0practical Report PDF

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GRS20306 Remote Sensing Practical Report
Remote Sensing (Wageningen University & Research)
Verspreiden niet toegestaan | Gedownload door Zakiul Fahmi Jailani (zakiul.j@students.amikom.ac.id)

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Logbook GRS-
1. Monitoring of vegetation cover in Europe
1.1 How can vegetation cover be determined using remote sensing?
To create a vegetation classification, so you can classify the variables (e.g. community level
or species level). These classes can be translated into the vegetation types, this is called
image processing (Xie et al., 2008).
See: Xie, Y., Sha, Z. and Yu, M. (2008). Remote sensing imagery in vegetation mapping: a
review. Journal of Plant Ecology, 1(1), pp.9-23.
1.2 Which information is needed for the determination of vegetation cover?
You need a multi-temporal classification of high-resolution radar images, meteorological

data, soil maps and digital elevation model (Bargiel et al., 2013, p. 82). The spectral
reflectance should be known to determine what kind of vegetation is visible in the measured
area.
See: Bargiel, D., Herrmann, S. and Jadczyszyn, J. (2013). Using high-resolution radar
images to determine vegetation cover for soil erosion assessments. Journal of Environmental
Management, 124, pp.82-90.
1.3 What is the monitoring requirement for the level of spatial and temporal
detail?
The spatial resolution should be useful with the variables. You cannot use a very high
resolution, when the visualised variables are in a larger scale.
1.4 Which sensors can collect the required information?

MODIS
1.5 What are other characteristics of these systems?

The MODIS sensor also monitors land use. It can be used for quantifying land surface
characteristics such as land cover type and extent, snow cover extent, surface temperature,
leaf area index and fire occurrence. (source: https://modis-land.gsfc.nasa.gov/)
Furthermore the sensor is used for monitoring the atmosphere, ocean and it is used for
calibration purposes.
1.6 Can the systems be used for monitoring on a European ≈ km scale?

Yes.
see Ballabio, C., Panagos, P., & Monatanarella, L. (2016). Mapping topsoil physical
properties at European scale using the LUCAS database. Geoderma, 261, 110-123.
1.7 What are the costs of the images the sensor produces (Euro/km 2)
Modis data is free and easy accessible.

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1.8 What is the return period of the sensor? What is the time interval between
subsequent images?
Data is provided on a daily basis.
1.9 Is the system also useful if you want to monitor vegetation on a smaller scale
(e.g. The Netherlands)?
Possibly, it is most useful for a continental or global scale but it could provide relevant
information on a national scale.

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2. Introductory Exercises
2.1 Give an example of a nominal or an ordinal scale
A nominal scale can be a name which divides only by the word itself.
An ordinal scale can be a word, but has a rank order. For example, small to large.
2.2 Give an example of an interval or a ratio scale

An interval scale can be a degree of difference which exists out of different groups of for example
numbers, degrees or directions. E.g. an interval between 0-2,2-4,6-8.
A ratio scale shows the differences between absolute values, such as kilogram and litres.
2.3 Is it allowed to sum two land use maps of different years, where the land use
classes are numbered from 1 to 10? Why/why not? Which file type should be
used to store these maps in Erdas Imagine?
It depends what the classes represent. Only the same classes can be summed. In this case 1 to 10 is a
nominal scale, so it can’t be summed.
2.4 If the values in an image have two discrete levels (two integer values) , which
data type would you recommend for efficient storage?
What is the consequence of your choice in relation to the original data values?
Unsigned 8-bit, because this data type has a large range and still a good resolution. Besides this, this
data type is also not large, so it’s easy to save. The consequence in this case, is that the integer level will
be divided into more classes.
2.5 How would you store NDVI-values, which vary between 0 and 1?
What would the image look like if you store such an image as unsigned 8-bit?
NDVI can vary between -1 and 1. These numbers can have decimals. It depends how many decimals
there are. We would store it as a float single data type. When you store the image as a unsigned 8-bit,
you will probably get a black image, because the details cannot be shown. It will only work when the
numbers are multiplied by factor X.
2.6 Which data-format would you use if you mainly want to visualise single bands
of images?
BSQ
2.7 What is the unit of file coordinates? Where is the origin of the coordinate
system in the image? What can be a unit of map coordinates? Do you always have
a point (0, 0) in your map coordinates within your image?
Unit is the row or column. The origin is the top-left corner of the file.
Degrees or metres. You don’t always have a point within your image.
2.8 A typical frame with remote sensing 16-bit data of the Landsat 8 OLI sensor
contains 5760 rows, 7020 columns and 8 spectral bands. Estimate the file size in
MB.
X: 7020
y: 5760
b: 2
n: 8
x*y*b*n*1,2= 776.355.840 bytes =/1048 = 740797,56 kB = /1048 =706,87 MB

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2.9 Assume that the values in 2 image data files are of the signed 8-bit type. What
is the possible range of output values if you divide (e.g. a/b) the corresponding
pixels of the 2 files? Which problem can come up? Which data type would you
recommend for the output file? Why?
The possible range of output values is from -128 to 127. If you divide the two image data files you can
have a problem with dividing two negatives and decimals. And if you divide by a very small number, the
result falls outside of the data range. Therefore we recommend the Float Single Data Type.
2.1 Inquiring DN-Values

2.1.1 Write down the range in pixel values present in e.g. a bright part of the sky.
View 1: 240.000 LUT
view 2: 151.000 LUT
2.2 Histogram and Statistics

2.2.1 Write down the section with Statistics Info. What is the Type of the file and
what is the Data Type ? What is the meaning of the notions Mean, Median and
Mode in the output?
Statistics info:
Min: 35 Max: 162 mean: 105.048
Median: 97 Mode: 155 Std. Dev: 35.943
Skip factorX: 1 Skip FactorY: 1
File type: IMAGINE Image, type: continuous

Datatype: Unsigned 8-bit
Mean: is the average

Median: 50%, the middle
Mode: the number which is most common
2.2.2 What do the values along the horizontal and vertical axis indicate? If you
move the cursor inside the histogram area 3 values appear above the histogram.
What is the meaning of these values?
X-axis = Range of data values sampled in the statistics.
Y-axis = Range of frequencies of input data values is 0 – 13615
These values are 35, 105.048 and 62. These values represent the Range of data values in the input
image.
2.2.3 Which grey tones in the image correspond with the lower DN-values and
which ones correspond with the higher DN-values ?
The high numbers correspond with the lighter grey tones. The low numbers correspond with the darker
grey tones.

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2.2.4 Write down the minimum and maximum value. Does it correspond with
your answer of question 2.1-1 ?
The minimum is 153 and the maximum is 156. No, this values are different. The range is smaller, but it
does fit within the minimum and maximum of 2.1.1
2.2.5 What happened with the pixel-data? What happened to the statistics? Why
does it have this effect on the appearance of the image?
The pixel are completely the same, but within the viewer we can only see the pixels from our selection,
because selected this part, the appearance has changed.

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2.3 Inquiring DN-Values

2.3.1 With your knowledge of the surroundings of Wageningen and/or by
studying the picture of wg_map.img you can find pixels representing water,
forest, agriculture/ pasture, bare soil and town. Draw manually the DN-range of
these classes without overlap in your histogram print out.
2.4 Modelling
2.4.1 Why do you need to specify the variables as float? What happens to the
output in you do not specify them correctly?
You have to specify the variables as float, because the wavelength has decimals. You will get more black
in your image, because not all parts can be loaded.
2.4.2 Which File Type and which Data Type for output will you choose? Why?
Float Single, continuous, because you are dividing two bands which gives decimals. When you dont use
floating, you cannot see all the details (the decimals). The double float is too much precision and takes
too much storage space.

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2.4.3 Which land use types are emphasized?
In the image above, you can see the differences between vegetation and no vegetation (e.g.
Veenendaal, the Rhine).
2.4.4 Describe the data type of the input and output files. Copy the viewer with
the output image to your report, together with the function description window.

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Data type of the input file was not ‘’float’’ originally. The output type is single float, continuously.

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Module 3
- We need to find images of the Netherlands in 2013 and 2014. Therefore we need a lot of images
per year, because the netherlands ‘’suffers’’ from cloud coverage. We can use LANDSAT 8 and
LANDSAT 7 SLC-off imagery.
- WRS Path 199
WRS Row 024
- Cloud cover: 0-40%
Timing of acquisition: 01/01/2013 – 12/31/2014
Available datasets:
- http://www.intelligence-airbusds.com/en/4871-browse-and-order SPOT5
https://browse.digitalglobe.com/imagefinder/showBrowseMetadata?catalogId=1030050027F94200

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The availability of landsat images is appropriate. Glovis is most available for this application. Advantages
of using VHR for land use monitoring is that you can easily see the division between cities, water and
vegetation. Disadvantages are that you need a very high resolution to be able to determine more
landuse types.

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3.2.1 Which metadata are available for the image?

Which errors can be visually identified in the image?
Which problems do you expect when the image is used for land use
mapping?

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There is an error close to Veenendaal. There is a red line going through the image:
The colors are only based on RBG-levels and not on the actual colors.

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4 GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS
4.1 ASSIGN A MAP CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM TO AN IMAGE DATA

FILE
4.1-1 Compare the image with the Topographic map Loenermark. Find out which
transformations should be applied to geocorrect the image. Describe these
transformations. What information do you need to apply this transformation?
Which steps should you subsequently make to find the requested result?
We think that the image should be transformed with “rubber sheeting”. Rubber sheeting uses
polynomials for image rectification. The GCPs used within this tool place the image on the right
coordinates.
4.1-2 How many ground control point (GCPs) do you need at least for an over
determined first order polynomial transformation ? Write down the estimated
coordinates of the GCPs you read from the map in meters (not kilometers). What
is the precision of the coordinates you derive from the map?
- 4 GCPs
- 1: 195140, 456380
- 2: 199290, 457000
- 3: 197490, 454200
- 4: 197440, 452780
- 10 meters.
4.1-3 Which co-ordinate-system are you going to ascribe to the image? What does
the false easting and northing mean? Where is the origin of this coordinate-
system? What is the unit of the coordinate-system?
Double Stereographic is the coordinate system which we use to ascribe the image. False easting and
northing is the angle of the view of the surface. Amersfoort-4 is the origin of the coordinate system. The
unit of the coordinate system is meters.
4.1-4 Write down the Control Point Errors of X, Y and Total. In which units are the
values expressed ? Are the values tolerable? (compare with the pixel size and the
estimated precision in question 4.1-2)
Control Point Error X: 3,4896 meter
Control Point Error Y: 5,1512 meter
Total: 6,2224 meter.
The values are expressed in pixels but we recalculated them to meters. The values are tolerable.
4.1-5 When is the nearest neighbour resampling technique recommended and

when the cubic convolution resampling technique?
The nearest neighbour resampling technique uses the value of the closest pixel to assign to the output
pixel value. The cubic convolution uses the data file values of 16 pixels in a 4x4 window to calculate an
output value with a cubic function. Which technique you use is dependent of the size and resolution of
the image.

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4.1-6 Remember that the default presentation of continuous image data is

determined by the mean and the standard deviation of the file statistics. Explain
why the option Ignore Zero in Stats. must be used.
Zeros mean that there is data and this would probably result in inaccurate menas, erros and standard
devations.
4.1-7 Check the coordinates of 1 easy to identify point (non-GCP) on the screen
with its coordinates you can read from the topographic map. Write down the
difference in X and Y direction you find. Are these values acceptable related to the
Control Point Errors?
Programme: 197484.47, 454211.82
Manual: 197490, 454200
These values are acceptable, because there is only an error of 5 and 11 meters resp.
4.2-1 How many ground control points do you need at least for an
overdetermined third degree polynomial transformation?
11 points
4.2-2 Write down for the 1st degree polynomial transformation, the Control Point
Errors of X, Y and Total. Give your comment on possible erroneous GCPs.
GCP error X: 2.5249 px = 20.1992 meters

GCP error Y: 4.2426 px = 33.9408 meters
GCP total: 4.9371 px = 39.4968 meters
4.2-3 Write down for the 2nd degree polynomial transformation, the Control Point
GCP error X: 1.0696 px = 8.5568 meters
GCP error Y: 0.9242 px = 7.3936 meters
GCP total: 1.4136 px = 11.3088 meters
4.2-4 Write down for the 3rd degree polynomial transformation, the Control Point
Which polynomial order for transformation is reasonable? Give an explanation!
GCP error X: 0.5880 = 4.704 meters
GCP error Y: 0.1572 = 1.2576 meters
GCP total: 0.6087 = 4.8696 meters
The second and third polynomial order are reasonable, because the error is around 10 meters or smaller.

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4.2-5 Can you trace spots or areas in the transformed image where the results are
not quite what you expected? Please give an explanation.
The spots where we didn’t mark a GCP where not on the right location. The GCP were correct, because
we combined the two maps on these locations.

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5 MULTITEMPORAL ANALYSIS OF SATELLITE DATA

. Darkest Pixel correction

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In these graphs you can see the differences between the DN-values of types of land use on the different
dates. You can see big differences between the dates, sometimes these differences are big, this might be
the case because of harvests or temperatures.

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5.2 Atmospheric correction

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You can see the change in reflectance over time and the difference between the corrected image and the
non-corrected one. You can estimate the absorption and the scattering of reflectance.
The town is the most stable in time, you see that the shape of the graph stays mostly the same over
time.

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6 Quality assessment of Remote Sensing Data

6.5 Preparing a Quality Assessment Report
Step 1:
You see a higher pixel value for the Land-graphs in the NIR. This can be because of more NIR reflectance
on vegetation.
Step 2:
 The darkness of the image changes. In the NIR you see that the land with vegetation is shown in
a light grey and the other bands show darker images.

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 Band 8:
 Band 17:

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 Band 25:
 Band 40:

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 Band 60:
The ranges of the histograms differ. For example when you look at Band 17, which is visualised in light
Grey scales, you can see a complete different range. This range consists of a broad spectral image. The
others are darker and can help determine one specific detail. The smaller the range in the histogram, the
darker the image.
Step 3:
 Estimation of the Correlation Coefficient
o Ahs_po2_050619_1_4: High Correlation, with correlation coefficient around 1.
o Ahs_po1_050619_9_14: Moderate Correlation with correlation coefficient around 0.3.
o Ahs_po2_050619_9_21: Moderate correlation with correlation coefficient around 0.6
o Ahs_po2_050619_9_63: no correlation, so there is a correlation coefficient around 0.
 Ahs_po2_050619_1_4: The scatterplot shows only the blue and green bands of the image, which
leads to visible town and water, less visible vegetation.
Errors: The image shows a cloud in the lower left corner, this is the noise in the lower right
corner, which stands for a bright colour.
 Ahs_po1_050619_9_14: The yellow and red areas are vegetation and water. This is because of
the reds and NIR that reflect well on water and vegetation.
Errors: ?
 Ahs_po2_050619_9_21: Shows the Red and the Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) that shows the
water absorption and the vegetation.
Errors: ?
 Ahs_po2_050619_9_63: There is a lot of noise, because it you cannot compare Band 9 with 63.
Errors: The band 63 shows only noise, so it makes sense that the scatterplot is mainly noise as
well.

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7 Filtering
7.1 Manual filter computation
Original image
5 5 5 5 5 5 15 25 25 25 25 25 25
5 5 5 5 5 5 15 25 25 25 25 25 25
5 5 5 5 5 5 15 25 25 25 25 25 25
5 5 5 5 5 5 15 25 25 25 25 25 25
5 5 5 5 5 5 15 25 25 25 25 25 25
5 5 5 5 5 5 15 25 25 25 25 25 25
5 5 5 5 5 5 15 25 25 25 25 25 25
Low pass 5 5 5 5 8.333333 15 21.66667 25 25 25 25 1 1 1

5 5 5 5 8.333333 15 21.66667 25 25 25 25 1 1 1
5 5 5 5 8.333333 15 21.66667 25 25 25 25 1 1 1
5 5 5 5 8.333333 15 21.66667 25 25 25 25
5 5 5 5 8.333333 15 21.66667 25 25 25 25
High pass 0 0 0 0 -3.33333 0 3.333333 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 -1

0 0 0 0 -3.33333 0 3.333333 0 0 0 0 -1 8 -1
0 0 0 0 -3.33333 0 3.333333 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 -1
0 0 0 0 -3.33333 0 3.333333 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -3.33333 0 3.333333 0 0 0 0
Horizontal gradient 0 0 0 0 10 20 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 10 20 10 0 0 0 0 -1 0 1
0 0 0 0 10 20 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 10 20 10 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 10 20 10 0 0 0 0
Laplace 0 0 0 0 -10 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0
0 0 0 0 -10 0 10 0 0 0 0 -1 4 -1
0 0 0 0 -10 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0
0 0 0 0 -10 0 10 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -10 0 10 0 0 0 0
Laplace+original 5 5 5 5 -5 15 35 25 25 25 25
5 5 5 5 -5 15 35 25 25 25 25
5 5 5 5 -5 15 35 25 25 25 25
5 5 5 5 -5 15 35 25 25 25 25
5 5 5 5 -5 15 35 25 25 25 25
7.2.1 Write down the used filter matrix.

1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
7.2.2 Describe the visual differences between the original and the filtered image.
(Zoom in). Describe the results paying special attention to the changes at edges
and isolated peaks.
The pixel size has increased. Due to this, edges (ed. a road) converts the pixel values of surrounding
pixels into an average, due to this the colours of these pixels are also an average. So the edges and
isolated peaks are less clear as the original image.
7.3.1 Write down the name of the filter and the filter matrix itself (Use the Edit
button). Describe the results of each filter paying special attention to the changes
at edges and isolated peaks.
3x3 Edge Detect: The contrast in the image has increased.
-1 -1 -1
-1 8 -1
-1 -1 -1

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3x3 Low Pass: The image becomes blurred.
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
3x3 High Pass: The contrast and detail become clearer.
-1 -1 -1
-1 9 -1
-1 -1 -1
5x5 Low Pass: The image becomes more blurred (even more than the 3x3 Low Pass).
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
5x5 Horizontal: The images becomes a bit striped horizontally due to the horizontal averages. The
contrast becomes higher.
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2 -2 -2
6 6 6 6 6
-2 -2 -2 -2 -2
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1
5x5 Summary: The image becomes clearer, the pixel size becomes smaller.
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1
-1 -2 -2 -2 -1
-1 -2 70 -2 -1
-1 -2 -2 -2 -1
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1
7.4.1 Write down the name of this filter and explain how this filter works.
Describe the results of this filter paying special attention to the changes at edges
and isolated peaks.
Focal Median: The image becomes blurred, because it takes the middle value in a range.
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

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7.4.2 Write down both filter matrices. Which final operation is performed to
create new pixel values?
Sobel 1:
-1 0 1
-2 0 2
-1 0 1
Sobel 2:
-1 -2 -1
0 0 0
1 2 1
DIST-Tool
7.4.3 Describe the results of the filter paying special attention to the changes at
edges and isolated peaks.
The edges are clearer in the Sobel image.
7.5.1 What is the file row number?

335.12
7.5.2 Write down the applied filter matrix.

1
0
1

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7.5.3 Is the result satisfactory?

Yes!

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8 Principal Component Analysis

8.1.1 Fill out the Image data list X1, X2 to compute the elements of covariance
matrix C. If you like you may use a spreadsheet to do the calculations.
Row Col X1 X2 X1-µ1 X2-µ2 (X1-µ1) 2 (X2-µ2) 2 (X1-µ1)(X2-µ2)
1 1 23 194 -20.3125 49.1875 412.5977 2419.41 -999.121 n= 16 Var{X1}=c11=σ12= 256.89583
1 2 23 140 -20.3125 -4.8125 412.5977 23.16016 97.75391 µ1 = 43.3125 Var{X2}=c22=σ22= 1332.8292
1 3 40 114 -3.3125 -30.8125 10.97266 949.4102 102.0664 µ2 = 144.8125 Cov{X1,X2}=C12=C21=σ12= -252.3375
1 4 37 100 -6.3125 -44.8125 39.84766 2008.16 282.8789
2 1 33 188 -10.3125 43.1875 106.3477 1865.16 -445.371 ρ12=ρ21= -0.43124
2 2 37 184 -6.3125 39.1875 39.84766 1535.66 -247.371
2 3 59 122 15.6875 -22.8125 246.0977 520.4102 -357.871
2 4 81 86 37.6875 -58.8125 1420.348 3458.91 -2216.5
3 1 32 198 -11.3125 53.1875 127.9727 2828.91 -601.684
3 2 41 99 -2.3125 -45.8125 5.347656 2098.785 105.9414
3 3 72 173 28.6875 28.1875 822.9727 794.5352 808.6289
3 4 44 148 0.6875 3.1875 0.472656 10.16016 2.191406
4 1 34 158 -9.3125 13.1875 86.72266 173.9102 -122.809
4 2 42 120 -1.3125 -24.8125 1.722656 615.6602 32.56641
4 3 54 128 10.6875 -16.8125 114.2227 282.6602 -179.684
4 4 41 165 -2.3125 20.1875 5.347656 407.5352 -46.6836
∑= ∑= ∑= ∑= ∑= ∑= ∑=
693 2123 0 0 3853.438 19992.44 -3785.06
8.1.2 Now you can compute the correlation coefficients, giving the amount of
correlation between both spectral bands. What can you conclude from these
correlation coefficients?
The correlation coefficient is -0,431. This means that there is a negative correlation but not very strong.
8.1.3 Calculate the eigenvalues (cf. equation (4) or (5) of the annex) and construct
the eigenvalue matrix L. Compare the trace of C with the trace of L. The trace of a
matrix is the summation of the numbers on the diagonal. How can you interpret
the eigenvalues (what do they mean)?
λ1=1.389,073
λ2=200,653
Matrix:
λ1 =
0
1.389,073
λ2 =
200,653
0 λN
This represents the Variance of the new axes.

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8.1.4 Compute the eigenvectors (cf. equation (3) of the annex). How can you
interpret the eigenvectors (what do they mean)?
B2 = 1
0,2229
B1 = 1
-4,487
These values mean when you go 1 to the right, you go B1 or B2 up or down.
8.1.5 Normalize the eigenvectors b1 and b2 and write down the transformation
matrix B (notice the difference with the way of writing BT). By plotting the PC1-
axis and the PC2-axis also called p and p in the Feature space plot X , X you
can check the position of these axes with respect to the position of the pixels.
Looking at the drawing of the axis, can you determine to which of the original axis
the PC1 is most similar? Can you conclude this from the eigenvectors as well?
B11 = 1
B12 = 1,0245
B21 = 1
B22 = 4,597
P1 = 0,98
0,23
P2 = 0,22
-0,98
B11 = B12 =
B1N
1 1,0245
B21 =
1
BN1 BN2 BNN
The P2-Axis is the most similar to the original axis, you can also conclude this from the eigenvectors
because the points are more spread out.
8.1.6 If the values X1 and X2, which you used to compute the PC s, have a Normal
(Gaussian) distribution then compute and plot the so-called statistical 39% and
95% confidence region for two degrees of freedom (N = 2) (cf. figure 8.2).
P1: boundaries are λ1: 91,3122 and λ2:34.7047
P2: boundaries are λ1: 37,2703 and λ2:14,1652

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8.1-7 Can you think of a reason why is used for calculating the confidence region
(thinking of a 1-dimensional Gaussian distribution may help)?
As λ tends to infinity, the inverse Gaussian distribution becomes more like a normal (Gaussian)
distribution.
8.1-8 How does the ellipse enclose the pixels in its totality? Can you notice in your
dataset a difference between statistical description (Normal distribution
according to Gauss) and the real pixel variation?
The eclipe doesnt include all the pixels. It is less than 95%. The pixels are not normally distributed.
8.1-9 Compute finally the principal components (PC-scores) of one point and
compare these values with the PC-coordinates you can read from the graph.
When you look at the graph, you could say that P1 is better normally distributed than PC2.
8.2 PCT COMPUTATION

8.2-1 What is your impression of the picture of each band?
Each layer has its own brightness and resolution. In the combination of all these layers the information
and colours are combined.
8.2-2 What is the meaning of these numbers? Which original bands contribute
most to PC1? Explain the big pixel size at some locations in the picture of PC4.
These numbers give the range of each band.
In PC4 there is a big pixel size at some spots. The resolution of this thermal band is different than the
other bands, so on these spots it results in big pixels.
8.2-3 What is the meaning of these numbers? What is most striking? Explain! How
many synthetic bands do you need to capture 98% of the information content?
These numbers give the eigenvalues (λ) for the different matrices. It is striking that the highest rate fro
mthe previous assignment 8.1 is not mentioned.
You need four bands to capture 98% of the information content.
Band 1 647.2066 647.2066

Band 2 297.7325 297.7325
Band 3 44.62061 44.62061
Band 4 15.19065 15.19065
Band 5 8.466043
Band 6 3.11545
Band 7 0.864753
SUM 1017.197 1004.75 0.987764
8.2-4 How many per cent does PC7 contribute to the information content? You
still can recognize a specific object in the picture of the PC-7 band. Which object?
So, for investigation of this class of objects the PC7 can perhaps be of some
importance.
PC7 contributes 0.00085% to the information content. You can still see the Rhine in the band.

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8.2-5 Which band combination did you attach to red, green and blue? What is
now the colour of water, bare soil, forest, agricultural areas and town?
Red is band 4
Green is band 3
Blue is band 2
Water is dark blue, bare soil is green, forest is purple, agricultural areas are purple and towns are
red/orange.
8.2-6 What is the percentage of the total variance in this picture? Which objects
can you distinguish?
The percentage of band 4, 5 and 7 of the total variance is 0,024107%
You can distinguish the rhine, mainroads, forests, agricultural fields.
8.3 DATA REDUCTION BY BAND SELECTION

8.3-1 Write down all elements of the upper or lower triangle of the correlation
and covariance matrix rounding off each number to 2 digits after the decimal
point.
Output correlation
0.99 - 0.66
0.92 - 0.737
0.89 - 0.81
-0.11- 0.05
0.40 - 0.80
0.43 - 0.62
0.66 - 0.99
output covariance
36.87 - 40.73
23.47 - 31.23
36.68 - 55.66
-13.29 - 8.89
50. 11 – 168.29
12.76 – 31.24
40.73 – 104.34

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8.3-2 Which bands will remain?

Band 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
covariance
36.87 23.47 36.68 -13.29 50.11 12.76 40.73

23.47 17.75 26.42 3.94 47.87 8.37 31.23
36.68 26.42 45.71 -20.22 73.16 17.65 55.66
-13.29 3.94 -20.22 365.11 200.42 -20.54 8.89
50.11 47.87 73.16 200.42 423.24 38.45 168.29
12.76 8.37 17.65 -20.54 38.45 24.18 31.24
40.73 31.23 55.66 8.89 168.29 31.24 104.34
correlation
1.00 0.92 0.89 -0.11 0.40 0.43 0.66

0.92 1.00 0.93 0.05 0.55 0.40 0.73
0.89 0.93 1.00 -0.16 0.53 0.53 0.81
-0.11 0.05 -0.16 1.00 0.51 -0.22 0.05
0.40 0.55 0.53 0.51 1.00 0.38 0.80
0.43 0.40 0.53 -0.22 0.38 1.00 0.62
0.66 0.73 0.81 0.05 0.80 0.62 1.00
8.3-3 What is the percentage of data reduction?

5,4% reduction
36,87 + 17,75 + 45,71 + 365,11 + 423,24 + 24,18 + 104,34 = 1017,20

(36,87 + 17,75)/1017,20 = 0,053696

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9 CLASSIFICATION
9.1-1 What is the default combination of layers for presentation?
Band 4: red
Band 3: green
Band 2: blue
9.1-2 Which combination of layers do you prefer to show different land cover
classes?
Band 2: red
Band 4: green
Band 5: blue
9.1-3 Which two bands show the largest difference in pixel value between water
and vegetation ?
Band 4 and 5.
9.2-1 What is the relation between the covariance matrix and an ellipse in the
feature space?
The ellipses are generated from the covariance matrix.
9.2-2 Use the numerical and graphical tools as mentioned above to investigate the
9 different land cover signatures. Write down the names of the signatures that
can be merged. Which signatures should not be merged? What could be a reason?
Not merged:”
 Consumption potatoes, they don’t overlap

 Winter wheat, they don’t overlap
 Water, they are far apart
 Seed onions, they are apart
 Peas, they don’t overlap
 Sugar beet, they don’t overlap

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 Deciduous forest, they are far apart

 Pine forest, they don’t overlap.
Merged:
 Seed potatoes, they overlap!
9.2-3 Try the alarm function with different Limits and explain the differences in
the classification previews. Which classes can cause trouble during classification?
The classes with vegetation, because they have a mixed colour palette.
9.2-4 What is the accuracy of each class? What is the total classification accuracy?
This accuracy value is NOT a good estimate for the accuracy of a classification
result. Explain!
Accuracy of each class:
Consumtion potatoes1: 70/70*100=100%

Peas1: 45/45*100=100%
Sugarbeet1: 66/66*100=100%
Winterwheat1: 58/58*100=100%
Seed-onions1: 68/68*100%
Water1: 37/66*100=56,1%
Pine-forest1: 32/60*100=53,3%
Diciduous forest1: 85/85=100%
Peas2: 30/55*100=54,5%
Sugarbeet2: 0/55*100=0%
Seed-onions2: 0/55*100=0%
Comsumption Potatoes2: 0/55*100=0%
Water2: 0/55*100=0%
Diciduous Forest2: 41/75*100=54,7%
Pine-Forest2: 0/75*100=0%
Winterwheat2: 47/72*100=65,3%
Seed-Potatoes: 66/99*100=66,7%
Row Total = 1114
Total classification accuracy = 100*(45+66+58+68+37+32+85+30+41+47+66)/1114=57,9%
It is not a good estimate for the accuracy of a classification because some are very well classified and
some not at all.
9.3-1 Which Non-parametric Decision Rules are available?

 Parallelepiped
 Feature space
 None
Which Overlap Rules are available?

Parametric Rule
Which Unclassified Rules are available?

Parametric Rule
Which Parametric Rules are available?

 Maximum Likelihood
 Mahalanobis Distance

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 Minimum Distance
 Spectral Angle Mapper
 Spectral Correlation Mapper
9.3-4 Write in a table the results of the areas X1...X11 (these are marked on the
ground truth map) for the successive classifications. Which areas have different
results? Did you expect that? (compare answer to question 9.2-3)
Minimum distance Maximum Likelihood Parallelepiped
Maximum Likelihood
X1 Seed-Onions1 Seed-Onions1 Unclassified
X2 Deciduous Forest1 Winterwheat1 Unclassified
X3 Sugarbeet1 Seed-Onions1 Seed-Onions1
X4 Consumption Potatoes1 Sugarbeet1 Unclassified
X5 Seed-Potatoes1 Seed-Potatoes Merge Seed-Potatoes Merge
X6 Seed-Onions1 Seed-Onions1 Seed-Onions1
X7 Consumtion-Potatoes1 Sugarbeet1 Unclassified
X8 Seed-Onions1 Seed-Onions1 Seed-Onions2
X9 Sugerbeet1 Consumtion-Potatoes1 Unclassified
X10 Consumption-Potatoes1 Seed-Potatoes1 Unclassified
X11 Peas2 Peas2 Peas2
X2, X4, X7, X9, X10 are very different.
9.3-3 Did the use of Prior probabilities change the classification result? Check this
by looking at the amount of pixels assigned to both classes. If you do not see any
change, you might have to change the probabilities more. When do you expect to
see the largest difference, if classes overlap, or when they are spectrally not very
similar?
The use of prior probabilities changed the classification result. When the classes will overlap, you will see
the largest difference.
9.4-1 What is the Overall Classification Accuracy?

Overall Classification Accuracy = 68.49%
Which classes have a poor result? Did you expect that? (see answer to question
9.2-3) Mention possibilities to improve the classification result.
Consumption-Potatoes, Peas and Deciduous Forest. You can improve those by adjusting the probability.
9.5-1 Compare the filtered result with the original classification result. Is the
pepper and salt effect sufficiently reduced?
Yes it has improved.
9.5-2 Explain why mean, high and lowpass filters are not available as
Neighbourhood Functions.
Because the neighbourhood function are an estimation of the cell values. When you would use a mean,
high or lowpass filter, you will continue calculating on an estimation which will give an inaccurate answer.

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10 IMAGING SPECTROSCOPY TO SURVEY MINERALS

10.1-1 Which wavelength is assigned to respectively red, green and blue of the
AVIRIS band combination 48,30,19? Use annex I. To what TM band colour
combination does the AVIRIS RGB=48,30,19 combination correspond? What can
you conclude towards the vegetation cover in the area?
Red (48) = 807,91
Green (30) = 655,84
Blue (19) = 547,20
Red: Band 4
green: Band 3
Blue: Band 2
There is not much vegetation, you can check this by increasing the wavelength for the Red band by using
Near Infrared. There are only a few spots were some vegetation is visible.
10.1-2 Why is it not possible to link the two images geographically? What has to
be done to make this possible?
Because there are no locations behind the images or different coordinate systems. You can link them by
using the Transform and Ortho option.
10.1-3 Compare the pixel size of the TM image and the AVIRIS image and find out
what the respective pixel sizes are (use internet if needed)
Landsat TM Pixel Size is 30 meters.
AVIRIS Pixel Size is 20 meters.

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10.1-4 In which spectral region is the difference the largest? How many spectral
bands are available in the SWIR for AVIRIS and Landsat TM respectively? Why are
the dips around . and . m not visible in de Landsat Spectra?
The difference is biggest around the wavelength 2068,76 nm.
AVIRIS: 112 Bands (Band 112 until 224)

Landsat TM: 2 Bands (Band 5 and 7)
Landsat TM does not include 1,4 and 1,9 nm wavelength.
10.1-5 Is the general trend in reflectance values comparable? What can be

possible reasons for deviations?
Yes, the values are comparable. The deviations come from the difference in Wavelength visibility and the
different pixel values of both satellites.

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10.1-6 Copy the spectra of these 2 minerals to your report. Make a table in which
you show the spectral position of the most important absorption features of each
mineral. Why are there so many different versions of e.g. Kaolinite available?
Kaolinite Wavelength mm
Dip 1 1.450
Dip 2 2.200
Dip 3 2.700
Montmorillonite Wavelength mm
Dip 1 1.450

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Dip 2 1.900
Dip 3 2.200
There are many different versions of the same mineral, with more or less atoms of one kind.
10.1-7 Describe differences and similarities between the AVIRIS image spectra
and the USGS library spectra in terms of absorption band position and absorption
band depth. Where are the major differences? Compare the Kaolinite area also
with the USGS spectrum Kaolin/Smect, which indicates a mixture of the minerals
Kaolinite and Smectite. What do you conclude?
The major differences are the Dips in the spectral profile. In the USGS profile the dips are clear and of
the AVIRIS image the Dips are with spikes.

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It can be that the AVIRIS image show a mixture of Kaolinite and Smectite, because it shows an extra Dip
on a Wavelength were the Kaolinite didn’t have a Dip.
10.2-1 Which wavelength range is used? To which Aviris band numbers does this
correspond?
1983.230-2469.400. This corresponds to bands 171/172 till 220/221.
10.2-2 What will be the effect of choosing the spectral angle instead of the cosine
as output? Explain. What is the unit of a spectral angle? Which objects have a
good match? Which objects have a result you did not expect? Explain.
The default option for output result values is Cosine for both the Spectral Angle Mapper algorithm and
the Spectral Correlation Mapper algorithm. Since the rate of change of the function cosine is very small
when the angle is near to 0 degrees, it is possible that the cosine values are very close even though the
corresponding angles are quite different.
Using Cosine is convenient because the result will be white and when using spectral Angle the result will
be black.
The Unit is Degree Radiance.
The best match is for Kaolinite because it had the highest Cosine and the lowest Spectral Angle.
We didn’t have any expectations.

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10.2-3 Copy the spectral plot to the report. Describe the differences between the
pixel spectra and the reference spectra. Can you explain these differences? How is
it possible that, despite the differences, the spectral angle between the spectra is
so small?
The differences are smaller for the ones we measured, because these show only the elements in one
pixel in this specific image. The USGS library contains data of these elements of multiple images.
10.2-4 What is the advantage of using image derived spectra?

You can see the results and information of one image in specific, instead of using library which contains
pixel data of all kind of images.
10.2-5 How should the results be interpreted? Do the angle images match your
expectations?
Each layer represents an element. Layer 1 (Alunite), Layer 2 (Kaolinite) and Layer 3 (Calcite). In each
layer image the white colour represent the existance3 of the specific elements.

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10.2-6 Create a classified image out of the spectral angle maps. Use the
Modelmaker. Think about how you want to do it before you start using the
Modelmaker, create a flowchart of the process. (Hint: use conditional statements
in the formula area).
The different greyscales represent the most dominant minerals in a particular area. The difference
between the two images are because of the right image shows more differences in minerals and has
therefore sometimes other dominant minerals in a particular area.

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11 ANALYSIS OF MICROWAVE IMAGE DATA OF AGRICULTURAL

SITES
11.1-1 What are the wavelengths of the C-, L- and P-band?
C: 56,565 nm
L: 249.827 nm
P:749.481 nm
11.1-2 What do you observe in these bands in field #242? Explain why! (for field
# see Land Map in annex I at the end of the exercises of this chapter)
In Band 2 it is darker.
11.1-3 What was the look direction of the radar at the time of data acquisition:
North-South, South-North, East-West or West-East? (For North direction see
Forest Map in annex II)
West to East
11.1-4 Which composite gives the best result to your opinion?

Red: Band 1
Green: Band 5
Blue: Band 7
11.1-5 Which composite gives the best result to your opinion?

Red: Band 2
Green: Band 5
Blue: Band 7
11.2-1 Copy the Mean values of the signatures of the different land use classes
indicated in annex III to Excel and your report (to copy: select the columns - right
mouse button – copy). Involve the Standard Deviation to estimate the number of
meaningful digits.
Land.img Mean Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4 Band 5 Band 6 Band 7 Band 8 Band 9
1 Rapesead -10.997 -11.128 -20.140 -21.066 -16.105 -29.062 -30.209 -26.574 -36.957
2 Onion -11.871 -10.759 -16.144 -11.019 -16.513 -18.410 -22.814 -24.326 -31.085
3 Peas -7.335 -5.211 -11.666 -13.923 -12.448 -21.421 -24.682 -25.786 -34.515
4 Sugarbeet -5.846 -5.456 -13.264 -13.058 -15.121 -21.748 -20.855 -20.013 -29.803
5 Potato 1 -6.617 -6.691 -13.366 -10.039 -10.399 -15.110 -17.723 -19.306 -22.706
6 Potato 2 -7.018 -6.325 -12.985 -10.245 -11.042 -16.073 -17.904 -20.027 -24.591
Land.img Std. Dev. Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4 Band 5 Band 6 Band 7 Band 8 Band 9
1 Rapesead 1.331 1.492 1.404 1.847 1.534 2.115 2.148 1.830 2.209
2 Onion 1.372 1.238 1.246 1.101 1.153 1.160 1.252 1.089 1.189
3 Peas 1.249 1.351 1.325 1.171 1.244 1.232 1.229 1.237 1.247
4 Sugarbeet 1.377 1.346 1.301 1.206 1.222 1.185 1.189 1.261 1.177
5 Potato 1 1.245 1.262 1.273 1.121 1.138 1.107 1.235 1.252 1.186
6 Potato 2 1.261 1.269 1.342 1.155 1.152 1.177 1.183 1.154 1.189

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11.2-2 Copy the Mean values of the forest signatures indicated in annex III to
Excel and your report. Involve the Standard Deviation to estimate the number of
meaningful digits.
Forest.img Mean Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4 Band 5 Band 6 Band 7 Band 8 Band 9
1 Water -25.133 -21.915 -33.629 -25.208 -20.735 -37.240 -28.722 -25.038 -39.312
2 Pine -10.672 -11.006 -15.247 -5.972 -6.768 -11.415 -7.736 -10.315 -15.936
3 Pop "Oxford -7.269 -7.245 -14.388 -9.061 -10.077 -15.173 -8.993 -11.721 -18.854
4 Pop "Dorska -7.077 -7.379 -13.212 -9.639 -10.859 -15.071 -13.491 -13.883 -19.510
5 Clear Cut -7.269 -7.245 -14.388 -9.061 -10.077 -15.173 -8.993 -11.721 -18.854
Forest.img Std. Dev. Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4 Band 5 Band 6 Band 7 Band 8 Band 9
1 Water 1.994 1.842 1.585 2.503 3.290 2.267 2.302 3.146 1.196
2 Pine 1.643 1.671 1.761 1.334 1.183 1.321 1.306 1.441 1.217
3 Pop "Oxford 1.434 1.313 1.317 1.154 1.095 1.407 1.392 2.165 1.196
4 Pop "Dorska 1.369 1.388 1.266 1.295 1.064 1.156 1.363 1.250 1.418
5 Clear Cut 1.434 1.313 1.317 1.154 1.095 1.407 1.392 2.165 1.979
11.3-1 Plot the Mean values of the different land signatures in a graph. Make a
second graph for the forest signatures. Make sure to use the right labels and units
on the axes. Copy both graphs to your report and answer the questions below.

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11.3-2 Compare the backscatter levels of the Land signatures in the C-, L- and P-
band. Do the same for the Forest signatures. Explain the difference between the
two.
Land: You see that on average the backscatter in the Land.img is the highest in the C-band and the
lowest in the P-band.
Forest: For the forest.img the backscatter levels are more constant through the different bands. Because
of the roughness of the tree canopies.
11.3-3 How do the backscatter levels in the HV polarized bands compare to those
in HH and VV polarized bands?
You see that especially in the Forest.img the HV Polarization results in lower backscatter levels than the
HH and VV Polarized bands.
11.3-4 Which microwave band do you consider most suitable for the classification
of the Land and Forest classes?
Land: Band 6,7 or 9.
Forest: Band 7.
11.3- Unlike other crop types rapeseed has a relatively high backscatter in L-
band VV and P-band VV. Can you think of an explanation for this phenomenon?
The VV band doesn’t penetrate a canopy as deep as the other polarized bands. Therefore the VV band
reflects more on the surface of the object. Apparently rapeseed has a rougher surface.

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12 Vegetation indices
12.1-1 To which wavelengths do the TM4 and TM3 bands correspond? Explain
why these bands are used for most vegetation indices. Which bands of Landsat 8
would you select to calculate the NDVI?
TM3: 0,63-0,69 µm
TM4: 0,76-0,90 µm
Landsat 8: Band 4 and 5.
12.1-2 Create an output file for the following functions: IR/R, DVI and NDVI.
Write down the name of each function, the formula and define an output file
name. Display the different output files in three different viewers. Do you see
visual differences? Investigate the pixel values and describe and explain
differences.
Ir/R – Infrared divided by Red: IR/Red (haarlem_irr.img)
DVI – Diffrerence Vegetation Index (IR-R): NIR – RED (haarlem_dvi.img)
NDVI – Normalized Difference Vegetation Index: (NIR – RED)/(NIR+RED) (haarlem_ndvi.img)
There are differences in display. The NDVI shows very clearly the vegetation in white and light grey
colours. The DVI show the different types of vergetation. The IR/R shows the biomass and the vigor
condition of vegetation.
You see that for a vegetation area the NDVI value is the highest and the DVI value is the lowest. EG.:
NDVI 214, DVI 136, IR/R 151 (LUT Value).
12.1-3 Write down the name of the model, the computation rule and the output
file name. How is the raster Data Type declared of the input file and which Data
Type do you choose for the output file? Compare the PVI output to the indices
calculated in question 12.1-2. Do you notice differences in values/patterns?
Name model: haarlem_pvi.gmd
Computation rule: - 0.73*$n1_haarlem(3)+0.68*$n1_haarlem(4)+1.67
Output file name: haarlem_pvi.img
Data type: unsigned 8-bit
The image is a little darker and the different land uses are clearly visible.
12.1-4 Write down the name of the model, the computation rule and the output
file name. How is the raster Data Type declared in the input file and in the output
file? Compare the WDVI output against the previously calculated indices. Have a
look at the images and pixel values.
Name model: haarlem_wdvi.gmd
Computation rule: $n1_haarlem(4) - 150 * $n1_haarlem(3)
Output file name: haarlem_wdvi.img
Data type: Float Single
It seems that wet areas are visualized in light white/grey tones.
12.2-1 Does the WDVI image fit the result you had in mind?
No. because water is black instead of white.

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12.2-2 Why is the conditional statement used? Which of the agricultural areas
have the highest LAI values? Which of the forest areas have the highest LAI
values? Are these realistic?
0 represents infinity and the rest needs to be smaller than 0.
Potatoes and Cereals have the highest LAI value (255).
Deciduous forest has the higher LAI value.
12.2-3 What are now the LAI values of the same forests?
The values are now:
Deciduous: 109 (Old value 135)
Pine: 56 (Old value 70)

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13 PHYSICAL MODELS: RADIATIVE TRANSFER

. Using the sheet Chlorophyll , we made a graph with the spectral signatures
for the different chlorophyll contents. What do you conclude from this graph for
the effect of chlorophyll on leaf reflectance? Explain your answer.
With wavelengths up until 750 nm the reflectance is different for every Chlorophyll level. Everything
above this wavelength, the reflectance is the same for every level.
13.2 Plot the reflectance as a function of chlorophyll content for a few selected
wavelengths (e.g., one in the green, one in the red and one in the NIR part of the
EM spectrum). What do you conclude on the relationship between chlorophyll
content and reflectance for these selected wavelengths? Explain your answer.
For every wavelength the reflectance is the highest with the leas Chlorophyll, but for the NIR the
Chlorophyll level has no influence on the amount of reflectance; the amount of reflectance is constant
(and high).
. Using the sheet Structure , answer the questions . and . for the
different Nparameters, which are related to leaf structure. Again, clearly explain
your answer.
The higher the N-level, the higher the reflectance. Every wavelength below 700 nm, from 1400 to 1500
nm and everything above 1900 nm, had the same amount of reflectance for every N-level.
The red and green wavelengths have an almost constant reflectance for every N-level. The NIR shows
more reflectance with higher N-levels.
. Using the sheet Water , answer the same questions for leaf water content.
For plotting the reflectance as a function of leaf water content for a few selected
wavelengths use, e.g., a wavelength in the two dips in the middle-infrared, a
wavelength between the two dips, a wavelength after the second dip and a
wavelength in the NIR. Compare the selection of your wavelengths with the
position of the Landsat-TM bands 5 (1.55 – 1.75 mm) and 7 (2.08 – 2.35 mm).
Water has the same reflectance levels for the different water levels for wavelengths below 1000 nm.
Every wavelength above shows diffrent reflectance for different levels.
The higher the water-levels, the lower the reflectance. Except for the NIR, this reflectance is always high
and constant.
You see clearly the location of Band 5 and 7 in the plot. In these bands you can clearly differentiate the
reflectance levels of the water levels.
. Use the sheet LAI-Spherical and look at the graph with the spectral
signatures for the different LAIs. What do you conclude from this graph for the
effect of LAI on canopy reflectance? Explain your answer.
You see the reflectance of no LAI is constant, which is logical. The higher the LAI value, the bigger the
difference between the reflectance within this LAI.

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13.6 Plot the reflectance as a function of LAI for a few selected wavelengths (e.g.,
one in the green, one in the red and one in the NIR part of the EM spectrum).
What do you conclude on the relationship between LAI and reflectance for these
selected wavelengths? Explain your answer.
The higher the LAI-value, the higher the NIR reflectance and the lower the Red and Green reflectance.
. Repeat task . and . for the sheet LAI-Planophile and answer the
questions again. What difference do you note with the spherical LAD? Explain
your answer.
difference between the reflectance within this LAI.
. Repeat task . and . for the sheet LAI-Erectophile and answer the
questions again. What difference do you note with the spherical and planophile
LAD? Explain your answer.
difference between the reflectance within this LAI. But the diffrences are less clear than with the LAI-
Planophile and LAI-Spherical.
. Repeat task . and . for the sheets LAI- % RSL and LAI- % RSL
and answer the questions again. What differences do you note when comparing
results for the three soil reflectances? Explain your answer.
The differences between all levels are decreasing, but the maximums (LAI 8.0) remain the same. You
see that with the 10%, the lower LAI-levels have relatively higher reflectance compared with the 0%.

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13.10 Plot the NIR reflectance (e.g., at 868 nm) as a function of LAI for all three
soil reflectances in one graph (three curves). What do you conclude on the
influence of soil background on this relationship? Explain your answer. This plot
is not included in the spreadsheet yet, create it yourself!
The higher the %RSL the higher the reflectance for lower LAI-values in the NIR.
13.11 Calculate the difference index for the six simulated LAIs and three soil
reflectance values (0%, 10% and 20%). Plot the difference index as a function of
LAI for all three soil reflectances in one graph (three curves). What do you
conclude on the influence of soil background on this relationship?
The beginning and end are the same for the LAI levels. The soil background results in higher reflectance
differences for higher soil levels.

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13.12 When dealing with practical applications we have to solve the inverse
approach. Suppose we measure a NIR reflectance of about 22.2%, what would the
LAI estimates then have been for the three backgrounds (using 13.10)? Suppose
we measure for the same situation a difference index of 18.15%, what would the
LAI estimates then have been for the three backgrounds (using 13.11)? Compare
the possible error for both approaches if one does not know the soil reflectance.
One may look at the possible range in retrieved LAI values for the three
backgrounds. Explain your answer.
22,2%:
LAI-0% RSL: 1,3 LAI
LAI-10% RSL: 0,8 LAI
18,15%
LAI-0% RSL: 1 LAI
LAI-20% RSL: NO DATA
When you don’t know the soil reflectance the range of LAI can differ a lot. Therefore you can have quite
a large error in you measurements.

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14 TEMPORAL ANALYSIS OF NDVI TIME SERIES FOR EUROPE

14.1-1 Assume we have clouds covering a given pixel on half the days within a
decade (10 day period) and on half of them not, what will happen with the
clouded pixels when we compute an NDVI maximum value composite?
The maximum NDVI will be the pixel value. All other values will not be important for this pixel. During
the year the NDVI maximum is calculated over every other 10 days. So, altogether you will have 37
decades of 10 days which show the NDVI for a particular pixel. When doing this, it is easy to get a pixel
without cloud coverage, because the maximum NDVI will be picked from the 10day range. Nevertheless,
it is possible to get 10 days of cloud coverage.
14.2-1 When does the growing season in the Pyrenees (file coordinates
around:1031, 1338) start? Which color will this area have if you display decade 2,
3 and 4? Explain the white colors in Northwest Spain in the 2, 3, 4 color
combination.
Growing season starts around the 18th decade. With decade 2, 3, 4 the area will be black.
The white colours in North-West Spain are cloud covers.
14.2-2 Look at the difference in NDVI profile between the Wieringermeer polder
in the northern part of the province North Holland in The Netherlands with
predominantly arable land (file coordinates around:1389, 310) with the area just
to the south (1385,320) with predominantly grassland. Give your comments to
the difference and copy the spectral profile plots to your report.
Grassland has vegetation during the complete year. Arable land doesn’t have this vegetation.

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14.2-3 Compare these profiles with the temporal profiles for a big city like
Amsterdam (1380,354) or Paris (1213,711). Give your comments.
Cities don’t have that much vegetation compared to the Wieringermeerpolder. Paris has less vegetation
than Amsterdam.
14.2-4 Compare the temporal profile of an arable area in the Netherlands (e.g. the
Wieringermeer (1389,310) with an arable area South of Paris (wheat areas in
France, see Pelcom map). Explain the difference and copy the profile plots to your
report.
You see that the growing season starts earlier in France than the Netherlands. This can be due to to
more southern (and therefore warmer) location.

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14.2-5 Determine (and copy) the temporal profile of a forest area in the North of
Spain (e.g. around 535, 1238). Explain the profile.
Forest is always green. Probably due to climate or pine trees.
14.2-6 In Andalusia (South of Spain) we may notice a peculiar profile for the
irrigated areas (e.g. around 497, 1852). Plot the profile and explain it. Please
notice as well that the Pelcom dataset contains a misclassified area here. The
forests indicated on the Pelcom map are actually irrigated land (check Google
Earth: 37°10'52"N 6° 6'47"W).
They harvest twice a year (two different crops probably).

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14.2-7 Around the Ebro river in the North of Spain we find many irrigated fields
(e.g. around 967, 1457) and the Ebro delta is characterised by rice fields (e.g.
1062, 1546). Determine the temporal profiles of these areas and give your
comment.
Irrigated fields grow all year. The ricer fields have a maximum around May/ June, this might come
because the temperature is increasing by that time.
14.3-1 Compare the result of the unsupervised classification with the PELCOM
image. Focus on two areas: The Netherlands (e.g. 51°55' N, 4°40' E). and the area
around Paris (e.g. 49° N, 2°31' E).. You may try to match some of the colours of
the unsupervised 136 classification image to the PELCOM legend. Do the same
spatial patterns occur in the classification result and PELCOM? Which classes of
PELCOM appear to have a distinguishable growing pattern throughout the
season?
The classes can be compared. The classification of arable land shows different colours, these might be
the different growing patterns throughout the seasons.
14.3-2 By studying the temporal profiles of this exercise, select four decades
(layers) which you think are important for distinguishing as many land cover
classes as possible. Which layers would you select?
4, 12, 22, 33
14.3-3 Compare your results with the PELCOM image as you did before. What are
your conclusions?
You see more differences, because there are more classes. And the bands are decades through the
seasons.

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14.3-4 Compare your results with the PELCOM image again. What are your
conclusions? What does the image of mean NDVI show?
When using the Mean NDVI you see the all the mean values from the four chozen decades through the
seasons. You can clearly see the cities in the new image.
14.3-5 Compare your results with the PELCOM image. What are your conclusions
towards usage of the maximum NDVI? What does this tell you about the
vegetation throughout the year?
The maximum shows in bright colours the maximum vegetation in the decades we choose.
14.3-6 Compare the maximum and the average NDVI for the wheat area (arable
land) around Paris. What can you conclude with regard to the surrounding
grassland areas?
The grassland is in both maximum and average NDVI bright. This is due to the fact that grass can grow
during the complete year.
14.3-7 Can these NDVI-data give an indication about the amount of CO2 reduction
by vegetation? Which further information can be helpful?
Yes, because you know the amount of vegetation in a particular area. Additional information about the
CO2 reduction per land use type is necessary.

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15 OPTICAL REMOTE SENSING FOR SOIL SCIENCE

15.2-1 Make a schematic figure showing reflectance spectra between 1.1 and 2.5
mm for kaolinite, dry (use figure 15.3); kaolinite, rough, dry; kaolinite moist and
rough.
15.2-2 Which type of iron bearing mineral (see Figure 15.1) l is for sure not
present in curve C in figure 15.4?
Hematite.
15.2-3 Explain for curve B in figure 15.4, (a) increase in reflectance from blue to
near infrared, (b) absorption bands at 1.45 and 1.95 mm, (c) reflectance is much
less than 100%.
a) Most soil always has some iron in it. Iron results in reflectance in the NIR.
b) This absorption is the moisture in the soil.
c) Because of the roughness of soil in general, there is always scattering of reflectance.
15.3-1 Check the quality of the ROSIS image: rosis_alora.img. Which spectral
bands would you exclude for the analysis? How did you determine this?
We will only use the Red, Blue and Green bands. Therefore we exclude Band 1-10 (Because of the noise)
and 72-115 (Because this is the NIR).
15.3-2 Calculate the Redness index and iron content for the area. What Redness
values do you expect for vegetation pixels? Explain and check. Hint: create three
images with the needed spectral subset only (Raster | Subset & Chip | Create
Subset Image) and the Modeler (Stack Mean)
· Did you include the bands mentioned in 15.3-1? Why / Why not?
· Could this index also be applied on Landsat TM data? And SPOT?
The mean of the redness is 0,459 reflectance in the wavelength range. We expect very low values for the
vegetation pixels.
We did include the bands as mentioned in 15.3-1, because these are the bands with the least noice and
only Red, Green and Blue.
The Redness index can both be applied on SPOT and Landsat TM.

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15.3-3 Display the rosis_alora_CR.img with the color combination RGB = 12, 55,
85. Explain why iron rich areas show up in a different color than the vegetation or
areas with less iron.
The vegetation is shown by use of the NIR (Band 85 and shown in blue). The iron in the ground is shown
by the Band 55 and displayed in green.
15.3-4 Calculate the iron content using the formula mentioned above. Explain
why vegetation shows such high values. Adapt the model in such way that pixels
with a high vegetation cover are masked out. Think beyond this exercise! How do
you calculate where you have vegetation and which input data you need for this.
Describe how you solved it and put the result in your report.
To calculate the result you have to make a subset of the red and nir. After this you can calculate the ndvi
of both subsets. As as final step, you use the formula of Fe_dithionite minus the previous calculated ndvi.
15.3-5 As shown the soil iron content can be calculated in different ways.
Describe for both methods how partial vegetation cover influences the result.
Does it lead to an over or under estimation?
Partial vegetation cover influences the result that way that it generalises the pixels and their iron
content. So, this will lead to an overestimation.

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16 THERMOGRAPHY
16.1 What is the main difference between the images collected by the two sensors
(see table in Annex 1).
The main difference between the two images is the time when the pictures are taken (10.30am and
1.30pm).
16.2 What are the black data gaps that you find in the image data? Is the product
you're looking at a 'tile' product or a 'swath' product?
The black data gaps are clouds and sea. It is a tile product.,
16.3 What is the main difference with the Terra image and how does this relate to
the answers on question 1.
The main difference is that the gaps |(clouds) have been moving further over the land, this due to the
later time of the image.
16.4 What are the other layers representing?

 Land_surface_Temperature
 Land_surface_Temperature_Error
 Quality_control
 Emissivity_channel_31
 Emissivity_channel_32
 Viewing_time
 Viewing_angle
16.5 Why are the stripes of equal solar time not parallel to the viewing angle?
The viewing angle is constant, it is always the same to the surface, The stripes of equal solar time differ
according the moment of measurement. The view time is the time every pixel received from solar light.
16.6 By now you may have found out that in this exercise we are using a MODIS
Land surface temperature Level 2 Swath product. Search the Internet to find the
Scaling factors and Offsets that are appropriate for the different bands in this
MODIS product. Tip: use search terms like 'MODIS', 'LST', 'Product Guide'.
Scale factor = 0.02
Offset = 0.0
16.9 Have a look at the temperature values, in what units is the data provided?
What range of values do you find from S-Sweden to the Sahara desert.
Between the 300 and 320 Kelvin.
16.10 What range of errors do you find? When you look at the LST error layer you
will see that the highest errors are usually found in fringes around clouded areas.
Why is the error estimate high around the clouds?
On the outside of the clouds there can be reflection. But the wavelength is disrupted by the clouds.
16.11 Just from a qualitative/visual perspective, do you see much difference

between the two images? Which channel usually has the highest emissivity (use
'inquire cursor' to find out)
The visual difference is the colour of the image. The emissivity in 32 is higher than 31.

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16.12 Given the difference in overpass time between Terra and Aqua, which
satellite do you expect to observe higher surface temperature? Check whether
this is true with 'inquire cursor'.
We expect that the Aqua gives higher temperatures because of the measurement time (This is later on
the day so there has been more sunlight). This seem to be true.
16.13 What is the likely explanation for such extreme temperature differences in
the difference image?
The difference is very big sometimes because of the -99 value for cloud cover. This results in large
measures temperature differences.
16.14 Have a look at the spatial distribution of the temperature differences. What
does it tell you about the temporal evolution of the surface temperature during
the day? Can you give a possible explanation for the patterns in the temperature
differences?
This image shows the difference of temperature during 10:30 am and 1:30 pm. The temporal evolution
of the surface temperature is increasing in the inner parts of the countries except for the Sahara.

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17 ENERGY BALANCE
17.1-1 Which objects will have a high surface albedo (r0)? Which will be higher:
r0 of dry soil or r0 of wet soil?
The valleys and the clouds. The wet soil will have higher r0 values.
17.2-1 Compare the feature space plot you created with fig 6 in the article. Notice
the difference in the lower right part of the plot. To which objects in the image
does this area correspond?
The objects with a high reflectance and a low temperature. For example the peaks of the mountain.
17.2- Determine TH and T E. Why does the line of TH go down when the surface
reflectance increases?
Green: λEmax(r0)
Red: Hmax(r0)
Orange: TH
Blue: TλE
The high reflectance is most of the time existing at spots where the temperature is low.
17.2-3 The two lines will intersect near a surface reflectance of about 1. What will
the evaporation at this point? Explain.
There will be no evaporation. At this point there is no moisture left in the soil, so there is no evaporation.
17.2- What do the values of Δ represent in terms of energy?

Evaporative fraction. High albedo.
17.3- How is τ related to the field measurements table of the article) and the
value for ?
(1 - $n1_r0_s30m) * 0.71 * (1367 * COS ( 39 )) + 350.75 - (5.67 * 10 ** -8) * ($n3_e0 *
$n2_t0_demcor ** 4)

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17.3-2 Display the image of the latent heat flux. Where in the image do the high
values occur, beside the sea area? (For a colour image see ex17_fig7.jpg.) Give an
explanation for this.
G0: (0.05 + 0.25 * (1 - ($n1_ndvi_toa - 100) / (200-100)) * $n2_rn)
H: (1 - $n3_evaporative_fraction) * ($n2_rn - $n1_g0)
λE: $n1_evaporative_fraction * ($n2_rn - $n3_g0)
The high values occur in the valleys.
17.3-3 Display the image of the net radiation. If you zoom in to the study area
(around map coordinates: X=682800; Y=4788900) reveals large differences in
net radiation. Describe the major differences for the area and give an explanation.
To get an idea of the study area you can check this location in Google Earth:
43°13'26.60"N, 11°15'16.98"E.
In this area there are a lot of different land use types in the agricultural sector.
17.3-4 Display the image of the soil flux. Describe the differences of the soil flux
for the different parcels and explain these differences.
There is a range of soil flux values of 20 to 130.

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GRS20306 Remote Sensing Practical Report

Remote Sensing (Wageningen University & Research)

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1.2 Which information is needed for the determination of vegetation cover?

You need a multi-temporal classification of high-resolution radar images, meteorological

1.4 Which sensors can collect the required information?

1.5 What are other characteristics of these systems?

1.6 Can the systems be used for monitoring on a European ≈ km scale?

Modis data is free and easy accessible.

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Data is provided on a daily basis.

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2.2 Give an example of an interval or a ratio scale

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2.1 Inquiring DN-Values

2.2 Histogram and Statistics

Min: 35 Max: 162 mean: 105.048

Median: 97 Mode: 155 Std. Dev: 35.943

Skip factorX: 1 Skip FactorY: 1

File type: IMAGINE Image, type: continuous

Mean: is the average

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2.3 Inquiring DN-Values

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2.4.3 Which land use types are emphasized?

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3.2.1 Which metadata are available for the image?

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4.1 ASSIGN A MAP CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM TO AN IMAGE DATA

4.1-5 When is the nearest neighbour resampling technique recommended and

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4.1-6 Remember that the default presentation of continuous image data is

Manual: 197490, 454200

GCP error X: 2.5249 px = 20.1992 meters

GCP error Y: 0.9242 px = 7.3936 meters

GCP total: 1.4136 px = 11.3088 meters

GCP error Y: 0.1572 = 1.2576 meters

GCP total: 0.6087 = 4.8696 meters

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5 MULTITEMPORAL ANALYSIS OF SATELLITE DATA

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5.2 Atmospheric correction

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6 Quality assessment of Remote Sensing Data

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Low pass 5 5 5 5 8.333333 15 21.66667 25 25 25 25 1 1 1

High pass 0 0 0 0 -3.33333 0 3.333333 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 -1

7.2.1 Write down the used filter matrix.

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