Joint Comprehensive Certificate Course on HVAC&R System, 2012

Feb-Apr 2012

Joint Comprehensive Certificate Course on 
HVAC&R System, 2012 
2012年度暖通空調及製冷系統綜合証書課程
Fundamentals of HVAC&R Part 2

Fundamentals of HVAC&R Part 2

Presented by:
Ir Dr. Sam C. M. Hui Dr. Sam C. M. Hui
Department of Mechanical Engineering
March 1, 2012 The University of Hong Kong
E-mail: cmhui@hku.hk

Contents Air-side systems

• Air-side systems • To better understand HVAC systems, they can

be divided into five subsystems or loops:
• Air duct design • Air-side
• Chilled water
• Refrigeration equipment
• Space air diffusion
• Heat rejection
• Controls
• Ventilation design

33 oC, 28 oC Control Loop Can you describe each component?

33 oC 27 oC

12 oC 10 oC
25 oC 49 oC 35 oC
12 oC
Chilled Water

35 oC
Airside System

Heat rejection
Refrigeration
System

System

7 oC 38 oC 29 oC
7 oC 3 oC 29 oC

13 oC 13 oC
Air-side systems

• The fluid = AIR

• Fluid properties
• Air density = 1.204 kg/m3
• Air specific volume = 0.831 m3/kg
• Specific heat (Cp) = 1.0 kJ/kg.K
• Fluid pressure What is the difference
between laminar and
• Static pressure/head
turbulent flow?
• 1 standard atmospheric pressure = 101.325 kPa (≈1 bar)
• Absolute pressure & gauge pressure

It is useful to remember some typical data of air. Velocity profile

Air-side systems Air-side systems

• Duct pressure changes (c.f. atm pressure) • Fans

• Static pressure (SP), Pa
• Velocity pressure (VP), Pa = ρV2 / 2
• Total pressure (TP), Pa = SP + VP
• Fan: a pumping device
• Fan (total) pressure = pressure difference between
fan inlet and fan discharge
• At fan suction/inlet, SP = negative (c.f.
atmospheric); at discharge, SP = positive
• Fan types
• Centrifugal fans: radial, forward curved, air foil
(backward curved), backward inclined, tubular, roof
ventilator
• Axial fans: propeller, tube-axial, vane-axial
• Arrangement
• Motor location, air discharge orientation, drive train
type (direct drive or pulley drive)
• Centrifugal: single width single inlet (SWSI), double
width double inlet (DWDI)

AXIAL FANS

Propeller Tube-axial

Centrifugal and axial fan components Can you suggest

where are they
being used?
Tube-vane
 Air-side systems

Tubular centrifugal fan
• Fan performance
• Fan volume flow rate (m3/s or l/s), Vf
• Fan total pressure Δptf, fan velocity pressure pvf &
fan static pressure Δpsf (Pa)
• Fan power & efficiency
• Fan power or air power (W) = Δptf x Vf
• Fan power input on the fan shaft (brake horsepower), Pf
Centrifugal roof ventilator • Fan total efficiency: ηt = Δptf x Vf / Pf
• Combined index of aerodynamic, volumetric & mechanical
efficiencies
• Air temp. increase through fan, ΔTf = Δptf /(ρcpaηt)

Performance
curves for
controllable-
pitch vane-axial
fans

Typical fan performance curve

Air-side systems Air-side systems

• Fan-duct systems • Fan Laws

• Flow resistance R, pressure drop Δp and volume flow • Speed (n)
o
rate V • Volume flow (V)

p  R  V 2 •
•
Total pressure loss (Δp )
Air density (ρ)
• Duct sections in series: Rs  R1  R2    Rn • For air systems that are
• Duct sections in parallel: geometrically &
dynamically similar:
1 1 1 1 (D = impeller diameter)
  
Rp R1 R2 Rn
 Inlet
Air-side systems conditions

• System effect Δpts

• Its additional total pressure loss caused by uneven
or non-uniform velocity profile at the fan inlet, or
Inlet swirl
at duct fittings after fan outlet
• Due to the actual inlet and outlet connections as
compared with the total pressure loss of the fan test
unit during laboratory ratings

Outlet duct

Inlet Outlet (Source: Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA))

A typical AHU with unhoused

plug/plenum return fan

Simple air-handling unit (AHU)

Air-side systems

• Main components of AHU

• Casing
• Fans
• Coils
• Filters
• Humidifiers (optional)
• Outdoor air intake, mixing & exhaust section
• Controls
Water cooling coil
 Air duct design

• Types of air duct

• Supply air duct
HEPA and ULPA filters Activated carbon filter
• Return air duct
• Outdoor air duct
• Exhaust air
• Duct sections
• Header or main duct (trunk)
• Branch duct or runout
Low efficiency (panel-type) Medium efficiency (bag-type)

Rectangular duct Round duct w/ spiral seam

Flat oval duct Flexible duct Transverse joint reinforcement

(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration) (Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

Air duct design Air duct design

• Duct specification • Frictional losses: Darcey-Weisbach Equation

• Sheet gauge and thickness of duct material • Hf = friction head loss, or Δpf = pressure loss
• Traverse joints & longitudinal seam
reinforcements
• f = friction factor (dimensionless)
• Duct hangers & their spacing
• L = length of duct or pipe (m)
• Tapes & adhesive closures • D = diameter of duct or pipe (m)
• Fire spread and smoke developed • v = mean air velocity in duct (m/s)
• g = gravitational constant (m/s2)
• Site-fabricated or factory-fabricated • ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
• g c = dimensional constant, for SI unit, g c = 1
 Air duct design

• Circular equivalent
• Hydraulic diameter, Dh = 4 A / P
• A = area (mm2); P = perimeter (mm)
• Rectangular duct:

• Flat oval duct:

Friction chart for round duct

(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2001)

Air duct design

• Dynamic losses
• Result from flow disturbances caused by duct-
mounted equipment and fittings
• Change airflow path’s direction and/or area
• Flow separation & eddies/disturbances
• In dynamic similarity (same Reynolds number &
geometrically similar duct fittings), dynamic loss
is proportional to their velocity pressure Region of eddies and
turbulences in a round elbow 5-piece 90o round elbow

(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2001)

Rectangular elbow, smooth radius, 2 splitter vanes

Airflow through a
rectangular converging
or diverging wye
Mitered elbow and its secondary flow
(Source: ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2001) (Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
 Abrupt enlargement Sudden contraction
Air duct design

• Duct layout
• Symmetric layout is easier to balance
• Smaller main duct & shorter design path
• For VAV systems, duct looping allows feed from
opposite direction
• Optimise transporting capacity (balance points often
follow the sun’s position)
• Result in smaller main duct
• Compare alternative layouts & reduce fittings
• For exposed ducts, appearance & integration with
the structure is important
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

Air duct design

• Duct sizing methods

• Equal-friction method with maximum velocity
• Duct friction loss per unit length remains constant
• Most widely used in normal HVAC applications
• Constant-velocity method
• Often for exhaust ventilation system
• Minimum velocity to carry dust is important
Typical supply duct system with symmetric layout & looping • Limit velocity to reduce noise

(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

Air duct design

• Duct sizing methods

• Static regain method
• Normally used with a computer package for high
velocity systems (e.g. in main duct)
• Size air duct so that ↑static pressure nearly offset the
pressure loss of succeeding duct section along main duct
• T method
• Optimising procedure by minimising life-cycle cost
• System condensing (into a single imaginary duct)
• Fan selection (optimum system pressure loss)
• System expansion (back to original duct system)
Concept of static regain method
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
 Air duct design Air duct design

• Design information required • Key design inputs

• Client requirements • Design volume flow rate (m3/s)
• Required supply air condition • Limiting duct pressure loss (Pa/m)
• Type of system supplied • Limiting flow velocity (m/s)
• Ambient conditions • Design outputs
• Duct material • Schematic of ductwork layout & associated plant
• Duct insulation • Schedule of duct sizes and lengths, and fittings
• Duct system layout

Space air diffusion Space air diffusion

• Objective of space air diffusion • Important considerations:

• Evenly distribute conditioned & outdoor air to • Thermal comfort (temp., humidity, air velocity)
provide healthy & comfortable indoor environment, • Comfort conditions, local variations
or appropriate environment for process, at • Indoor air quality
optimum cost • Airborne pollutants
• Last process of air conditioning • Ventilation effects
• Take place entirely within conditioned space • Noise control
• Directly affect the occupants, but it is difficult to • Noise criteria, sound attentuation
trace & quantify • Occupied zone: 1.8 m from floor

Space air diffusion

Thermal Comfort
• Draft & effective draft temperature
• Draft: unwanted local cooling of human body
caused by air movement & lower space air temp.
• Turbulence intensity, Itur = σv / vm
• σv = standard deviation of air velocity fluctuation (m/s)
Occupied • vm = mean air velocity (m/s)
zone
• Effective draft temperature: combines effects of
uneven space air temp. & air movement
• θ = Tx – Tr – a (vx – vrm)

(Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designer’s Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)
 Space air diffusion

• Air diffusion performance index (ADPI)

• ADPI = (Nθ x 100) / N
• θ: effective draft temperature
• Nθ: number of points measured in occupied zone in which -1.7 oC <
θ <1.1 oC
• N : total number of points measured in occupied zone
• Higher the ADPI, higher % of occupants who feel
comfortable
• ADPI is useful for cooling mode operation
• For heating mode, temperature gradient ٪ 2 points may be a
better indicator of thermal comfort (< 2.8 oC typical)
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

Space air diffusion

• Air exchange rate

• = Volume flow rate / interior volume
• Unit: L/s or air change per hour (ACH)
• May consider outside air, or supply air
• Time constant (τ)
• Inverse of air exchange rate
• Air diffusion effectiveness
• Perfectly mixing, perfectly displacing
• Degree of effectiveness of air diffusion
(Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designer’s Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)

Surface effect (or Coandă effect)

(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration) (Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designer’s Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)
 Total air

Primary
air

Secondary
air

(Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designer’s Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.) (Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designer’s Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)

(Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designer’s Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.) (Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designer’s Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)

Space air diffusion

• Supply outlets
• Grilles and registers
• Ceiling diffusers
• Slot diffusers
• Nozzles
• Return & exhaust inlets
• Light troffer diffuser & troffer-diffuser slot
• Design issues: architectural setup, airflow pattern
needed, indoor requirements, load conditions
(Source: Rock, B. A. and Zhu, D., 2002. Designer’s Guide to Ceiling-based Air Diffusion.)
 Square & rectangular

Perforated ceiling diffuser

Removable inner-core
Supply grille and register
Ceiling diffusers
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration) (Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

Round nozzle Nozzle diffuser

Slot diffusers
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration) (Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

Space air diffusion

• Five typical airflow patterns

• Mixing flow (most common)
• Displacement flow
• Upward flow
• Unidirectional flow
• Projecting flow
• Principles of mixing flow
• Supply air thoroughly mixed with ambient air
• Occupied zone is dominated by induced recirculating flow
• Creates relatively uniform air velocity, temperature,
Light troffer, slot diffuser and return slot combination humidity, and air quality
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)
 Will the air jet enter the occupied zone?
Will stagnant zone be formed?

Mixing flow using high side outlets Mixing flow using ceiling diffusers
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration) (Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

Stratified mixing flow in a large indoor stadium using supply nozzles

(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

Hong Kong International Airport

Displacement flow characteristics Upward flow underfloor air distribution system

(Source: http://www.price-hvac.com)
 Hospital operating theatre (laminar flow with air curtains)
Unidirectional flow for clean rooms
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration) (Source: http://www.price-hvac.com)

Ventilation design

• What is Ventilation (通風)?

• The process by which fresh air is introduced and
ventilated air is removed
• Primary aim: to preserve the qualities of air
• May also be used to lower temperature & humidity
• Natural ventilation
• By means of purpose-provided aperture (such as
openable windows, ventilators and shafts) and the
Industrial spot cooling system
natural forces of wind and temperature-difference
Desktop task air conditioning
pressures
(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

Natural ventilation (e.g. cross ventilation 穿堂風)

Ventilation design

• Mechanical (or forced) ventilation

• By means of mechanical devices, such as fans
• May be arranged to provide either supply, extract
or balanced ventilation for an occupied space

• Infiltration (air leakage into a building)

• Uncontrolled random flow of air through
unintentional openings driven by wind,
temperature-difference pressures and/or appliance-
induced pressures across the building envelope
(Source: Environmental Protection Department)
 Mechanical ventilation (extract ventilation)
Analysis of air flow

1. Outdoor air
2. Supply air
3. Indoor air
4. Transferred air
5. Extract air
6. Recirculation air
7. Exhaust air
8. Secondary air
9. Leakage
10. Infiltration
11. Exfiltration
12. Mixed air

What will happen if the windows are closed?

(Source: Environmental Protection Department)

Ventilation to remove pollutants and moisture

Ventilation design

• Ventilation for supporting life

• Maintain sufficient oxygen in the air
• Prevent high concentration of carbon dioxide
• Remove odour, moisture & pollutants
• Poor ventilation and indoor air quality
• Impact on human health & productivity
• CO2 as an index of air quality
• < 1,000 ppm, corresponds to fresh air 7 l/s/person
* Remember, source control is usually more effective than ventilation
• < 800 ppm, corresponds to fresh air 10 l/s/person
(Source: Environmental Protection Department)

Ventilation system design should avoid intake of vehicle exhaust

Ventilation design

• Purposes of ventilation
• Maintain human comfort and health
• Provide sufficient air/oxygen for human/livestock
• Provide sufficient air/oxygen for processes
• Remove products of respiration and bodily odour
• Remove contaminants or harmful chemicals
• Remove heat generated indoor
* Also ensure outdoor air intake is of adequate quality • Create air movement (feeling of
freshness/comfort)
(Source: Environmental Protection Department)
 Current: ASHRAE 62.1-2010 (10 L/s/person)

Ventilation design

• Ventilation calculations
• For general mechanical ventilation:
• Ventilation Rate (m3/h) = Air Change Rate (/h) x Room
Volume (m3)
• Ventilation Rate (m3/s) = Ventilation Rate (m3/h) / 3600
• For calculating fresh air ventilation rates
• Fresh air rate (m3/s) = Fresh air rate per person (l/s/p) x
number of occupants
• Ventilation effectiveness
• Depend on ventilation strategy, air distribution Changes in the minimum ventilation rates in the USA
method, room load & air filtration (Source: ASHRAE)

Ventilation design Ventilation design

• Determine the required ventilation rate (Q): • Mechanical ventilation

• (a) Maximum allowable concentration of • Movement of air through a building using fan
contaminants (Ci) power
• Ci = Co + F / Q
• Ability to control the air flows
• (b) Heat generation inside the space (H) • Two types:
• Q = H / [cp x ρ x (Ti – To)] • Unbalanced systems
• Air is either supplied or extracted
• (c) Air change rates (ACH) • Balanced systems
• Q = V x ACH / 3.6 • Air is supplied and extracted simultaneously

Ventilation design Ventilation design

• Design principles: • Extract ventilation, e.g.

1. Exhaust close to pollutant • Commercial kitchens
generation
• Toilets and bathrooms
2. Effective local extracts
3. Supply to the breathing zone
• Underground carparks
4. Supply air to clean areas • Factories or industrial buildings
5. More extract from “dirty” • Localised industrial extraction
areas
• Supply ventilation
6. Transfer air from “clean” to
“dirty” areas • Can be used to ensure adequate supply of outside
air, e.g. in boiler house ventilation
 Example of kitchen ventilation system

HVAC unit Kitchen exhaust

Ventilation design
Makeup air unit

• Industrial ventilation
• An important method for reducing employee
exposures to airborne contaminants
Makeup air
Supply air • Dilution systems:
Return air
Kitchen • Reduce the concentrations of contaminants released in a
hood work room by mixing with air flowing through the room
Dinning area Kitchen
• Local exhaust ventilation (LEV):
• Capture or contain contaminates at their source before
they escape into the workplace environment

Ventilation design Ventilation design

• Supply and extract (balanced) systems
• Central air handling unit (AHU) with separate
supply and extract fans
• A heat recovery device can also be incorporated
• Energy implications & efficient ventilation
• Heat recovery
• Demand controlled ventilation (DCV)
• User control ventilation
• Ventilation system balancing
• Hybrid ventilation (or mixed mode ventilation)
• = Natural ventilation + Mechanical ventilation
• Use them at different time of the day or season of
the year
• Usually have a control system to switch between
natural and mechanical modes
• Combine the advantages of both to satisfy the
actual ventilation needs and minimise energy
consumption

Natural ventilation Mechanical ventilation Is it feasible to use

Air infiltration through
cracks
Openable windows,
supply and exhaust
grilles
Self-regulating supply
and exhaust grilles
Demand-controlled
natural ventilation
Hybrid ventilation concepts
Constant air flow
mechanical ventilation
Demand-controlled
mechanical ventilation
Low pressure
mechanical ventilation
Natural Ventilation? Ventilation design hierarchy
If situation prevents this,
is it feasible to use
Mechanical Ventilation? Increasing:
• energy
If situation prevents this, consumption
is it feasible to use • capital cost
Hybrid/Mixed Mode Ventilation? • running costs
• maintenance
If situation prevents this,
is it feasible to use • complexity
Cooling and Heating
(without humidity control)?
If situation prevents this,
is it feasible to use
Full Air Conditioning
(with humidity control)?