve)– .51 .12
avoidance ( 2 ve) behaviour
Liking of shopping .41 .23
Enjoyment of shopping .24 .24
Communication with staff .06 .01
Active CD trial .48 .01
Active exploring the store .38 .14
Time spent in the store .21 .06
Money spent in the store .09 .02
Likelihood of future patronage .14 .11

Conclusion: applicability of the Mehrabian-Russell

environmental psychology model to in-store buying behaviour

The Ž ndings of this study reinforce the conclusion by Donovan and

Rossiter (1982) and others that the Mehrabian-Russell environmental
psychology model is useful for the study of store behaviour.
 In-store buying behaviour 333

Effect of information rate on in-store emotional states

The Ž ndings demonstrate that shoppers’ perceptions of in-store environ-

mental stimuli (expressed in terms of informational rate) partly predict
emotional states. Hypothesis 1 is partly conŽ rmed. Informational rate has
strong effects on arousal only. The predictive power of informational rate
on pleasure is rather conŽ ned. More speciŽ cally, the degree of novelty of
the CD store contributes much in emotional states of arousal. The Ž ndings
partly coincide with the Ž nding of Donovan and Rossister (1982) that the
effect of information rate on emotional states was not signiŽ cant.
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Effect of emotional states on behaviour

Emotional states within the store signiŽ cantly predict overall approach–
avoidance behaviour. This substantiates hypothesis 2. More speciŽ cally,
pleasure and arousal induced by store environments appears to be a strong
cause of consumers’ allocation of their effort (CD trial and desire of
exploring the store) and time resources. The results are consistent with the
prediction of the M-R model and the results of Donovan and Rossiter.

Effect of information rate on behaviour

Besides environmentally induced emotional states, information rate also

positively affects overall in-store shopping behaviour. SpeciŽ cally, in-store
environmental stimuli have a strong effect over some speciŽ c dependent
behavioural variables. The study shows that the information rate of the CD
store is a cause in predicting the allocation of consumers’ time and effort
(CD trial, desire to explore the store and time spent) in the store. As
mentioned before, it is the scale of a store that contributes to such
behaviour in a noteworthy way. The result does not coincide with that of
Donovan and Rossiter’s study which employs the same set of information-
rate measures for all different types of retailer under selection. In this
study, the same set of information-rate variables is used to measure only
two types of retailers in the same industry. Besides, an effort had been
made to tailor the instrument to the local CD store environment. This may
enhance the measurability of the instrument and contribute to the
accuracy and consistency of the measure.

Effect of behaviour on in-store emotional states

The predictability of in-store approach–avoidance behaviour over emo-

tional states is relatively restricted. The result shows that in-store shopping
 334 Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

behaviour can signiŽ cantly predict the degree of pleasure felt by shoppers,
but its effect on arousal is rather conŽ ned. Such a result chimes with the
theory of psychological stimulation. As Wohlwill (1956) pointed out,
‘stimulation seeking is a basic human nature’. In the course of navigation
through the CD store, the more the stimuli, the more gratiŽ cation and
fulŽ lment (pleasure) will be felt by the shoppers.

Effect of emotional states on the information rate

The Ž ndings of the study do not follow the prediction of mood-protection

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mechanism (Clark & Isen 1982) that positive mood tends to bias the
evaluation of stimuli in a mood congruent way. The result does not show
any signiŽ cant predictive power of emotional states on the evaluation of
environmental stimuli, though emotional states increase the evaluation of
the information rate rather than reducing it. The study shows that arousal
has a positive in uence over perception of novelty of environmental
stimuli.

Model modiŽ cation

Originally, the Mehrabian and Russell environmental psychological model

stated that a high information-load environment will induce positive
emotional states. The emotional states, in turn, act as a moderator directly
related to human behaviour within that environment. Positive (negative)
emotional states will lead to approach (avoidance) behaviour. However, the
Ž ndings of the study show that the model is not at all as simple as that
predicted by Mehrabian and Russell. The environmental psychological
components may not affect one another only in a single one-way direction
(Figure 4).
It is found that in-store behaviour has a positive effect on the pleasure
felt in the store, though the effect of in-store behaviour on arousal is
statistically not signiŽ cant. Emotional state is transient in nature affecting

Original Flow

Approach or
Environmental Emotional States:
Avoidance
Stimuli Pleasure Arousal
Responses

Figure 4 Mehrabian-Russell model for future studies

 In-store buying behaviour 335

by the interaction process between the environment and the consumer.

Consumers in a particular emotional state at time T, who then have a bad
(good) shopping experience at T 1 1 through the interaction process, may
report a decline (ascent) in mood at T 1 2 which is a residual effect of their
experience in the store (Swinyard 1993). The Ž nding is consistent with
Wohlwill’s (1956) that behaviour in-store affects emotional states and
humans generally aim to heighten the incoming level of stimulation by
voluntary exposure to stimulus objects. As shoppers explore more, the
degree of pleasure felt will be higher because the need of novelty seeking
is partially fulŽ lled. Besides, the concept of impulse purchase further
sustains the notion that in-store approach behaviour (e.g. extra money
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spending on impulse) will lead to the attainment of immediate gratiŽ cation

and paciŽ cation of the sudden urge to process the product.
Besides, in-store behaviour also has its effect on in-store rating of
environmental stimuli. In the course of deŽ ning the in-store stimuli,
shoppers will discover more stimuli through exploratory behaviour. This
leads to the proposition that approach or exploratory behaviour will lead to
higher information rate as the shoppers get to know more about the place.
Such reasoning is supported by Raju (1977) who stated that a high level of
exploratory behaviour will in turn result in high in ation rate.
Positive emotional states help to enhance the evaluation of in-store
stimuli because mood appears to bias evaluations and judgements of
stimuli in mood-congruent directions. Although this study does not show
any signiŽ cant predictive power of emotional states on information rate
because the adjusted R2 is negligible, other theoretical support suggests
room for further investigation of the model. The above argument suggests
that the in-store environment is dynamic in nature. It is clear that in-store
environmental stimuli affect shoppers’ behaviour as well as their affective
states. However, on the other side of the coin, the three components are
actually affecting one another. It is suggested that future studies can pay
attention on this phenomenon and investigate the interrelationship among
the three components rather than the single one-way in uence of the
components affecting one after the other.

Limitations and suggestions for future research

Most of the respondents are within the age range of 18 to 25 as they are
the group who are more willing to respond. The measurement of attitude
and intentions relies on recall of emotions by the respondents. It may be
subject to memory error and post hoc attributions. As in other studies
applying the M-R model, shoppers are not screened out for familiarity
with the store. If shoppers are familiar with the store, they may experience
preconditioned emotional approach or avoidance responses that would
 336 Susan H.C. Tai and Agnes M.C. Fung

override or even hinder the emotions induced by the store atmosphere.

Therefore the validity of the study may be affected.
This paper assumed that pleasure and arousal are induced by the store
environment. However, the assessment of feeling states within the store
environment may re ect feeling states brought to the environment rather
than induced by the environment. No doubt emotions measured in the
store re ect some combination of these. This problem together with the
post-measurement problem, could be solved in future by measurement of
pleasure and arousal dimensions prior to entering the store as well as some
time after entering the store.
In this study, the information rate measures are custom-made and
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adjustments were made to account for the difference and to adapt the
model to the CD store situation. So the predictive power of information
rate on behaviour response is statistically acceptable. It is recommended
that the information rate measures be modiŽ ed for the environment under
investigation for future study as the environmental stimuli measurement is
custom-made for each type of environment (store) under study. Results
will be more speciŽ c if one type of retailing industry is examined at a time.
Future research can also focus on determination of which environmental
elements produce positive and negative affective responses so that retailers
can have some guidance in planning a pleasant and arousing environ-
ment.

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