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POULTRY FARMING

S MALL - SCALE POULTRY FARMING IN CENTRAL - E THIOPIA


(T EACHERS VERSION )

© Genesis Farms Ethiopia, Debre Zeyt (2014)


Number of publication: 011720141
POULTRY FARMING
S MALL - SCALE POULTRY FARMING IN CENTRAL -E THIOPIA
(T EACHERS VERSION )

© Genesis Farms Ethiopia, Debre Zeyt, 2014


Number of publication: 011720141

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photocopy,
microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the publisher.

Authors: C.A. den Boer


N. van den Hout
L. Vervloed

Layout by L. Vervloed

Debre Zeyt, Ethiopia - January 17th 2014


Preface
This report is written by t order of P. Marijs, agricultural consultant and trainer on Genesis Farm,
placed in Debre Zeyt, Ethiopia. It is a result of a final assignment from the semester ‘Management’ at
the University of Applied Sciences Dronten.

Chicken is a fast growing product in Ethiopia. Many residents are starting a small-scale poultry farm
(maximum 500 chickens). The chickens are in first case for the egg production, but when the
chickens cannot lay anymore, they sell the chickens as slaughter product.

This trainings manual is about small-scale poultry farming in central - Ethiopia. The goal of the
course is to teach the trainees the theoretical part and the practical part of chicken farming and
prevent problems in future.

We would like to thank the following people and companies:


- Mr. P. Marijs, our internship leader
- Mr. K. Brak from Maranatha Farm for answering all the questions
- National Veterinary Institute, for the information about vaccinations and health care
- Mr. J. Couzijnsen from AKF for the information about feeding and health care
- Mr. A. Boere and from NABC and Demeke from Yo-farms for the information about the laws in
Ethiopia
- The local farmers for their information
- Several others who have given important advice

Enjoy this course!

Kelsey den Boer


Natasja van den Hout
Linda Vervloed

Debre Zeyt, January 17th 2014

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 – CHICKEN............................................................................................................................................ 7

1.1 CHICKEN IN GENERAL ................................................................................................................................... 7


1.2 ANATOMY ................................................................................................................................................ 8
1.3 DIGESTIVE TRACT ...................................................................................................................................... 12
1.4 ETHOLOGY .............................................................................................................................................. 17
1.5 THE EGG ................................................................................................................................................ 21
1.6 QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 33

CHAPTER 2 – CHICKEN DISEASES .......................................................................................................................... 38


2.1 DISEASES ................................................................................................................................................ 38
2.2 PREVENTION ........................................................................................................................................... 61
2.7 QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 65

CHAPTER 3 – HOUSING ........................................................................................................................................ 67


3.1 HUSBANDRY SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................................ 67
3.2 BUILDING CHICKEN HOUSING ....................................................................................................................... 75
3.3 BUILDING AN OWN STABLE .......................................................................................................................... 79
3.4 TUKUL STABLE ......................................................................................................................................... 83
3.5 REQUIREMENTS ....................................................................................................................................... 86
3.6 EQUIPMENT OF THE HOUSING ...................................................................................................................... 86
3.7 TOTAL COSTS OF EQUIPMENT ....................................................................................................................... 91
3.8 QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................. 93

CHAPTER 4 – INFLOW........................................................................................................................................... 96
4.1 CHICKEN BREEDS ...................................................................................................................................... 96
4.2 BREEDING AND MULTIPLICATION .................................................................................................................. 98
4.3 HIGH-BREEDS .......................................................................................................................................... 98
4.4 SELECTION PROCEDURE .............................................................................................................................. 98
4.5 BUYING THE CHICKENS ............................................................................................................................. 100
4.6 AFTER BUYING ....................................................................................................................................... 101
4.7 REARERS .............................................................................................................................................. 104
4.8 GROWERS ............................................................................................................................................ 110
4.9 LAYERS ................................................................................................................................................ 111
4.10 MEAT CHICKENS ..................................................................................................................................... 114
4.11 CHECKLIST FOR THE GROWING PERIOD ......................................................................................................... 115
4.12 QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 117
CHAPTER 5 - MAINTENANCE .............................................................................................................................. 119
5.1 MAINTENANCE OF THE MATERIALS .............................................................................................................. 119
5.2 HYGIENE .............................................................................................................................................. 120
5.3 FEED ................................................................................................................................................... 125
5.4 ORDERING FEED ..................................................................................................................................... 126
5.5 QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 128
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CHAPTER 6 - OUTFLOW ...................................................................................................................................... 129
6.1 THE EGG .............................................................................................................................................. 129
6.2 THE CHICKEN ......................................................................................................................................... 132
6.3 QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 134

CHAPTER 7 - BUSINESS ....................................................................................................................................... 138


7.1 EGG PRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 138
7.2 MARKETING .......................................................................................................................................... 139
7.3 REGISTRATION AND IDENTIFICATION ............................................................................................................ 143
7.4 NETWORKING AND WORKING TOGETHER ...................................................................................................... 145
7.5 CUSTOMER FOCUS AND CUSTOMER FRIENDLINESS ........................................................................................... 147
7.6 LOGISTICS ............................................................................................................................................. 149
7.7 FINANCIAL ASPECTS ................................................................................................................................. 151
7.8 QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 158
CHAPTER 8 – EXTENDING YOUR COMPANY ....................................................................................................... 163

8.1 HOW TO APPROACH OTHER COMPANIES ....................................................................................................... 163


8.2 GOVERNMENT ....................................................................................................................................... 164
8.3 WRITING A BUSINESS PLAN ....................................................................................................................... 164
8.4 ADVERTISEMENT .................................................................................................................................... 167
8.5 STAFF .................................................................................................................................................. 168
8.6 COOPERATION ....................................................................................................................................... 168
8.7 QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 170
CHAPTER 9 – ASSIGNMENTS AND ANSWERS...................................................................................................... 171

CHAPTER 1 – CHICKEN ......................................................................................................................................... 171


CHAPTER 2 – CHICKEN CARE.................................................................................................................................. 177
CHAPTER 3 - HOUSING ......................................................................................................................................... 181
CHAPTER 4 – INFLOW .......................................................................................................................................... 185
CHAPTER 5 – MAINTENANCE ................................................................................................................................. 189
CHAPTER 6 – OUTFLOW ....................................................................................................................................... 192
CHAPTER 7 – BUSINESS ........................................................................................................................................ 196
CHAPTER 8 – EXTENDING YOUR COMPANY ................................................................................................................ 205
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................................................... 208
APPENDIX 1- BUSINESS PLAN ............................................................................................................................. 211

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Theme 1. Chicken

Week 1 – Chicken
Week 2 – Chicken diseases
Week 3 – Housing

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CHAPTER 1 – CHICKEN
This chapter is about the chicken in general, the anatomy, digestive system, the ethology of the
chicken and the egg.

1.1 CHICKEN IN GENERAL


A chicken is a nidifugous, omnivorous, ground bird. Nidifugous means that when a chicken is born
it’s immediately undependable of his parents. The chicks need this undependability to avoid getting
caught by a predator. The chicken will live mostly on the ground. The chicken will only use his
wings when there danger approaches and when they want to reach for their sitting stick. The
second purpose of the wings is to maintain balance.

Chickens live in flocks. When hens or roosters are removed from a flock, a temporary disruption in
the social order will occur until a new pecking order is established. Adding hens (especially young
hens) to an existing flock can lead to fighting and injury.

The selection of feed is based on visual and taste senses. The tastes senses are located in the top of
the beak, the throat and the tongue. This is important to know when managing poultry and their
feed. If the composition of the feed changes due to availability of grains, the hens may not change
easily to eat seeds of a different shape or colour. When a chicken is de-beaked their tastes senses
decrease. The tongue is a second range sense. It contents taste buds, but it can’t tell the difference
between sweet and sour. Little is known about the sense of smell.

This figure shows the order of the senses. The most important sense has 3 plusses and the least
important has a minus:
- Tactile sense +++
- Sight ++
- Taste +
- Smell -

Hearing is an acute sense in chickens, and communication within and among flocks of chickens
takes place mainly through signals provided by postures, displays and vocalisations (Mench and
Keeling, 2001). Postures and displays are used to signal threat and submission (Kruijt, 1964). Other
acute senses are sight and colour vision. This is important to know when managing poultry and
their feed, that the selection of the feed is based on visual cues and immediate taste cues. A hen may
not change that easily to eating seeds of a different shape and colour, because of this reason it isn’t
recommended to change the composition of the feed.

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Case study 1.1 Chicken in general

You are feeding your chickens the same food every day for the last 20 weeks. You ordered
new food from the factory. The factory called you up yesterday to inform you about the fact
that the amount of grain is raised in the composition due to availability. The factory is asking
you if you agree with this change in food composition. What would be your answer and how
will the chickens respond?

Answer:
A chicken selects his food due to visual and tastes senses. The chickens will notice the
difference in the food composition through these senses. They will see that the shape or
colour of the composition is different and they won’t eat it up easily. They can eat it
eventually, but this takes an incredible amount of patience. A stubborn hen won’t eat it and
maybe several will, but if you want to be sure you need to decline the question of the factory.
This way the chickens get the same feed as usual.

1.2 ANATOMY
This subchapter will describe the feathers and shedding, the respiratory tract and the skeleton of
the chicken.

1.2.1 FEATHERS AND SHED


A chicken is covered with feathers, skin and scales. The feathers protect the body against injuries
and they have an insulating function.

Each part of the body has its own type of feathers. There are four types of feathers:
1. Flight feathers
2. Body feathers
3. Hair feathers
4. Down feathers (fluff) (Stoas, 1997)

Feathers vary in size and shape, but they always have the following parts:
- Quill (Hollow stem)
- Shaft (Rib)
- Accessory plume
- Web of vane
- Barbs (branching from shaft for interlocking)

The anatomy of the feather is found in figure 1.1 ‘Feather anatomy’.

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Figure 1.1 'Feather anatomy'

Chickens only shed ones a year during the laying period. The growers and rearers shed in intervals.
These intervals are:
- Four till five weeks
- Eight weeks
- Thirteen weeks
- Twenty weeks

Roosters and hens show a few differences. These differences are to be found in Table 1.1 ‘The
differences between roosters and hens’

Table 1.1 ‘The differences between roosters and hens’


Rooster Hen
Bigger than a hen Shorter and rounder feathers
Comb, wattles and earlobes usually bigger
Larger tail
Shiny, pointed feathers on their necks
(hackles) and backs (saddle)
Bigger spur

Comb size and colour in males and females are influenced by the levels of sex hormone and are
indicators of social status (Guhl and Ortman, 1953).

1.2.2 RESPIRATORY TRACT


The main function of the respiratory system of birds is to absorb oxygen and to release carbon
dioxide in the body. In addition, the respiratory system also gets rid of excess heat (temperature
regulation), detoxification of certain chemicals and vocalization. This vocalization is most
noticeably (crowing noise) and annoys the neighbours.

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Like humans, birds have a windpipe and two lungs. From there on birds are distinctly unlike
mammals. Air flows into a bird’s lungs during the intake of breath. This air continues through the
lungs into nine air sacs and then it goes back out through the lungs again. Birds get two doses of
oxygen for the price of one breath! The air sacs are arranged around the inside of the chest and
abdominal cavity. These air sacs connect with some of the bones of the skeleton. Figure 1.2
‘Respiratory’ shows every part of the tract.

Figure 1.2 'Respiratory tract'

Humans breathe with the help of the diaphragm muscle, which divides the chest and abdominal
cavities. Birds don’t have a working diaphragm; instead, a bird moves its rib cage and keel bone
(breastbone) to draw air into the lungs and to force it back out again. Holding a chick or other small
bird firmly around the body stops them from breathing and this can kill them. This is just one of
several reasons why small children should be supervised when holding chicks.

The voice box in chickens is called the syrinx. The syrinx is located down in the chest cavity where
the windpipe splits to enter each lung. Both male and female chickens have a syrinx, so hens can
crow too (if they feel like it). The syrinx isn’t an optional piece of anatomy though. A rooster can’t
live with his syrinx removed.

The layout of a chicken’s heart isn’t so different from the layout of a human heart. It has four
chambers and pumps blood through two loops: one loop through the lungs, and the other loop
through the rest of the body. A bird’s heart is relatively large for its body size, compared to mammal
hearts.

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1.2.3 SKELETON
The skeleton has two additional functions: respiration and calcium transport. The skeletal system
of the bird is compact and lightweight, yet strong. The tail and neck vertebrae are movable due to
the 14 backbones, but the body vertebrae are fused together to give the body sufficient strength to
support the wings. There are two special types of bones which make up the bird’s skeletal system:
the pneumatic and medullary bones. The skeleton of a chicken is shown in figure 1.4 ‘Model’.

The pneumatic bones are important to the chicken for respiration. They are hollow
bones which are connected to the chicken’s respiratory system and are important for the chicken to
breathe. Examples of pneumatic bones are the skull, humerus, clavicle, keel (sternum), pelvic girdle,
and the lumbar and sacral vertebrae.

The medullary bones are an important source of calcium for the laying hen. Calcium is the primary
component of egg shell and a hen mobilizes 47% of her body calcium to make the egg shell.
Examples of medullary bones are the tibia, femur, pubic bones, ribs, ulna, toes, and scapula. These
bones are shown in figure 1.3 ‘Skeleton’.

Figure 1.3 'Skeleton' Figure 1.4 'Model'

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Genesis Farm, Ethiopia (Debre Zeyt, 2014)
Case study 1.2 Anatomy

You want to buy a new rooster for your flock, so you go to a farmer who sells roosters. The
farmer shows you a flock of chickens which contains roosters and hens. It’s your job to pick
the right rooster out. You made a selection of 2 chickens that you want to see separated from
the flock so that you can observe them. Both of the chickens are healthy and happy.

Chicken 1:
It’s a rather short chicken with round feathers.

Chicken 2:
This chicken is the largest of all. This chicken has a large tail and has some shiny pointed
feathers in its neck and back

Which chicken would you buy?

Answer:
Chicken 2, this is the rooster. Chicken 1 is a hen.

1.3 DIGESTIVE TRACT


This subchapter is about the organs of the digestive tract and the digestive process. The following
applies to poultry in general.

Figure 1.4. ‘Digestive tract’ shows a scheduled drawing of the digestive tract of a chicken. The
digestive tract of a chicken consists of:
- Mouth
- Crop
- Glandular stomach
- Gizzard, or muscular stomach
- Small intestine
- Large intestine
- Cloacae

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Figure 1.4 'Digestive tract'

1.3.1 MOUTH
A chicken has no lips, cheeks or teeth as shown in figure 1.5 ‘Mouth’.
The beak is composed of two horny parts:
- The upper beak, which is attached to the skull
- The lower beak, which is hinged

A chicken can’t chew so they pick the feed up. After picking up the feed it arrives in the mouth. The
mouth produces saliva. The saliva contains no digestive fluids and server to make the feed smooth
and moist.

It’s easy for a chicken to swallow their feed due to the elasticity of their gullet. The chicken still
needs to raise its head to tip the water into the pharynx and gullet. It then passes the gullet
(oesophagus) to a pouch known as the crop. The passage is by gravity and air pressure differences.

The tongue is used to push feed to the back of the mouth so that it can be swallowed. There are
taste buds on the roof of the mouth and back of the tongue. The mouth is also very sensitive to
temperature differences.

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Figure 1.5 'Mouth'

1.3.2 CROP
The crop is an out-pocketing of the oesophagus and is located just outside the body cavity in the
neck region as shown in figure 1.6 ‘Crop’. Consumed feed and water are stored in the crop until the
remainder of the digestive tract is ready to receive more feed. When empty, or nearly empty, the
crop sends hunger signals to the brain so that more feed is consumed. The crop is simply a
temporary storage pouch that evolved for prey birds which need to move to the open to feed. They
are able to consume relatively large quantities of food rapidly and then return to a more secure
location to digest it. Occasionally the crop becomes impacted (crop impaction, also referred to as
crop binding or pendulous crop). This may occur when feed is withheld for a period of time, causing
chickens to eat too much and too fast when the feed is returned. A crop may also become impacted
in a chicken that is free-ranged on a pasture of tough, fibrous vegetation. With a crop impaction,
even if a chicken continues to eat, the feed can’t get past the impacted crop. The swollen crop may
also cut off the windpipe, suffocating the chicken. Crop impaction is unlikely to occur in properly
fed broilers or broiler breeders.

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Figure 1.6 'Crop'

1.3.3 GLANDULAR STOMACH


This is the enlarged part of the gullet just before it connection with the gizzard. In its wall are many
glands that secrete hydrochloric acid and pepsin.

1.3.4 GIZZARD, OR MUSCULAR STOMACH


The Gizzard is the actual stomach of a chicken. The inside of the Gizzard is coated with a hard
stratum corneum. Its wall contents two sets of strong muscles which acts as the birds teeth.
Consumed feed and the released digestive juices pass from the proventriculus to the gizzard for
grinding, mixing, and mashing. Large poorly-soluble particles (such as small stones or grit) are
retained in the gizzard until ground into tiny pieces by the action of the muscles and exposure to
the acid and food particles.

Grit is originally part of the feed. The contractions of the Gizzard together with the grit grind down
the feed and this makes the gastric juices more effective. So when the chicken eats, he will also pick
some grit up. An adult chicken needs about 10 to 15 grams of grit every two weeks.

Figure 1.7 ‘Crop, Gizzard and Glandular stomach’ shows the locations of these three parts of the
digestive system.

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Genesis Farm, Ethiopia (Debre Zeyt, 2014)
Figure 1.7 'Crop, Gizzard and Glandular stomach'

1.3.5 APPENDIX
A chicken has two big appendixes at the passage from the small- and large intestine. The function is
to digest a little bit of the crude fibre and to extract water from the excrement. The rest of the feed
goes to the large intestine.

1.3.6 SMALL INTESTINE


The length of the small intestine is about 1.5 meter. This length is for an adult chicken. The first part
forms a loop known as the duodenal loop in which the most of the intestinal digestion takes place.
Enclosed in this loop is the pancreas. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice. The liver and the gall
bladder also secrete products into the small intestine. The nutrients resulting from the digestive
process pass into the bloodstream through the wall of the small intestine. Between the small and
the large intestine are two blind guts (caeca). The digestion of crude fibre in the feed only takes
place in these blind guts, with the help of bacteria present here.

1.3.7 LARGE INTESTINE


The large intestine is relatively short. It’s about 10 centimetres, that’s about 80% of what remains
of the feed that passes directly from the small intestine to the large intestine. The rest of the feed
stops at the appendix. The large intestine excretes the water out of the excrements and urine.

1.3.8 CLOACAE
The word cloacae means ‘common sewer’. The digestive, the urinary and the reproductive tracts all
empty into the cloacae.

Chickens don’t have a urinary bladder; the urine from the kidney is constantly added to the feed
remnants. This leads to the formation of the whitish uric acid salts so characteristic of chicken
excrements (STOAS (1992)).

1.3.9 EXCREMENTS
A chicken has two types of excrement:

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1. From the rectum, firm excrement, brown, green of colour and cloaked with a white layer of
hydrochloric acid.
2. The appendix discharge, paste like excrements, dark brown of colour. Per 8/10 rectal
discharge an appendix discharge occurs.

Case study 1.3 Digestive tract

A chicken has only one form of excrement. A human has two forms: urine and poop. Why
won’t you ever see a chicken urinate?

Answer:
The word cloacae means ‘common sewer’. The digestive, the urinary and the reproductive
tracts all empty into the cloacae.

Birds don’t have a urinary bladder; the urine from the kidney is constantly added to the feed
remnants. This leads to the formation of the whitish uric acid salts so characteristic of bird
excrements.

1.4 ETHOLOGY
Chickens in captivity show the same behaviour as the Red Jungle fowl (Gallus Gallus). The Red
Jungle fowl is thought to be ancestral to the domestic chicken. The Red Jungle fowl was first
domesticated at least five thousand years ago in Asia, then taken around the world, and the
domestic form is kept globally as a very productive food source of both meat and eggs

The behaviour is necessary for the breeding and survival in the wild. Whether they are in the wild
or captivity the chicken still needs to express certain behaviours. This is called instinct. Behavioural
problems occur when the chicken doesn’t have the chance of expressing his instinctual behaviour.
You need to consider a few aspects. This is to avoid certain behaviour problems.

- The space that a chicken needs, so that they can avoid each other when needed
- The availability of laying houses
- The availability of bedding material
- The availability of feed and water

A chicken starts to show unnatural behaviour patterns, when the chicken is exposed to stress. This
type of behaviour is called stereotypic behaviour. Immediate reaction is required when the chicken
shows stereotypical behaviour. Stereotypical behaviour is a way of communication. The chicken
lets you know through his way that it’s not happy or healthy.

The following behaviours will occur when a chicken is happy and healthy:
- Scratch; a chicken loves to scratch and to peck in the ground. This is natural behaviour to
search for feed. The combination of their long toes with sharp nails is perfect to express this
behaviour.
- Picking of conspecifics; a chicken expresses this behaviour to determine a pecking order or
when a rooster protects his hens. Chickens also show cannibalism behaviour. This is the
second reason why they peck each other. They can lose a lot of feathers through this and
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they can wound each other. To avoid that the chickens get fixated at each other it’s
necessary to get some distractions (like alfalfa or grass).
- Sleeping (roost); in the nature a chicken uses a tree to sleep on. So make sure that there is a
sitting stick for them to sleep on.
- The nursing of the feathers (polish); the purpose of this is to keep the feathers water
repellent and flexible. The meaning of this behaviour is that the chicken will grease and
order its feathers. To grease their feathers they will rub their beak against their preen gland
near the tail bone. A chicken can’t express this behaviour when it’s debeaked.
- The nursing of the skin (taking a dust bath); this is to clean the skin of parasites, itch and
skin irritations. Make sure that the bedding material is dry and loose.
- Communication; chickens have multiple varieties of vocalisations: warning, predator alarm
calls, contact calls, territorial calls, laying calls, nesting calls, mating calls, threat calls,
submissive calls, distress alarm, fear calls, contentment calls and feed calls (Mench and
Keeling, 2001). The chickens will constantly cackle when they feel save and when they are
healthy. So the care taker wants to hear this cackle.
- Moult; when the autumn arrives the chickens will start to replace their old feathers with
new ones. This process will last for two months. The moult cost the chicken a lot of energy.
Make sure that the chickens get enough proteins for their moult (PTC+, Hoenders).

A hen needs a nest site. Before egg laying hens will work to gain access to a nest site. Without a nest
the hens will often show abnormal behaviour during pre-laying such as: pacing, reduced sitting and
displacement behaviours (Sherwin and Nicol, 1993). So when a hen has a nesting site there is an
opportunity for more normal behaviour. (Wegner, 1980). Hens will often try to lay eggs in nests
that already contain eggs and have been known to move eggs from neighbouring nests into their
own. The results of this behaviour are that a flock will use only a few preferred locations, rather
than having a different nest for every chicken. Therefore it’s not unknown for two (or more) hens to
try to share the same nest at the same time. If the nest is too small for the hens or when a hen is
determined, they will lay on top of each other. If you want to encourage hens to lay in a particular
location, you can use some fake eggs made of plastic, stones or golf balls.

Chickens will form subgroups, when they are kept together for some months. These subgroups will
be restricted to an area. A chicken is capable of recognising their own group members and those of
an overlapping territory. It was suggested that this territorial behaviour is important in large flocks
as it reduces the numbers of conflicts when strangers meet (McBride and Foenander, 1962). This
ability is very difficult for chickens under commercial poultry husbandry conditions where group
sizes are very large (Mauldin, 1992). Dim or coloured lightening can affect a chicken’s ability to
discriminate between other chickens (Mench and Keeling, 2001). It has also been shown that
individuals are more dominant in the area where they spend most their time than in flocks. Hens
tend to live in neighbourhoods where they are well-acquainted (Craig and Guhl, 1969). Laying hens
choose to feed close to each other when given a choice of feeding locations. This demonstrates the
importance of social attraction (Meunier–Salaun and Faure, 1984). Hens that are in cages and in
neighbouring cages synchronize their feeding. A chicken will peck and feed more when they have
company than when they are alone (Keeling and Hurink, 1996). It has also been shown (McBride
James, J.W. and Shoffner, R.N, 1963) that hens don’t move randomly in normal intensive housing
conditions. They maintain their heads at regular patterns of spacing and orientate them to avoid the
frontal aspects of other chickens. However they turn probably in defence, to face approaching
chickens.
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A chicken likes to eat eggs. An egg that’s broken will be likely eaten by other chickens. Some
chickens become habitual egg-eaters that break eggs open and eat them. An egg eater needs to be
separated from the flock. Chickens copy each other’s behaviour. So if you leave an egg-eater in the
flock, you may end up with more egg-eaters. Holes and cracked eggs don’t necessary mean that
there is an egg-eater in the flock. A hen can accidentally crack an egg in the nest when she sits on it.
Sometimes curiosity or boredom leads a chicken to peck at an egg without the intention of eating it.

The empty eggshells from the kitchen can be fed back to chickens as a calcium supplement without
the concern of creating egg-eaters. You can also crush or blend the eggs to be sure that you won’t
create egg-eaters. The eggshells provide calcium which is essential for good eggs.

1.4.1 ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR


Some males haunt other males, which can be a problem. The haunting can be a form of dominance.
Roosters also show Pseudo-mating. Pseudo-mating occurs frequently between high-ranking males
and low-ranking males who are pursued. (Guhl, 1950). The roosters show this behaviour to
establish a dominance relationship. The same situation can occur in flocks of hens.

Caged chickens may show some abnormal behaviour such as: head flicking, feather pecking,
pecking and pulling the feathers of other chickens (Mench and Keeling, 2001). Feather picking can
be a form of redirection of ground pecking (Blokhuis, 1989). Experience in an early stage of life may
influence the pecking behaviour in later life. (Blockhuis, 1991). It’s possible that the chickens may
perceive the feathers as dust and that may cause a redirection of ground pecking to feather pecking
(Hansen and Braastad, 1994). Another abnormal behaviour pattern is cannibalism. This occurs in
certain husbandry systems. Chickens starts cannibalising when they has seen blood (Brak, 2013)

By giving some alfalfa as enrichment for the chickens there will be solved most of the behavioural
problems. Alfalfa is used as an item to prevent boredom around a flock of chickens and is a plant
that consists of 90% water and 10% protein and fibres. The fibres stimulate the digestion tract.

1.4.2 HUSBANDRY SYSTEMS IN COMPARISON WITH ETHOLOGY


There are a few husbandry systems available in Ethiopia:
- Cages, also known as laying battery
- Free-range chickens
- Outside run
Chickens in Ethiopia can’t be held in outside run conditions. It would be uneconomical because of
labour, feed requirements, wastage in egg handling and hygiene, disease control and predator
control (Sainsbury, 1980). Free-range eggs have a 15-20% rate of dirty eggs that are classed as
second-rate eggs. Cages have a 2% rate of dirty eggs (Slack-Smith. 2000) and the egg production
has been found more economical (less feed per egg)

Researchers are struggling with the question: ‘What’s the best environment or flooring for hens?’ In
the environmental preferences studies (Dawkins, 1980), hens were given a choice of cage or an
outside run. The hens that were used to living in a garden all chose the outside run. Hens that
previously lived in cages tended to choose the cage on the first trial. After a period of time they also

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choose the outside run. This means that the choice of environment is strongly influenced by
previous experience. The fact that hens prefer an outside run to a cage is not indicative of suffering
in a cage. They prefer to be in an outside run. This is not an option in Ethiopia, because of the
nearby living predators. The chickens will constantly get scared and this has a negative stress effect
on the egg laying (Brak, 2013). This doesn’t mean chickens can’t be held in free-range
environments. This means that a chicken can walk over the floor freely, but doesn’t necessary mean
that it can go outside.

In cages that are too low for the chickens to raise their heads in a threat, aggression is provoked by
an approaching chicken rather than by a chicken that is in continuous close proximity (Hughes and
Wood-Gush, 1977).

A particular problem in barn egg production systems is the fact that mortality, production and
behavioural problems are all worse in large group of hens. This implies the formation of unstable
social groups (Mench and Keeling, 2001). Peck orders are regarded as highly stable once
established and in mixed groups. Roosters and hens have their own peck order (Guhl, 1958).
Agnostic pecking begins to occur within a few weeks after hatching. Stable dominance and
subordinate relationships (being obedient to a superior) usually don’t become established until the
roosters are 6-8 weeks of age and for the pullets at an age of 8-10 weeks (Guhl, 1958).

Al-Rawi and Craig (1975) did an experiment, beginning with relatively generous space allowances
per hen and decreasing the space. They found out that social interaction rate increased as space
decreased, but when the space decreased further the social interaction suddenly fell off. It has been
shown that individuals behave less aggressively towards subordinates in the near presence of
dominant flock mates. This third-party-effect is associated with a reduction in agnostic behaviour. It
may due to the lack of space for threat displays (Ylander and Craig, 1980). The results of this
experiment on spacing indicate that selection for productivity traits may cause behavioural
changes.

Higher ranking hens may have better egg production than the lowest ranking chicken in a cage. This
is probably because the highest ranking hen has more access to the feed (Cunningham and van
Tienhoven, 1983). Most of the aggression is seen at the feed though. This is a place where there is
some competition among the chickens (Mench and Keeling, 2001). When hens are capable of
establishing a dominance hierarchy (in small group sizes in cages) the aggression stays relatively
low (Mench and Keeling, 2001). Once a social group becomes organised, the incidence of agonistic
interactions decreases (Mauldin, 1992).

The explanation of the husbandry systems will be given at chapter 3.1 ‘husbandry systems’.

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Case study 1.4 Ethology

You just bought a flock of hens. This flock lived in a cage for hole their lives. When you arrive
with your new stock of hens you are doubting the fact if you would put the hens in a cage
system or in the free-range system. You decided to let the chickens choose which system they
prefer. What system will the chickens choose? Explain your answer.

Answer:
The choice of environment is strongly influenced by previous experiences. The hens are used
to a live in a cage so this is the option they will prefer at the first pick, but after a while the
curiosity kicks in and the chickens will eventually prefer the free-range system.

1.5 THE EGG


It depends on the breed whether the chicken lays an egg once a day, every other day or once or
twice a week. Normal laying routines can be disrupted by the moulting process, winter daylight
shortage, extreme temperatures, illness, poor nutrition, stress or the lack of fresh water. When the
disrupting factor is resolved the hen will continue with her normal laying process. A hen will lay
eggs whether they’ve seen a rooster or not. Roosters are only necessary for the fertilizing of the
eggs. The interval between the egg laying is about 25 hours. This means that a hen will lay her eggs
an hour later every day. A hen doesn’t lay eggs in the dark, so once a hens laying cycle reaches dusk
time; she’ll wait with the laying until the following morning.

Eggshell production drains calcium from the hens body. When the feed lacks calcium the comb,
wattles, legs and ear lobes will fade in colour. Calcium must be replenished through either feed
containing calcium or supplements.

1.5.1 EGG VARIATIONS


There are mutable variations in eggs. Some variations in eggs are:
- The first lay of a pullet are smaller than the eggs of older chicken. The eggs of a young pullet
can be malformed. After a short period of time the pullet establishes a normal laying routine
and they will start to lay normal shaped eggs. Older hens may occasionally lay abnormal
eggs due to age, stress or illness.
- Double egg (also known as egg-in-an-egg) is created when an egg with a shell is encased by
the next egg in the oviduct and a shell is produced over the outer egg as well. Figure 1.8
‘Double egg’ shows an example.

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Figure 1.8 'Double egg'

- Double yolkers are unusually large eggs which contains two or more yolks in the shell.
Yolkless eggs (also known as no-yolkers, dwarf-eggs or wind-eggs) consist only of egg
white. Figure 1.9 ‘double yolker’ shows an example.

Figure 1.9 'Double-yolker'

- The size of an egg depends on the breed, age and weight of the hen. Older hens tend to lay
larger eggs than younger hens.
- If you aren’t sure how old an egg is, you can submerge it in water. The freshest eggs will
remain at the bottom of the container, while old eggs will float. Floaters should be either
discarded or opened far from your nose, because of the horrible smell. This test shows the
water floaters as shown in figure 1.10 ‘Water floating test’.
-

Figure 1.11 'Water


floating test by day'
Figure 1.10 'Water floating test'

1.5.2 REPRODUCTION
Chickens develop and hatch with thousands of ova (undeveloped eggs) inside their ovary. Though
chickens start out with two ovaries, only the left one develops and becomes active. Figure 1.12
‘Oviduct’ shows the oviduct of a hen.

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Figure 1.12 'Oviduct'

As a pullet matures, her reproductive organs mature as well. The outside shows the growth of the
comb and wattles.

When a mature ovum is released from the ovary it is called ovulation. The entire reproductive
system is called the oviduct and is usually between 25 and 27 inches long in a mature hen. The
oviduct has five distinctive parts:
- Infundibulum; when the ovum is released from the ovary, the muscle lining of the
infundibulum pulls the ovum into it. The ovum spends about 15 to 18 minutes in this part of
the oviduct. If the hen has been mating, the sperm will fertilize the egg here.
- Magnum; this is the longest section of the oviduct at roughly 13 inches in length. This is
where the egg white is added to the ovum. The ovum’s trip down the magnum takes about 3
hours.
- Isthmus; this is the part to add the inner and outer shell membranes to the ovum. This takes
a period of 75 minutes. The Isthmus has a length of 4 inches
- Shell Gland; The egg will stay in this part for 20 hours to have its shell constructed. The
hen's body will pull some calcium from her bones and the rest from her diet to put into the
shell. If the hen is of a breed that lays colored eggs, the pigment will also be put into the egg
in this section of the oviduct. When the shell is fully added, the egg will move down to the
cloacae.
- Cloacae; this is the part where the chicken lays an egg.

A rooster will mount a hen to mate with her. Figure 1.13 ‘Mating’ shows the mating. The rooster
does this by standing on her back and lowering his cloacae. The hen will invert her own cloacae to
meet with the roosters cloacae. There is no penetration, but the sperm packet that is released by
the rooster is taken into the hens cloacae. From there the sperm makes its way to the infundibulum
where it awaits the release of an ovum. Sperm can live in the infundibulum for more than two
weeks.

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Figure 1.13 'Mating'

The first lay of a pullet can form shell-less or irregular eggs. This is because of the fact that the
pullet has matured, but that the oviduct may not be ready to create an egg all at the same time. If
the shell gland isn’t ready or hasn’t been able to produce enough calcium from the hen’s body or
diet, it may not be able to form a shell properly.

Hens that seem to have a habit of laying eggs with ridged or rough shells likely have an abnormality
in their Shell Gland. Generally it is harmless to the hen, and perfectly safe to eat eggs with ridged
shells.

It can occur that spots of blood or meaty substances are present in the egg. This is caused when
some parts of the oviduct shed material or has a broken blood vessel. The shed matter simply gets
wrapped inside the egg when the membranes or shell is added. These eggs are perfectly safe to eat
when fully cooked.

1.5.3 HATCHING EGGS


It’s impossible to separate hatched eggs and consumption eggs in the very beginning. The
differences between these eggs are visible after a few days. The term hatching egg comes from the
fact that you expect that a rooster has fertilized the egg. Not all collected hatching eggs have the
same quality. The quality (A measure of excellence or a state of being free of deviations) of an egg is
influenced by the following factors:
- The health and condition of the older chickens
- The hereditary predisposition
- The quality and measure of feed you give the chickens
- The housing (laying nests or do you get the eggs from the ground)
- The care taking and keeping (how many times do you collect the eggs/ keeping
temperature)

The conclusion of the upper part is that not all eggs are suitable to hatch. There are a few deviations
which ensure that the egg is unsuitable. These deviations can be both visible and internally. The
eggs with deviations need to be removed from the suitable hatching
eggs. This is the reason that there are some terms to guaranty a
quality hatching egg. These terms are:
- The shape of the eggs need to be normal (Vormidex, as
shown in figure 1.14 ‘quality eggs’)
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Figure 1.14 'Quality eggs'


- The egg needs to have a normal size and weight
- The egg shell needs to be clean
- The egg needs to be fresh (date)
- The shell has to be intact (not broken)
- The egg shell needs to be smooth (It has to be equally thick)
- The inside needs to be good (inspect)

It regularly appears when you sort eggs that they don’t cope with the above terms. Deviations that
regularly occur:
- Too long and to round eggs
- Too big (double-yolkers), too small or too light
- Dirty eggshells by excrements, blood or dirt
- An egg older than 3 weeks
- Broken eggs and too thin shells
- Rough shells, sand or chalk head, ridges on the egg and egg wall

These deviations are being shown in table 1.2 ‘Percentage of deviations’.

You can inspect the eggs with an inspecting lamp. This special lamp sends light through the eggs, so
that the content becomes visible. The inspecting is one tool to inspect the quality of an egg. The
quality of the hatching eggs decrease every time a deviation occurs.

Table 1.2. ‘Percentage of deviations’


Description of the eggs % Unfertile % Result of the fertilized eggs
(deviations)
Brushed shell 25 53
Weight > 64 grams 34 71
Weight < 45 grams 52 80
Different shape 51 49
Poor shell 28 47
Loose air chamber 28 32
Air chamber not on top 22 68
Big blood dot 28 62
Average of all deviations 28 62
Normal eggs 18 87
The table shows the deviations that occur the most by hatching eggs. The occurring deviations are
been given a percentage of what the chance is that the deviation will occur.

There are some terms for the treatment of hatching eggs:


- Make sure you have an laying nest
The laying nest needs to be clean and needs to have enough bedding material in it, so that the
chicken can make its nest.

- Collecting the eggs


You need to collect the eggs twice a day. For example ones in the morning and ones at the end of the
afternoon. This prevents that the eggs will become dirty or that the eggs break. When you collected
the eggs, provide them with a date. Write this date with a pencil and not with a pen. The ink of a pen
can leak through the egg and this will damage the embryo. After the eggs got a date put them into a
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tray with the point down. Don’t turn the eggs around during the storage. This is bad for the resting
of the embryo. The hatching egg is living material. So be cautious with it, do not shake it, and don’t
threat it roughly. If you ignore these tips the embryo will die as a result.

- Storage of the eggs


When you chill the eggs, the embryo development will stop but the embryo will stay alive. This
makes it possible to keep hatching eggs. The embryo development will start when the temperature
comes above the 26° Celsius. The embryo is very sensitive at this stage and will easily die. When the
temperature comes below the 0° Celsius the embryo will also die.

The following terms need to be given to the storage room:


o A constant temperature between the 10-13° Celsius
o Has to be draught free. Draught can cause a decreasing in temperature. This can lead
to a lesser humidity which causes the eggs to dehydrate.
o Humidity between the 75-80%. This prevents the dehydration of the eggs.
- You can store the eggs (if the conditions are as written above) for a max of 3 weeks. The
optimal storage duration is 1-2 weeks. A hatching egg needs to be kept in storage for at least
1 day. This promotes the embryo’s resting.

A small conclusion:
- Threat the hatching eggs with caution
- Store the hatching eggs at the right conditions
- Store the hatching eggs at the right place
- Don’t store hatching eggs for longer than three weeks

The breeding of the hatching eggs can be accomplished at 2 ways:


1. At a natural way using the hen or a clucker
2. With a breeding machine

Chickens are Nidfugous, which makes sure that when they hatch they are completely independent.
For this reason you can choose which way of breeding you like the most. To make the right decision
you need to know a little about the pros and cons of the two breeding ways. Table 1.3 ‘Pros and cons
of natural breeding’ describes the pros and cons of breeding in a natural way.

Table 1.3. ‘Pros and cons of natural breeding’


Breeding way Pros Cons
Natural - You let the nature - You are depending on a broody
figure everything out hen
- The breeding will have - The time of breeding can’t be
the optimal conditions determined accurately
- The chance of success - It’s not a fact that the hens sits on
is with this way the the eggs for the whole time it
greatest. needs to hatch.
- You can hatch a limited amount of
eggs at the same time

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When you decide to breed with a clucker, you need to be sure that the clucker is really broody. This
is possible if you observe a hen. She’ll show behavioural changes. Some typical behavioural changes
are:
- She’ll sit constantly on the same spot, even though there aren’t eggs
- When you approach she’ll spread her wings to appear big
- She’ll will peck at your hands when you approach
- When the hen leaves the nest she’ll make a cluckerend sound. This is the reason you call a
broody hen a clucker
- The comb is shrivelled and dry, but the chest will feel warm

When you want to breed with a clucker you’ll need to separate the clucker and her eggs at a quiet,
dark en draught free place. As described in chapter ‘1.4.2. Husbandry systems in comparison with
ethology’, you can’t keep a chicken outside in Ethiopia. This means that you need to make a nest for
the clucker. To make a nest you need a piece of grass (30 x 30 x5 centimetre). Put this at the
breeding place and moist it a little. The second step is to put some teff on the moistened grass. The
final step is to make a pit with your fist to lay the eggs in. The final stage is to lay the eggs in the pit
and let the clucker with the eggs at dawn. Make sure that the feed and water are near the nest. The
breeding of the clucker will take 21 days. The hen won’t leave the nest at the last few hatching days.
She’ll use up her body reserves (as in vitamins and minerals) and sits really deep over the eggs.
After 21 days the eggs will hatch and the clucker will walk away from the nest with the chicks. The
broodiness of the hen will disappear after the hatching. The hen will make sure that her chicks are
safe from predators and the chicks will use her for heat. When the chicks grow up without a hen,
make sure that they can reach for water and feed easily without drowning. A clucker can breed a
total between the 8-10 eggs. Figure 1.15 ‘Nest’ shows an example of a nest within a stable, but you
need to try to mimic this set up also for the natural way.

Figure 1.15 'Nest'

A breeding machine is a machine that mimics a clucker. When you choose the second way of
breeding and use a machine, you need to keep 4 terms in mind:
1. The temperature needs to be regulated. You need to read the temperature of a thermometer
that hangs inside the breeding machine. The right temperature needs to be 100° Fahrenheit
or 37.7° Celsius.
2. The humidity has to be regulated. This prevents dehydration of the eggs. The humidity
needs to be 55% for the first 18 days. After the 18 days you need to raise the humidity to
70%. You can’t raise the humidity by adding more water in the bin, but you can by
increasing the surface of the evaporating water.
3. Ventilation is very important, because of the gas exchange between the breeding machine
and the outside surroundings. This way the carbon dioxide leaves the breeding machine and
will be exchanged for oxygen rich air. This is necessary for the breathing of the embryo.

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Ventilation can be regulated (depending on the machine) with openings (that are lockable)
in the walls.
4. You need to turn the eggs around to prevent the embryo from growing with the cuticle. The
eggs need to be turned around 3 times a day for the first 18 days. The egg will be filled with
a growing chick after 18 days.

Make sure to start the breeding machine 24 hours before the hatching eggs go in. This way the
breeding machine will create optimal conditions (point 1 -4 of the above terms) for the hatching
eggs.

There are several breeding stages for a hatching egg. The breeding stages are show in Table 1.4
‘Breeding stages’ and in figure1.16 ‘Breeding stages’.

Table 1.4. ‘Breeding stages’


Day 1 The embryo starts to grow, because of mitosis. The head, eyes, nerve system and
blood islands are present at the end of the day.
Day 2 The embryo grows in strength and length and the hearts start beating, although it
beats outside the body for now. A part of the blood vessels are visible over the yolk
and protein for the transportation of nutrients.
Day 4 The leg- and wing stubs and the tail are being formed at this day. Most of the organs
are at their place, but the heart is still outside of the body.
Day 5-7 Spinnekop stage, This becomes visible when you inspect the eggs with a lamp. The
blood vessels on the yolker are clearly visible. The blood will come together in a
horizontal ring. This is the so called blood ring.
Day 6 The parts of the legs and wings are being formed.
Day 8 Feather sheets will arise on the skin.
Day 9-15 The chalk process in the bones occurs. The chick uses a proximally 0.15 gram of
chalk out of the shell.
Day 13 The fluff is available now.
Day 14 The chick spins in the length direction of the egg. At this day the most deaths occur.
Day 16 The horny parts, like the beak and nails are available, but still need some more
developing.
Day 18-20 The beak turns towards the air cell. The yolk sac enters the body cavity; the embryo
occupies practically all the space within the egg except the air cell
Day 19 The chick pecks through the egg membrane in the air chamber (oxygen). There is an
temporarily phenomenon of 2 kinds of breathing: Amnion- and lung breathing
Day 21 The chick will start to squeak in the egg. The oxygen runs out fast and the chick will
get cramped. There will be a moment of rest so that the chick can switch to lung
breathing and so that the yolker can wither. The last stage includes hatching. The
chick has his legs pulled up and the beak will lay under the right wing. The chick will
break the hood of the shell with its egg tooth, after this the chick will stretch and
frees himself of the egg.

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Figure 1.16 'Breeding stages'

You can conclude with the help of Table 1.4. ‘Breeding stages’ that an embryo needs 2 weeks to
grow and need 1 week to gain in weight. This makes the hatching a period of 3 weeks. You can use
the following formula for the weight of a chick: the birth weight of a chick is 2/3 of the hatching egg
weight. This means that an egg of 60 grams will bring a chick of 40 grams. This formula is being
used to make sure that a chick is on weight.

The percentage of the eggs that will hatch strongly depends on 3 factors:
1. The quality of the hatching eggs
2. The type of breeding machine
3. The operation of the breeding machine

It’s really good if 70-75% of the eggs that were put in and if 85-90% of the fertilized eggs hatch. A
deviated egg decreases the hatching percentage. Poor breeding results aren’t only caused by eggs
with a deviation. This is being caused by a lot of causes:
1. Many un-fertile eggs
Reasons can be: un-fertile roosters (a lot of times caused by malnutrition), fat roosters (because of
ad libium feeding) to many or too few roosters, too young or too old roosters. Another reason can
be that the eggs are poorly or too long stored.
2. A lot of embryo’s that died
Reasons for this can be: Too cold or too warm stored eggs, deviated temperature in the breeding
machine, not enough oxygen by lack of ventilation, inadequate turning of the eggs, Poorly
hereditary predisposition, Sickness of the older chickens.
3. The dying of embryo’s in a later stage
A reason can be a short of vitamin and or spore elements of the older chickens.
4. Chicks aren’t hatching after pecking
Reasons can be: inadequate ventilation, strong temperature changes in short period of times.
5. Moist and sticky chicks
Reasons can be: a too low temperature in the breeding machine, that the humidity is too high
6. Chicks that hatch too soon, sometimes with bloody beaks
A reason can be that the breeding temperature is too high
7. Too small chicks
Reasons can be: small eggs, that the humidity is too low, that the temperature was too high
8. Overweighed chicks
Reasons can be: that the temperature was too low, poor ventilation, infected eggs or breeding
machine
9. Too slow hatching
Reasons can be: to breed new and old hatching eggs at the same time, difference in temperature in
breeding machines, big and small eggs, eggs of parental hens of different ages
10. Rough, goluptious beaks
Reasons can be: that the temperature isn’t constant or too high, that the humidity is too low
11. Deformed chicks

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Reasons can be: hereditary predisposition, breeding errors, short in nutrition (vitamin/mineral),
slippery output tray

At the final stage you need to sort the chicks. This has to be done when the chicks are dried after
hatching, that the fluff is nice and loose. During the sorting you need to pay attention to:
- Weak chicks with pale and wrinkly paws.
- Too small chicks
- Cross beak, one-eyed chicks and chicks
- Sticky and/or bald chicks
- Leg abnormalities (chunky heels, rowing feet, curved toes)
- Belly button abnormalities (hard, stuffed stomach, open belly button, brown/black plug or
thread on the belly button)

To sort the chicks you need to know how to sex the chicks. Chick sexing is the method of separating
the roosters from the hens. Chicken sexing is mostly practised by farms that have two different
programmes:
- One for the hens, who are destined to lay eggs
- One for the roosters which are irrelevant to the egg production. Some roosters may be kept
and fattened for their meat or for new hatchlings.

There are two chief methods of sexing chicks: feather sexing and vent sexing.

Vent sexing involves squeezing the faeces out of the chick. This opens up the cloacae slightly,
allowing the chicken sexer to see if the chicken has a small bump. This bump would indicate that
the chick is a rooster. Some females also have bumps, though they are rarely as large as those of
rooster chicks.

When learning to sex chickens it is best to assume that chickens with small eminences are female.
The male eminence is solid and will not disappear upon gentle rubbing with your thumb.

The second method is feather sexing. In the slow-feathering males the coverts are either the same
length or longer than the primary wing feathers. In the fast-feathering females, the primary wing
feathers are longer than the coverts as shown in figure 1.17 ‘Feathers’ and in figure 1.18 ‘Covert and
primary feathers’. This is caused by a gene located on the sex chromosome where slow feathering is
dominant to rapid feathering and controls the rate of wing and tail feathering in the chicken. The
dominant slow-feathering characteristic is passed from mothers to their sons and the rapid
feathering characteristic from the fathers to their daughters. Fathers also pass the rapid-feathering
gene to their sons but this is not expressed because it is recessive. Figure 1.19 ‘feather sexing’
shows the different between the rooster and hen.

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Figure 1.17 'Feathers’ Figure 1.18 'Covert and primary Figure 1.19 'Feather sexing'
feathers'
An alternative way to sex the chicks is by looking at their colour. The dark chicks are the hens and
the lighter chicks are the roosters. As shown in figure 1.20 ‘Colour sexing’.

Figure 1.20 'Color sexing'

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Case study 1.5 The egg

You have put a lot of hatching eggs in the breeding machine. An employee took care of the
breeding machine and the hatching eggs for 21 days. After 21 days you decide to look at your
new hatchlings. You noticed that only 45% came out, but the chicks are sticky and moist. The
other 55% of the embryo’s died. What could have been a reason for these abnormal results?
Explain your answer.

Answer:
Moist and sticky chicks
Reasons can be: a too low temperature in the breeding machine, that the humidity is
too high. A lot of embryo’s that died
Reasons for this can be: Too cold or too warm stored eggs, deviated temperature in
the breeding machine, not enough oxygen by lack of ventilation, inadequate turning
of the eggs, Poorly hereditary predisposition, Sickness of the older chickens.

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1.6 QUESTIONS

True or False? (Set a cross at the right answer)

True or False? True False


1 An broken egg won’t be eaten by another chicken
2 Chickens copy each other’s behaviour
3 You can leave an egg eater in the flock
4 An empty egg shell can be fed back to the chickens
5 An empty egg shell contains protein
6 Roosters that haunt each other are playing
7 Roosters show pseudo-mating to establish a dominant position
8 Feather picking can be a form of redirection from ground pecking
9 Experiences in an early stage of life can’t influence the pecking behaviour
in later life
10 The first lay of an pullet is smaller than the lay of an older chicken
11 Older hens always lay normal size eggs, because of their age
12 The variation double-egg is also known as egg-in-an-egg
13 A Double-Yolker only consist of yolk
14 A wind-egg is only filled with egg white
15 The size of an egg depends on the breed, age, weight of a chicken
16 It’s possible to separate hatchling eggs from consumption eggs
17 A hatchling egg is an fertilized egg
18 All hatchling eggs are suitable to hatch
19 The deviations that ensures that an egg is suitable to hatch is only
internally
20 An inspecting lamp sends light through the egg, so that the content
becomes visible
21 You need to collect the eggs ones a day to prevent them from becoming
dirty
22 The embryo’s development will start when the temperature rises above
the 26° Celsius
23 The storage room for the hatchling eggs need to variate between the 10-
13° Celsius
24 A humidity of 75-80% prevents the dehydration of the hatchling eggs
25 You can store the hatchling eggs for a maximum of 3 weeks

Subchapter 1.1
1. Is a Chicken an omnivore, carnivore or an herbivore?

2. If the composition of the food changes, will the hen eat it just as easily as normal?

3. On which 2 cues’ is the selection of food based on?

Subchapter 1.2
4. Where do the feathers protect the body from?

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5. What are the parts of a feather? (fill the right name of the part in at the right number)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

6. What is the difference between a rooster and a hen

7. What is the main function of the respiratory tract?

Subchapter 1.3
8. Where does the digestive tract of a chicken consist of? (fill the right name of the part in at
the right number)

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1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Subchapter 1.4
9. When do behavioural problems occur?

10. When does a chicken start to show unnatural behaviour patterns?

11. Why does a hen needs a nest site?

12. How can you make sure that a hen lays in a particularly location?
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13. When does a chicken starts cannibalising? (circle the right answer)
A) When a chicken sees a dead chicken
B) When a chicken has seen blood
C) When a chicken sees another chicken cannibalising
D) When a chicken has caught a rat

14. Can a chicken be held in an outside run in Ethiopia? Explain your answer

15. Stable dominance and subordinate relationships become established when the roosters
and pullets reach an age of: (Circle the right answer)
A) Roosters 4-10 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks
B) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 6-9 weeks
C) Roosters 8-10 weeks and the pullets 6-8 weeks
D) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks

16. Can a chicken be held in an outside run in Ethiopia? Explain your answer

17. Stable dominance and subordinate relationships become established when the roosters
and pullets reach an age of: (Circle the right answer)
A) Roosters 4-10 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks
B) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 6-9 weeks
C) Roosters 8-10 weeks and the pullets 6-8 weeks
D) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks

Subchapter 1.5

18. What can disrupt a normal laying routine? Give at least 3 options

19. The interval between the egg laying of an hen is about: (circle the right answer)
A) 24 hours
B) 20 hours
C) 25 hours
D) 26 hours

20. How can you make sure if an egg is old ore fresh?

21. Does a chicken give birth to a living youngster?

22. What are the 5 distinctive parts of the oviduct?

23. What influences the quality of an egg?

24. What are the terms to ensure the quality of the hatchling egg?

25. What are the regularly occurring deviations of hatchling eggs?

26. Why do you need to store the hatchling eggs for at least one day?

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27. What are the behavioural changes of a broody clucker?

28. Describe the steps of building a nest for a clucker.

29. A clucker will hatch her eggs in: (circle the right answer)
A) 21 days
B) 14 days
C) 28 days
D) 35 days

30. What are the 4 terms of using a breeding machine

31. What are the causes of poor breeding results when using a breeding machine?

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CHAPTER 2 – CHICKEN DISEASES
This chapter describes the most common diseases and parasites that can existence by chickens. The
diseases are categorized by kind of disease. The parasites are divided in endoparasites and
ectoparasites. Subchapter 2.2 describes the prevention of the diseases and how to create immunity.

2.1 DISEASES

A farmer wants to see his chickens always healthy and in optimal conditions. This means that the
chickens produce as optimal as possible and that the chickens are free of diseases. There are vary
diseases known, but the most common diseases are described in this subchapter.

2.1.1 OBSERVATION OF THE CHICKENS


Observation is highly important to discover diseases in an early stage, because when the disease is
in one of the last stadia, the chicken is possibly not treatable anymore. When observe the chickens
at least twice a day, it makes it easier to capture the disease, but also requires a lot of knowledge.
Without any knowledge of chickens and diseases, there will be no good observation and essential
points will be forgotten. Some symptoms will occur only in one of the last stadia of a disease, which
is why prevention is really important. The ways of prevention are described in subchapter 2.2.

2.1.2 KINDS OF DISEASES


A disease can be spread in various ways:
1. Infection from animal to animal
2. Infection from the environment
3. People can spread a disease by clothes or by air
4. All sorts of materials can spread a disease
5. Infection by the way of hatching the egg

To prevent the chickens from diseases, it’s recommended to vaccinate. It’s also possible to make the
chickens immune, but this will take other risks with it. If the disease is immune to the vaccine, it is
impossible to prevent the chickens from the disease. The diseases are based on the report:
Important Poultry Diseases (Intervet International BV, 2009). The diseases that are most common
are categorized below in:
1. Infectory respiratory diseases
2. Diseases causing tumours
3. Avian adenoviral diseases
4. Miscellaneous virus diseases
5. Miscellaneous bacterial diseases
6. Diseases caused by parasites
7. Non-contagious diseases

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2.1.3 INFECTORY RESPIRATORY DISEASES

Chronic respiratory disease (CRD)


Cause
The underlaying cause of CRD is the mycoplasma gallisepticum. The diseases is frequently triggered
by respiratory viruses, like New Castle Disease and complicated by bacterial invasion. The other
agent involved in the infection is E. Coli.

Stress caused by moving chickens, overcrowding, poor ventilation, dust, draughts, debeaking or
other operations, make the chickens more susceptible. Infected chickens spread the disease by
contact or by breathing. Figure 2.1 and 2.2 show some signs of CRD.

Signs
Young chickens will show respiratory distress. In adult chickens, the most common symptoms are:
 Sneezing
 Coughing
 General signs of respiratory congestion
 The number of eggs a chicken produce will decreases as a result

CRD doesn’t normally cause an alarming number of deaths. The effect is more of a chronic nature
causing reduced weight gain and feed conversion ratios in broilers and lower egg production
in breeders and layers. In this way the overall economic loss can be very great in broilers but less
dramatic in breeders and layers.

Treatment and control


Control and eradication of MG infection is by far the most effective method of combating CRD.
Fertile eggs from infected chickens can be treated with antibiotics to eliminate the MG organisms
(infection of fertile eggs or egg dipping).

Figure 2.1 'CRD' Figure 2.2 'CRD'

Coryza
The bacterium that causes infectious coryza is Hemophilusparagallinarum. The disease spreads
from chicken to chicken and flock to flock by contact. It also spreads through airborne infected dust
particles and via the drinking water. Equipment and personal can also spread the disease. The

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incubation period varies from 1 to 3 days. Figure 2.3 'Infectious Corzya' shows an example of
infectious corzya.

Signs
The main of the disease are inflammation of eyes and nose, with foul-smelling discharges,
conjunctivitis, sneezing and facial swellings. Feed and water intake is reduced. The chicken will lose
weight and the egg production will decrease. Mortality varies, but is generally low. The symptoms
are similar to CRD.

Treatment and control


Eradication and prevention are the most desirable means of controlling coryza. Vaccines have been
developed but are only used in areas where the disease is endemic and cannot be eradicated.
Picture 2.4 ‘Infectious Corzya’ shows an example.

Figure 2.3 'Infectious Corzya' Figure 2.4 'Infectious Corzya

Aspergillosis (fungal pneumonia)


The disease is caused by a fungus named Apergillusfumigatus. Transmission is by inhalation of
fungus spores from contaminated feed. Hatcheries may also contribute to infection of chicks. Young
chicks are very susceptible. Older chicks are more resistant to infection.

Signs
Infected chicks are depressed and thirsty. Gaping and rapidly breathing can be observed. Mortality
varies from 5 to 50%. The lungs and air sacs are affected in the first place. Sometimes all body
cavities are filled with small, yellowish-green granular fungus growth. Figure 2.5 and 2.6 shows an
example of Aspergillos.

Treatment and control


There is no treatment for Aspergillosis. Affected chickens should be removed and destroyed. Strict
hygiene in breeding and hatchery management is necessary. Choice of bedding material material is
important so that no spore-bearing wood shavings are used.

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Picture 2.5 'Aspergillos' Figure 2.6 'Aspergillos'

New Castle Disease (ND or NCD)


New Castle Disease is a very serious disease that occurs worldwide. Not only chickens got this
disease. Other birds may carry this disease too. It is a highly contagious disease and spreads
through infected droppings and respiratory discharge between chickens.

This disease can spread itself by infected equipment such as trucks, personnel, wild chickens or
simply the air. It’s possible to incubate the chickens. Figure 2.7 and 2.8 show some signs of the New
Caste Disease.

Signs
ND causes high mortality, with depression and death in 3 to 5 days as major signs. Difficult
breathing, with wheezing and gurgling, accompanied by nervous signs (such as paralysis or twisted
necks) are the main indication. Egg production decreases 30- 50% or more. Eggs may have thin
shells or have no shells at all.

Control and treatment


The only thing to do is to vaccinate to prevent the chickens from this disease.

Figure 2.7 'NCD' Figure 2.8 'The eye of a chicken with NCD'

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2.1.4 DISEASES CAUSING TUMORS

Lymphoid Leucosis (LL)


This disease is also called big liver disease. Lymphoid leucosis is a virus diseases transmitted by
horizontal and vertical infection. It will lead to tumorous growths which especially affect the liver
and spleen. An infection with the leucosis virus during the first six weeks of the life of a young
chicken will lead to a long incubation period. This incubation period has a period of at least 100
days. After 100 days, the chicken will become ill. Figure 2.9 and 2.10 'LL' shows an example.

Signs
This disease is a lingering disease. The chickens become sluggish, with combs turning pale and
shrivelling; production stops and the chickens become thinner and thinner and eventually they will
die. This disease may be confused with the Marek disease, subscribed below, but in LL the nervous
system is never involved (there is no paralysis).

Control and treatment


It’s not possible to effectively control leucosis. The parent stock would have to be made leucosis-
free after which the young would have to be reared under very strict hygienic conditions.

Figure 2.9 'LL' Figure .1 '

Marek disease MD (also known as: neurolymphomatosis)


The virus is transmitted through infected premises. The day-old chicks become infected by the oral
respiratory route. Susceptibility decreases after the first days of age. The infection is followed by an
incubation period after which the chickens may show typical disease symptoms. Figure 2.11 and
2.12 ‘Marek disease’ shows an example.

Signs
Infected chickens lose weight or may show some form of paralysis. The classic form with leg nerve
involvement causes a chicken to lie on its side with one leg stretched forward and the other
backward. The presence of tumors in liver, spleen, kidneys, lungs, ovary, muscles or other tissues
indicates MD but may also point to lymphoid leucosis. Nerve involvement is typical for MD.

Control and treatment

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There is a vaccine for MD. This vaccine only prevents the appearance of the tumors and paralysis of
Marek`s disease, it does not prevent the chickens from becoming infected with MD virus.

Figure .11 ‘Marek disease’ Figure .1 ‘Marek disease’

2.1.5 AVIAN ADENOVIRAL DISEASES

Inclusion body hepatitis – infectious Anaemia


The next two diseases are caused by an avian adenovirus and occur simultaneously. The egg
transmission is an important factor, but horizontal transmission also takes place from chicken to
chicken by contact with droppings.

Signs
This disease strikes usually at 5 to 7 weeks. The chickens have a less appetite, have ruffled feathers
and appear very pale. Mortality is usually quite severe, up to 25% in the first ten days of the
disease. Figure 2.13 and 2.14 shows an example of Inclusion body hepatitis.

Control and treatment


There is no treatment for this disease. The best method is of control is to ensure adequate immunity
against infectious Bursal disease in breeder chickens.

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Figure .13 ‘Inclusion body hepatitis’ Figure .14 ‘Inclusion body hepatitis’

Egg Drop Syndrome 1976(also known as EDS 76)


The virus of this disease is transmitted through the egg to a few chickens in a flock; these chickens
carry the virus until the flock comes into lay. At this time they begin to excrete the virus and will
infect the chickens kept in the same house.

Signs
EDS 76 affects only layers and breeders at the start of or during their egg production period.
Affected chickens fail to reach their egg production peak, or egg production drops and is
accompanied by an inferior egg shell quality an loss of shell colour (in the case of brown eggs).
There is no mortality. IB will also have to be considered. Figure 2.15 and 2.16 ‘Egg drop syndrome
1976’ shows an example.

Control and treatment


There is no treatment for EDS 76. The only way to prevent the chickens from this disease is to
vaccinate them against this disease

Figure .15 ‘Egg Drop Syndrome Figure .16 ‘Egg Drop Syndrome
1976’ 1976’

2.1.6 MISCELLANEOUS VIRUS DISEASES

Fowl pox (also known as: avian pox, avian diphtheria)


Fowl pox is a virus disease. The introduction of infected or ‘’carrier’’ chickens into a susceptible
flock will cause an outbreak by direct contact and by water and feed transmission. Biting insects
such as most mosquitoes can also transmit the virus from chicken to chicken in the flock and to
nearby flocks.

Signs

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The chickens get wart-like lesions on the head, combs and wattles, yellow to dark brown in colour.
There are also internal lesions in the mouth, gullet and/or windpipe. They look yellow white and
cheesy in appearance. Mortality varies from low to over 40%. Figure 2.17 and 2.18 shows an
example of Fowl pox.

Control and treatment


It’s difficult to treat affected chickens. If an outbreak of fowl pox has been diagnosed, it is advisable
to vaccinate the flock immediately, to stop further spread of the infection. Preventive vaccination
using a live vaccine is by far the most successful control method.

Figure .17 ‘Fowl pox’ Figure .18 ‘Fowl pox’

Infectious bursal disease IBD (also known as Gumboro disease)


IBD is caused by a very stable virus which is difficult to eradicate from an infected farm. IBD virus is
very infectious and spreads easily from chicken to chicken by their droppings. Infected clothing and
equipment are means of transmission between farms. Especially young chickens may be affected.

Signs
Affected chickens are listless and depressed, pale and huddling and some may die. More important
is the subclinical form. The immune system will be affected which will lead to gumboro related
diseases, such as infectious anaemia. In growers, this form of the diseases results in poor
performance. Figure 2.19and 2.20’Infectious bursal disease’ shows an example.

Control and treatment


There is no treatment. The best way to control
this disease is to vaccinate the parent breeders
and/or young chicks.

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© C.A. den Boer / N. van den Hout / L. Vervloed Figure .19 ‘Infectious bursal disease’
Genesis Farm, Ethiopia (Debre Zeyt, 2014)
Figure . ‘Infectious bursal disease’

Viral arthritis/tenosynovitis (VA)


The virus may be transmitted by droppings from chicken to chicken. Egg transmission is also a
factor when breeder flocks become infected during the egg production. Not all strains of the virus
are pathogenic; the virus may be transmitted by dropping from chicken to chicken. Egg
transmission is also a factor when breeding. Flocks become infected during the egg production. Not
all strains of the virus are pathogenic.

Signs
The first signs of VA/tenosynovitis are usually observed in grower chickens between 6 and 10
weeks of age. The chickens are reluctant to walk and, when forced, have a painful and trembling
gait. A distinct swelling of the tendons of the shank and above the hock joint can be observed. Leg
problems in grower or grower breeders associated with swelling of shank tendons or tendons
above the hock joint, sometimes accompanied by ruptures tendons, are indicative of
VA/tenosynovitis. Figure 2.21 and 2.22 shows an example of viral arthritis.

Control and treatment


Tenosynovitis cannot be treated successfully.

Figure . ‘Viral arthritis’


Figure . 1 ‘Viral Page | 46
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Genesis Farm, Ethiopia (Debre Zeyt, 2014)
Malarbsorption syndrome
This disease has been reported under various names such as helicopter disease, femoral head
necrosis, brittle bone disease, infectious proventiculcus, pale chicken syndrome, runting disease
and stunting disease.

Signs
The disease is mainly observed in grower flocks. Many affected grower flocks have a history of
diarrhoea, beginning as early as a few days of age and lasting until 10 to 14 days of age. Light or
dark brown, foamy dropping can be found with undigested feed particles. Several affected growers
in a flock may show malpositioned feathers, especially on the wings. Early rickets with extreme
paleness of legs and heads can be observed. At a later age, 5 or 6 weeks, osteoporosis becomes
evident, often causing the chickens to limp. Later, an important effect is the delayed growth of
affected chickens. Mortality varies. Figure 2.23 and 2.24 ‘malarbsorption syndrome shows an
example.

Control and treatment


There is no treatment against this disease. Strict hygiene and sanitation will reduce the incidence of
this disease.

Figure . 3 ‘Malarbsorption syndrome’ Figure . 4’ Malarbsorption syndrome’

2.1.7 MISCELLANEOUS BACTERIAL DISEASES

Infectious Synovitis
This disease is caused by Mycoplasma Synoviae. Also known as MS. Vertical transmission from MS-
infected breeder hens is most common. Horizontal transmission from chicken to chicken and
transmission by infected equipment, clothing, shoes and egg boxes also occur.

Signs
The symptoms vary from mild respiratory signs to synovitis and inflammation of the sternal bursa.
Creamy exudate in joints extending into tendon tissues is indicative. A bacteria (called
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staphylococcus arthritis) can also cause swollen joints with a creamy exudates, sometimes
extending into the tendon cheaths, but the exudate is more watery or blood-tinged unless
secondary staphylococcus infection occurs. Figure 2.25 and 2.26 shows an example of infectious
Synovitis.

Control and treatment


MS infection can be treated with antibiotics with greater or lesser success. Blood testing of breeder
chickens and the elimination of positive MS reactors is a much better way of controlling infectious
synovitis.

Figure . 5 ‘Infectious Synovitis’ Figure . 6 ‘Infectious Synovitis’

Fowl cholera (also known as Pasteurellosis)


Fowl cholera is caused by a bacterium (Pasteurellamultocida) and is a pox virus. Transmission of
fowl cholera is mainly from chicken to chicken, by water or by feed contamination. Rats and mice
also appear to play a role in the contamination of water and feed.

Signs
Affected chickens are depressed and have less appetite. Egg production drops and mortality is high
in acute fowl cholera. Chickens that die from acute fowl cholera often have bluish combs and
wattles. Chronic fowl cholera does not cause high mortality. Swollen wattles are a feature of chronic
fowl cholera.

Control and treatment


Treatment with the proper antibiotics or medicines can be successful in stopping mortality and
restoring egg production. If clinical fowl cholera with mortality reappears, one must treat again.
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Rodent control is also very important to prevent the infection from appearing again. Vaccines are
available.

Fowl Typhoid
This is a disease caused by Salmonella Gallinarum and causes a high mortality. Fowl Typhoid is
similar to Pullorum disease.

Signs
In young chickens, there is an acute infection with sudden death, other symptoms by young
chickens are:
 Weakness
 Somnolence
 Anorexia
 Poor growth
 Pasting of vent with chalky white excreta
 Death in up to 90% of the cases

Symptoms by older chickens are (older than 3 weeks):


 Lethargy
 Huddling under brooders
 Wing droop
 Dyspnoea
 Poor feathering of survivors
 Decreased egg production

Liver, spleen and kidneys may be enlarged and congested.

Control and treatment


Tissue and faeces samples can be submitted for bacteria identification through culture or genetic
techniques. Live and inactivated vaccines are available in different countries. Figure 2.27 shows the
salmonella bacteria.

Figure 2.27 Salmonella bacteria

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Pullorum Disease (Bacillary White Diarrhea)
Disease caused by one of the two poultry-adapted strains
of Salmonella bacteria, Salmonella Pullorum, this usually only causes mortality in birds up to 3
weeks of age. Occasionally it can cause losses in adult birds, usually brown-shell egg layers. It
affects chickens most commonly, but also infects turkeys, game birds, guinea fowls, sparrows,
parrots, ring doves, ostriches and peafowl. It still occurs worldwide in non-commercial poultry but
is now rare in most commercial systems.

Morbidity is 10-80%; mortality is increased in stressed or immunocompromised flocks and may be


up to 100%. The route of infection is oral or via the navel/yolk. Transmission may be transovarian
or horizontal mainly in young birds and may sometimes be associated with cannibalism. The
bacterium is fairly resistant to normal climate, surviving months but is susceptible to normal
disinfectants.

Signs
 Inappetance
 Depression
 Ruffled feathers
 Closed eyes
 Loud chirping
 White diarrhoea
 Vent pasting
 Gasping
 Lameness
 Grey nodules in lungs, liver, gizzard wall and heart
 Intestinal or caecal inflammation
 Splenomegaly
 Caecal cores
 Urate crystals in ureters

Control and treatment


Eradication from breeder flocks. As with other salmonellae, recovered birds are resistant to the
effects of infection but may remain carriers. Vaccines are not normally used as they interfere with
serological testing and elimination of carriers. Antibiotics will help to treat the chicken. Figure 2.28
shows the Pullorum Disease by young chickens.

Figure . 8 ’Pullorum Disease’


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2.1.8 DISEASES CAUSED BY PARASITES

Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis has always been a very common poultry disease. It also infects other domestic animals
such as goats when they are kept indoors. Coccidiosis is caused by protozoa, a one-celled parasite.
Chickens have their own specific coccidiosis types which do not cross–infect other chicken species.
In chickens there are nine different species of coccidian, of which the main five are eimeria sp.

As with all intestines parasites, the infection takes place via the mouth. Infectious droppings
containing sporulatedoocysts (spores) of coccidiaare the main means of transmission between
chickens. Infection takes place when chickens walk on bedding material. After an incubation period
of 4 to 5 days the disease will manifest itself. The life cycle is showed in figure 2.29.When the
chickens are kept on a wire floor, there is no longer contact between chicken and manure and this
largely prevents infection.

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Figure . 9 ‘ ife cycle of coccidia’

Signs
There are two types of coccidiosis. One with the small intestine involved and one with the large
intestine involved. The chickens are listless, got bloody droppings and a pale comb. There is also a
lack of appetite and a loss in weight. Bleedings in the intestinal wall may also occur. The egg
production will drop and the mortality can be high. Figure 2.28 ‘Coccidiosis’ shows an example.

Control and treatment


There is no disease group in poultry where
both control and treatment are employed
more. However, good management and
good husbandry are of basic importance. It
is common practice to add medicines to
the feed of the chickens. They keep the
development of the parasites in control.
However, coccidia of develop resistance to
all chemicals so far used for this purpose,
and for its reason it is necessary to change
from one chemical to another from time to
time.
There are certain products available
specifically designed for treatment and
which are not satisfactory for prevention. Figure 2. 8 ‘Coccidiosis’
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Blackhead (also known as histomoniasis or entherohepatitis)
This disease is also caused by a protozoan parasite. There is direct transmission by infected water,
feed or droppings. Indirectly, the parasite may be transmitted via infected eggs or intestinal worms.
The natural hosts to blackhead infection are turkeys and chickens.

Signs
Affected chickens are depressed, stand or sit with ruffled feathers and have yellowish diarrhea the
darkening of head parts, especially in turkeys, gave the name to this disease(blackhead). Gross
lesions in the liver. In chickens the mortality is usually limited, young chickens being the most
susceptible. Figure 2.30 and2.31 shows an example of Blackhead.

Control and treatment


Medicines against protozoa can be effective. Drugs can also be given at preventive levels in chicken
starter and grower feed. Growing chickens on wire and indoors can reduce the incidence of
blackbeard to a large extend, but strict hygiene and elimination of intestinal worms remain
important control measures.

Figure .3 ‘Blackhead’ Figure .31 ‘Blackhead’

2.1.9 ENDOPARASITES
Chickens run the risk of a worm infection if they are kept for too long on the same ground, or when
the wet patches develop in bedding material houses. In the search for feed, the chickens may ingest
the eggs of worms which all hatch in the intestines. There are a lot of different worms. The most
common worm types are subscribed in this subchapter.

Roundworms
Those worms look like spaghetti. They live in the intestine of the bird. They can affect chickens,
turkeys, ducks and goose. There are several types of roundworm e.g. hairworms, threadworms, but
the most common is the Large Roundworm. The most birds can live with some infestations. Figure
2.32 shows the roundworm.

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Signs
It can result in drop of egg production and weight loss.

Figure .3 ‘Roundworms’ Figure .33 ‘Gapeworms

Gapeworms
Gapeworms are a type of roundworm. They attach themselves to the trachea (throat) of chickens
where they impair breathing resulting in the birds gasping (gaping). Young birds are particularly
susceptible and can become infected by sharing space with wild birds such as pheasants. Figure
2.33 shows the gapeworm.

Signs
Egg production drops together with a less appetite. Fatal for the chicken if it’s not treated.

Tapeworms
Tapeworms are less common and are segmented,
ribbon-like, worms. They attach themselves to the
wall of the intestine by burying their heads in the
lining of the intestine. Their eggs are carried by
slugs and snails so free-ranging birds are more
susceptible than indoor birds figure 2.34 shows the
tapeworm.

Signs and treatment of worms Figure .34 ‘tapeworms’


Heavy infestations can reduce the birds’ ability to fight other infections.
The most common way of checking your chickens on parasites is to control their faeces. Healthy
chicken droppings should be fairly firm and rounded with two distinct sections. The largest darker
portion should be black, brown and/or grey in colour and the smaller portion should be white (this
is the urine) and it will form a cap at one end. Figure 2.36 ‘normal faeces’ shows an example.
Yellow coloured - loose yellow droppings which will normally stick to the feathers of the birds’
bottom are most often a sign of internal worms. It can also be that the birds have a diet rich in corn
or maize but in our experience it is usually worms. Figure 2.35 will show an example. It could also
point to a respiratory infection but there would be other signs with this kind of problem. This is not
to be confused with faecal droppings which are brown and foamy and expelled roughly every 7-10

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droppings - perfectly normal.
Black, runny and sticky faeces can point to nutritional deficiency. Revisit their diet and feed only
layers pellets ad lib with treats of corn twice a day for two weeks to see if this improves their
droppings. Stop all other treats for this period.

Other signs are: worms visible in the droppings, mucky bottoms, dishevelled, depressed
appearance, weight loss, drop in egg production and a pale comb. The best way to prevent the
chickens from worms it to keep them on a wire floor. It’s always better top prevent than to cure
your chickens.

Figure .35 ‘worms in feaces’ Figure .36 ‘normal feaces’

2.1.10 ECTOPARASITES
Parasites on chickens are called ectoparasites. They can cause problems in chicken farming
everywhere. Unlike endoparasites, ectoparasites can also be a problem in houses with wire/slatted
floors or battery cages. In hot climates, ectoparasites are more common and the infections more
severe than in temperate climates. An explanation for this is the higher environmental temperature
which shortens the life-cycle of the ectoparasites. Ectoparasites multiply faster on weak animals
than on healthy and strong animals.
Figure .37 ‘A louse’
The ectoparasites that are most common are:
1. Lice
2. Mites and ticks
3. Fleas

Lice
Lice are insects without wings. Lice on chickens are not
blood-sucking but they bite in the skin for feed. Normally the
entire life cycle is spending on the same chicken and lasts for
about three weeks (from egg to adult). The lifespan of lice is
several months on the host. Away from the host they can
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live for about one week. Lice are easily transmitted through equipment, crates, etc. or through
direct contact from chicken to chicken. There are a lot of different kinds of lice such as the body
louse, head louse, wing louse fluff louse, etc. Figure 2.37 shows a louse.

Mites
Mites are by far the most important ectoparasites of chickens, in terms of economic losses. Mites
are mainly transmitted by contaminated houses, objects, and persons or by direct contact and they
are not host-specific. There is a difference between a few mites. There are mites that live
permanently on the body of chickens and there are mites that are visiting the host. The difference
will be subscribed below. Figure 2.38 shows red mites.

Mites that are visiting the host


The red mite is well known all over the world. The eggs are laid in crevices and cracks of the house.
The nymphs take one blood meal on a chicken and return to the crevices to mould. The adult mites
are taking blood meals during the night and hide away from the chickens in dark places during
daytime. The red mite hates light. Adults can live up to six months without a blood meal. Red mites
suck much blood and can cause anaemia and even death in brooding young chickens.

Mites staying permanently on the host


The tropical fowl feather mite is a very common parasite in warm climates and is harmful by
sucking blood. Most eggs are laid in bedding material, especially in the bedding material of nests.
The nymphs and the adults feed on the chicken. They have a brownish colour when filled with
blood. They are mainly located on the hind part of the back of the chicken. The control of blood-
sucking mites is very difficult and should concern the chicken, the bedding material and the
equipment.

There are other species of feather mites but they are less common and less harmful. Other mites are
the shaft mite and the scaly leg mite.

Figure .38 ’mites’ Figure .39 ‘Tick’


Ticks
The fowl tick is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical countries. Its size is 5 mm for males
and 10 mm for females. Fowl ticks also suck blood during the night. Larvae, nymphs and adults hide
in crevices and cracks. Adult females may live away from a host without a blood meal during more
than four years. Figure 2.39 shows a tick with eggs.

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Fleas
Fleas are wingless insects with compressed bodies. They have long legs for jumping. Fleas are not
very host specific. When not on the host, they live in crevices, cracks of boarded floors, in dirt and in
debris. Unfed fleas do not survive in dry places, but they can survive for several months in moist
places. Fleas are troublesome, especially to laying hens. They breed in bedding material and in
nests.

Ectoparasite control
A wide-ranging control of ectoparasites is needed to prevent the chickens. The following rules are
required to prevent the chickens from ectoparasites:
 Cleaning and disinfection of chicken house immediately after the evacuation of a flock
 Buying chickens from a reliable supplier
 Farm and house hygiene
 Routine checks every four weeks
 Treatment(preventive and when ectoparasites are present)

Treatment
There are 3 factors that will be important to prevent the chickens against ectoparasites. The 3
factors are safety precautions for the personnel, for the chickens and for the environment. The 3
factors are briefly described below.

Safety precautions for personal:


 The inhalation of dust or mist drops can be very dangerous. Use preferably rubber or plastic
hand/arm protective cover and wear raincoat. Not all nose masks provide proper protection.
 For all drugs, there is a waiting period before meat or eggs can be safely consumed.
 Never treat chickens before slaughter.

For the chickens


 Buy only reliable products, well labeled and with precise instructions with regard to use.
 Read and follow the instructions carefully.
 Store the products safely, dry, cool and dark.
 Do not combine with other drugs.
 Try to prevent treatment of sick, weak or stressed chickens and young chickens.
 Treat during the cool part of the day, layers always late in the afternoon.
 Mix thoroughly to get the finest emulsion or suspension. Mix again if there is a resting period in
the course of the treatment.
 Only use freshly prepared solutions.
 During spraying, remove feeders and drinkers or have them closed.

For the environment


 Treat preferably with bio gradable products.
 Discard remains carefully or better, try to use them to treat the animal environment to support
the actual treatment of the chickens.
 Prevent contamination of fish water and the environment of other animals including insects.

The environment must be treated too to be sure that all parasites are gone. You can apply the
following rules.
 Spraying the house and all the equipment,
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 Mixing drugs in the bedding material,
 Painting the perches,
 Disinfection of empty houses,
 A combination is also possible (chickens + environment).

There are also several ways to treat chickens.


 Spraying the chickens,
 Submerging/dipping,
 Dusting,
 Localized treatment.

Chemical treatment
It’s possible to use chemical treatment, especially to control mites. High power spraying is highly
recommended to reach the hiding spaces. There are a lot of parasitic ides available. You can ask the
local drug store for the right parasitic ide.

Choice of treatment and treatment interval


A proper diagnosis is important. You must know which parasite or often which parasites are
causing health- or production problems. All treatments are mainly effective against active parasites.
Eggs and moulting stages are not completely killed. This means that generally speaking at least two
treatments are necessary to kill all parasites.

The duration of the life-cycle (time between egg and egg-producing adult stage) should determine
the interval between two treatments. This interval should be a little shorter than the life-cycle. The
duration of the life-cycle is influenced by the environmental temperature. The higher the
temperature, the shorter the life-cycle. This partly explains the greater importance of ectoparasites
in warm climates. The humidity plays also a role in the duration of the life-cycle. In general, the
interval between two treatments should be 7 to 10 days.

Re-infection is also determined by the time period ectoparasites can live away from the host. Ticks
and mites are notorious in this respect. The period plays an important role in the transmission of
parasites from the flock to the next flock through infested houses and surroundings. When deciding
about treatment, the future of the farm and the coming flocks should play an important role.

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2.1.11 NON-CONTAGIOUS DISEASES

Vitamin E deficiency
A deficiency of vitamin E will cause different problems that can occur. The problems are listed
below.
 Affecting the brain, causing degeneration, oedema and haemorrhage.
 Affected young chickens appear unable to walk; they fall on their sides or stand with their heads
between their legs.

It may also be found in adult chickens.

Figure .4 ‘sign of deficiency’ Figure .41 ‘sign of deficiency’

Vitamin B deficiency
A deficiency of vitamin B will cause the curly toe disease. The young chicks fewer than one week
old, shows curling of their toes, inability to walk and sometimes diarrhoea. Figure 2.40 and 2.41
shows an example of vitamin B deficiency.

Vitamin D deficiency
Young chickens with vitamin D deficiency are unable to stand and have very soft, pliable legs and
beaks. The rib joints are swollen like beads and curved inward. They also called it rickets. The
breast bone is often twisted. In older chickens, vitamin D deficiency causes soft-shelled eggs and a
drop in production. An incorrect calcium/phosperus balance in the feed also leads to rickets.

Especially young growing animals are affected by vitamin deficiencies in the feed. The daily
provision of sufficient amounts of green fodder is one insurance against vitamin deficiency
diseases.

2.1.12 DISEASE PREVENTION


They always say, prevention is better than curing the chickens from the disease. Practically, it is not
possible to vaccinate the chicken for all the diseases that have been known. The chickens are
vaccinated against the most common diseases.

Vaccination
The most chickens are standard vaccinated against several diseases. The standard vaccinations are
listed below. Table 2.7 ‘Standard vaccinations’ shows an example of a vaccination schema.

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Table .7 ‘Standard vaccinations’
Disease Number of vaccinations ( at an age of 20
weeks)
New castle disease 3 times, 4 times for perfect vaccination
Gumboro 2 times
Fowl typhoid 2 times
Fowl pox 2 times
These vaccinations will cost 0.50 birr each. There is a vaccination for almost every disease. It is free
for the farmer to decide which diseases are important. The vaccinations above are required. These
vaccinations must be given by a local veterinarian.

Case study 2.1 Diseases, part one

Mary walks through the barn for an observation. The first thing she sees is that there are a
few chickens with twisted necks and paralyzed legs. The eggs that the chickens produce have
thin shells or have no shell at all. What kind of disease got those symptoms?

Answer:
Newcastle diseases, also known as ND or NCD

Case study 2.1 Diseases, part two

Marcus got a barn with young chicks. He controls the chicks every morning. A few dead
chicks are found every day. The dead chicks are sucked out of blood. What kind of insect will
occur this problem?

Answer:
It could be red mites or fleas, especially when they are in large numbers.

Case study 2.1 Diseases, part three

Peeta and Gary are collecting the eggs. While collecting, they got a lot of eggs with fungus. The
chickens are rapidly breathing and gaping a lot. What kind of disease shows these symptoms?

Answer:
Aspergillos, also known as fungal pneumonia.

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Case study 2.1 Diseases, part four

Susan goes to the market to buy some food for her chickens. She checks the ingredients of the
food she sees. The food Susan got at this moment is not the quality she wants. The chickens
from Susan are producing bad eggs. They got thin shells. His old food contains: vitamins,
energy, protein and a little bit water. What is the ingredient that the food of Susan misses?

Answer
Minerals. Without minerals, the eggs got thin shells.

2.2 PREVENTION

By poultry are some diseases known where no specific treatment possible is, like viral diseases.
That’s why prevent a disease is better than curing a disease. It also is uneconomical, it causes a lot
of time and it costs money when an animal dies. Hygiene is an important role in the prevention of
diseases. You can think about refreshing the water (at least once a day) and cleaning your feeders
and drinkers. This subchapter describe the ways of prevention diseases.

2.2.1 VACCINATIONS

Activity of the vaccine


The activity of the vaccine is influenced by:
1. Storage conditions
a. Temperature
b. Expiring date
c. Period between the time of creating the vaccine and time of vaccinating the animal
2. Doses
3. The way of intake
a. Spray
b. Drinking water
c. Injection
d. Eye drop
4. The age of the animal
5. Immunity status of the animal
a. Vaccinating older animals
b. Previous vaccines
6. Pressure of the infection
7. Climate of the stable
a. Temperature
b. Ammoniac
c. Ventilation

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Methods of vaccination
 Spray: The spray method is used by viral infections who are active in respiratory tract. The
spray is entering the body of the chicken through the lungs and will be eliminated with the
body slime. The disadvantage of the spray method is that there is also a great loss of the
vaccine. It could be dosed by hand spray, back spray and automatic nebulizer.
 Drinkwater methods: This method is used to vaccinate a large flock at one time. The
disadvantage is that there is a less uniformity of the vaccine quantity. This method is cheap
and easy to use.
 Wing web method: This method is only used by the vaccination against pocks, diphtheria or
the combined vaccination against pocks-diphtheria/vibration disease. The vaccine is
injected in the wing of the chicken. Make sure that you do not prick in the muscle, because
the vaccination will be eliminated by the blood stream, otherwise the vaccination will
rebound.
 Injection method: The injection method contains two types of vaccines: active (life vaccines)
and passive vaccines (with antibodies). De treatment of the animals is individual and is
expensive. The injection has to be injected into the muscle. This means that there be no loss
of the vaccine.
 Eye-drop method: Is used to give individual vaccinations without loss. This method is used
to give an active vaccine for the respiratory tract. This creates an uniformity, strong and
long-lasting immunity.

Immunity
Taking proper care of chickens is the most important thing to do in order to prevent diseases. It will
strengthen the resistance of the chickens to diseases in general. Important signs of good resistance
are:
 Proper condition,
 Healthy mucous membranes,
 Proper functioning of the stomach.
Resistance protects the animal from all diseases and unfavourable environmental conditions.
Immunity protects the animal from one specific disease. For that reason resistance is more
important than immunity.

When an animal has suffered (and recovered from) an infection, it has built a specific protection
against this infection, for a longer or shorter period. The specific protection is called immunity.

Vaccination schedule

To prevent the chickens from NCD, FP and FC there can be given some vaccinations. The
vaccinations are showed in table 2.1 ‘Vaccination schedule for chickens’ and figure 2.42 and 2.43.

Table 2.1 ‘Vaccination schedule for chickens’


Disease First dose Second dose Third dose
New Castel Disease 7-11 days old Week 4 Before onset of laying
(eye- or nose drops) (in drinking water or (in the muscle)
in the muscle)
Fowl Pox 8-10 weeks 12-14 weeks
(subcutaneous (subcutaneous
injection (under the injection)
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skin))
Fowl Cholera 3-4 week
(wing web method)

Figure .4 ‘Basic broiler vaccination program’

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Figure 2.43 'Vaccination schedule by higher risks'

2.2.2 OTHER METHODS OF PREVENTION

Hygiene of the living area of the chickens


It is important to have a good hygiene in the living space of the chickens to prevent diseases
unwelcome guests like mice or rats.
 Clean and disinfect the housing of the chickens when other chickens come in the flock or
when the chickens become ill. By cleaning must be making use of cleaning.
 The drinking and water systems must be cleaned at least once a day. Refresh the water also
at least once a day.
 Chapter 5.2 describes the hygiene in the housing of the chickens.

Stocking rate
The maximum stocking rate of chickens is 6 chickens per one square metre. When more chickens
are hold on one square metre, there will be risen a bigger risk on diseases. The diseases will spread
easer, so there is a bigger risk that all chickens be infected.

Prevent predators come in the housing


The predators are described in chapter 5.2.2.

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2.7 QUESTIONS

True or False (Set a cross at the right answer)

True or False? True False


1 When the disease is in one of the last stadia, the chicken is still treatable
2 Observing the chickens at least once a day, makes it easier to capture the
disease
3 Prevention is important, because some symptoms will only occur in one
of the last stadia
4 Chronic respiratory disease (CRD) is triggered by bacteria’s
5 The bacterium that causes infectious Coryza is emophilusparagallinarum
6 New Castle Disease is a worldwide disease
7 Lymphoid leucosis is a virus disease
8 Marek disease is a bacterial disease
9 Egg Drop Syndrome 1976 is a viral disease
10 Coccidiosis is caused by a one-celled parasite
11 Good hygiene in the stable prevents unwelcome guests
12 The drinking and water systems must be cleaned at least once a week
13 The maximum stocking rate of chickens is 8 chickens per one square
metre

Subchapter 2.1

1. When is a chicken healthy and in optimal condition

2. A disease can be spread in various ways. Name at least 3 options

3. Write the 7 most common diseases down

4. Write down the treatment and control of Chronic respiratory disease (CRD)

5. How does the Coryza disease spread?

6. What are the signs of Coryza?

7. Write down the treatment and control of Coryza

8. How does the New Castle Disease spread?

9. What are the signs of the New Castle Disease

10. How do you treat the New Castle Disease?

11. What are the signs of the Marek Disease?

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12. How can you treat the Marek Disease?

13. What are the signs of Gumborro?

14. What is the treatment for Gumborro?

15. Which three types of worms are there

16. What are the signs and treatment of worms?

17. Which ectoparasites are most common?

18. Fill the vaccination schedule in:

Table .7 ‘Standard vaccinations’


Disease Number of vaccinations ( at an age of 20
weeks)
3 times, 4 times for perfect vaccination
2 times
2 times
2 times

Subchapter 2.2

19. What influences the activity of the vaccinations?

20. What are the 5 methods of vaccination?

21. What are the signs of good resistance?

22. What is the difference between resistance and immunity?

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CHAPTER 3 – HOUSING
The housing of chickens has a big influence on the well-being of chickens. In housings were the area
is not what it should be, the chickens will be sooner getting diseases or have a lower egg
production. It is also possible that the chickens do not produce eggs anymore. Especially young
chickens are sensitive for changing circumstances.

It is important to build a house with optimal conditions before starting business. This will be
improving the well-being of the chickens. This chapter describes how you can equip housing for
your chickens.

3.1 HUSBANDRY SYSTEMS


This subchapter describes the way of keeping chickens. There are three global systems of
husbandry, but they can also be combined with each other:
 Battery system
 Slatted floor system
 Free range system
All systems have advantages and problems that are explained in the following texts.

3.1.1 MAIN FORMS


Although chickens can be kept in many different ways, there are two main forms:
 Extensive: The level of capital and labour investment in the farm is low. The best known
example of this type of farming is free-range chicken farming, in which the chickens are free
to roam on the farm grounds.
 Intensive: More capital and labour are invested in housing and extra facilities. All housing
systems with special poultry houses (with or without roaming facilities) belong to this
category.

3.1.2 BATTERY SYSTEM


The chickens are housed in small cages above and next to each other. There are various battery
systems:
 Flat deck battery
 California battery
 Compact battery
 Pyramid battery
 Tier battery

Flat deck battery


There is only one tier of cages.
This means only a small number
of chickens per unit of housing
area. This is the main reason
why the flat deck is not popular
anymore. Figure 3.1 shows the
flat deck battery for chicks.

Fig. 3.1 Flat deck battery


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California battery
The California battery is also called as a stair-step battery. This system is popular in open-sided
houses in tropical countries, because it allows proper ventilation without (extra) fans. The two top
rows are fixed together and the droppings fall directly into the dropping pit. Figure 3.2 ‘California
battery 1’ and figure 3.3 ‘California battery 2’ show a California battery.

Figure 3. ‘California battery 1’

Figure 3.3 ‘California battery ’

Compact battery

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There are dropping boards or plates between the different tiers to collect the manure. The manure
has to be removed by hand or automatically from these boards into the dropping pit.

Pyramid battery
Here the droppings fall into the sheeting without help from plastic sheeting. Picture 3.4 ‘Pyramid
battery’ shows an example of the pyramid battery.

Figure 3.4 'Pyramid battery’

Tier battery
There are 2-5 tiers. The cages of all tears are fixed together. Between the different tiers there is a
manure belt to collect the manure and move it to a pit in the front or the back of the house. Figure
3.5 ‘Tier battery’ shows an example of the tier battery.

Figure 3.5 ‘Tier battery’

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There are some general advantages and problem off the battery system. The advantages of the
battery system are:
 Highest stocking rate
 Less risk on diseases
 Higher egg weight
 Lower feed intake
 Better feed conversion rate
 Labour saving
 Easier supervision, culling and selection
 No eggs on the floor
 No hens which are brooding

Problems of the battery system are:


 Relatively high investment costs per chicken
 The system is not flexible
 Technical problems
 Percentage second class eggs is higher
 There have to be pay more attention to ventilation
 Debeaking and light intensity control are necessary

3.1.3 SLATTED FLOOR SYSTEM


The floor is made of a wire of wooden slats. The space below the slats is used for collecting chicken
droppings. The construction of the floor is important, it pays extra attention. The floor should be
constructed in sections, so that it can be removed to clean. The floor is expensive, but the problems
with wet bedding material are avoided.

3.1.4 FLOOR SYSTEM HOUSES


Floor systems houses can distinguish the following types:
 Free range
 Poultry run
 Bedding material floor system
 Partly bedding material

Free range
This system has a free range with only shelter for the night. It is a simple and cheap way of keeping
chickens. The chickens get their own feed and water, but the risk that the chickens get diseases is
way higher than other systems. There is also a big chance that the chickens be apprehended by
predators, traffic or theft. The chickens scavenge and may damage cultivated plants from others.
Very little supervision is possible on egg production and the hens can hide the eggs. Figure 3.6 ‘Free
range system’ on the next page shows an example of free range chickens.

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Figure 3.6 ‘Free range system'

Poultry run
This system has a night shelter and is a semi-sensitive system. The chickens are confined in a
wired-in run. There is a small stable build in which the chickens can be locked up at the night. The
owner takes care of the chickens by feeding them and gives them water. The feedings costs can be
reduced by about 20% if the run is well managed, with a good growth of grass. This regularly
requires a moving to fresh ground. The poultry run exercise and outdoor life produce a tasteful
chicken that some people prefer over a house-produced chicken.

There are some problems which could arise. It is difficult to keep the run mud-free in areas with a
long rain season. The second problem is when the owner of the chickens does not move the run
frequently to fresh ground, there is a big risk of a worm infection. If other chickens can enter the
run, there is a bigger chance on diseases. Birds of prey can catch the chickens and eat them. When
there are a lot of chickens of prey, the chickens have a lot of stress. This level of stress influences
the egg production of the chickens. Figure 3.7 'Poultry run' shows an example of a poultry run.

Figure 3.7 'Poultry run'

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Litter system
By litter systems, the floor is covered with 5-10 cm. bedding material, like teff. The bedding
material absorbs moisture from the droppings. Good bedding material absorbs relatively moisture,
is cheap, free of moulds and is continue available. Figure 3.8 ‘litter floor system’ shows an example
of housing with a litter floor system. The following bedding material systems are possible:
 Litter floor system
 Partly slatted floor system
 1/3 Litter and 2/3 slats (1/3 of the floor is bedding material and 2/3 are slats)
 1/2 Litter and 1/2 slats (1/2 of the floor is bedding material and 1/2 are slats)
 2/3 Litter and 1/3 slats (2/3 of the floor is bedding material and 1/3 are slats)

Figure 3.8 ‘ itter floor system’

Figure 3.9 ‘Slatted floor system in combination with the litter floor system’ shows an example of a
slatted floor system, in combination with the litter system (2/3 litter system) and figure 3.10
‘Slatted floor system’ shows an example of a slatted floor system.

Figure 3.9 ‘Slatted floor system in combination with


litter floor system’ Figure 3.10 'Slatted floor system

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3.1.5 OVERVIEW OF THE SYSTEMS

Table 3.1‘Overview of advantages and problems’ shows an overview of advantages and problems
within the systems

Table 3.1‘Overview of advantages and problems’


System Advantages Problems
Battery  Highest stocking rate  Relatively high investment
systems  Less risk on diseases costs per chicken
 Higher egg weight  The system is not flexible
 Lower feed intake  Technical problems
 Better feed conversion rate  Percentage second class eggs
 Labour saving is higher
 Easier supervision, culling and  There have to be pay more
selection attention to ventilation
 No eggs on the floor  Debeaking and light intensity
 No hens which are brooding control are necessary

Slatted floor  Lower risk on diseases  Expensive


Free range  Cheap  Higher risk on infections and
 Simple diseases
 The chickens could damage
crops
 Risk on predators, traffic and
theft
 Hided eggs
Poultry run  Cheap variant  Difficult to keep the run
 Simple mud-free in rain seasons
 Higher level of stress
 Frequently moving of the run
 Higher risk on infections and
diseases
Litter systems  Absorbs much moisture  Wet bedding material has a
bigger risk on diseases

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3.1.6 STANDARDS
Table 3.2 ‘General standard of chickens per floor area’ shows the standards of rates per floor area
(over the whole house). These are general standards (STOAS (1992)).

Table 3.2‘General standard of chickens per floor area’


Type of chicken Housing system Stocking rate(chickens/m²)
Layers Poultry run About 25
Litter systems: 4-5
1/3 bedding material – 2/3 7-8
slats 6-7
1/2 bedding material – 1/2 5-6
slats
2/3 bedding material – 1/3
slats
Fully slatted floor 8-10
Battery:
Flat deck 8-10
California 10-12
Compact 15-20
Pyramid 15-20
Tier 18-25
Rearing Litter system 7-8
Combination bedding 8-10
material/slats
Fully slatted floor 10-20
Batteries 15-30
Growers Litter system 10-20
Fully slatted floor 10-20
B.P.S. (basis point system) Litter system 4-5
Combination bedding 5-7
material/slats

Chickens cannot be transferred from the battery system to any other housing systems. The other
way around is possible. Chickens reared indoors cannot be kept outdoors later.

3.1.7 HOUSING IN ETHIOPIA


As written in the table, the battery system can hold the most chickens per one square meter. But
this system is not the most optimal system for the chickens’ well-being. In the Netherlands, cages
for chickens may become outlawed. In Ethiopia the most friendly and effective way of keeping the
chickens is the use of free range system (inside the stable). Outside the stable is possible, but will
give a higher stress level, because the high amount of predators (like birds that fly around the
stable). The level of stress can influence the production level of the chickens. There are more
problems that occur when you keep the chickens outside:
 Feed consumption drops
 Water consumption drops
 The chickens become less active, so the egg production drops

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 The chickens start panting and spreading their wings in order to increase their body
surface, because of the heat
 The chickens are looking for cooler places, like a concrete floor
 Egg weight drops
 Eggshell quality and strength decreases
 The fertility and hatchability of the eggs will decrease.

Case study 3.1 Husbandry systems

Mr. Baydar lives bordered a small city in middle Ethiopia on his farm with a lot of other
animals. Mr. Baydar has recently started a small-scale poultry farm with 100 chickens for egg
producing. He built a beautiful stable for his chickens where the chickens can walk in and out.
Strange enough the chickens would not go outside the stable and the egg producing gets lower.
The chickens seem to be very stressful. Discuss why this husbandry system is not optimal.

Answer:
There is big chance that there are a lot of predators in the neighbourhood which causes a lot of
stress. The chickens know that the predators live outside the stable. Another reason could be
that the climate outside is too hot for the chickens.

3.2 BUILDING CHICKEN HOUSING


In this subchapter is the way to build the housing for the chickens described.

3.2.1 CONDITIONS IN THE CHICKEN HOUSE


It is not always easy to influence the conditions into a chicken house. Sometimes it may even not be
possible. The following conditions of the chicken house stimulate the well behaviour of the
chickens.

Climate
Factors which influence the climate in a chicken house are:
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Ventilation and fresh air
 The volume of the house
 Light

Temperature
The optimal temperature for the housing is between 20 and 25 degrees for adult chickens (layers).
For starters the temperature must be higher, between 20 and 32 degrees. This temperature
depends on the age of the starters. The optimal temperature of pullets is between 15 and 32
degrees, this also depend on age. Table 3.3‘Temperature by different ages’ shows the temperature of
the area of the housing by different ages of the chickens.

Table 3.3 ‘Temperature by different ages’


Age in days Temperature in C
1-7 33  29
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7-14 29  26
14-21 26  23
21-28 23  21
28-35 21  20
> 35 Around 20

When layers exposed to higher temperatures you can expect the following to happen:
 Feed consumptions stops or drops
 Water consumptions stops or drops
 Egg production stops or the egg weight stops or drops
 The activity of chickens become low
 The chickens start panting and spreading their wings
 They are looking for colder places (cold floor)
 Having a lower fertility and hatchability of the eggs

In tropics you can take the certain measures to restrict the negative effects of heat:
 Prevent sunshine in the housing to have an east-west orientation of the building. (place the
housing vertical of sunrise and sundown)
 Keep the heat production as low as possible by keeping the chickens quiet during daytime
 Good ventilation
 The use of a screen or sail

Humidity
Ethiopia has a dry and hot climate, which means that the humidity is relativity low. The humidity in
the housing does not exceed 70%. The optimal humidity for chicks is between 75% and 80%; they
need it to not dry out.

Ventilation and fresh air


In tropics proper ventilation is necessary. In general there can be started with ventilation in the
second week of the chicks. Gradually there can be more ventilation applied (in needs). The
ventilation has to be ranged by:
 Temperature
 Relative humidity
 Composition of the air in the stable

Damaging, toxic gasses


1. Carbon dioxide (=CO2)
Carbon dioxide arises by burning of a fuel and by breathing of animals and humans. It is a gas with
no smell, which is heavier than the air. The composition of CO2 can to be measured to be informed
about the moving of air (ventilation).

2. Carbon monoxide (=CO)


This is also a gas with no smell, but a very toxic gas. It releases when a fuel does not burn like the
way it has to burn. It causes a short of oxygen. When regularly cleaning and replacing when needed,
it will prevent that carbon monoxide releases.

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3. Ammoniac (=NH3)
This will be formed by the rubbish of faces by microorganism. Ammoniac has a lower weight than
air, which means that ammoniac levitates. The quantity of ammoniac depends on the mate of
ventilation, temperature, relative humidity, condition of the bedding and stocking density. By a too
high concentration of ammoniac, the fibrils in the airways of the chickens paralyse, whereby pieces
of material can enter the longs. The risk off an infection is much higher. The cornea of the chickens
can be infected too; this causes a higher level of stress and stuck the growing of the animals.

4. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)


This is a gas that seldom arises. It will be formed by the rubbish process of proteins in faces and is
very toxic in high concentrations. It will be in a high concentration by whirling in the faces (for
example in fertilize basements. Table 3.4‘Norms of air composition’ shows the norms of air
composition.

Table 3.4‘Norms of air composition’


Kind of gas Air outside the stable Air inside the stable
(In vol. %)
O2 Oxygen 21 % Min. 15 vol. %
N2 Nitrogen 78 % Max. 84 vol. %
CO2 Carbon dioxide 0.03 % Max. 0.25 vol. %
CO Carbon monoxide Max. 40 ppm
NH3 Ammoniac Max. 25 ppm
H2S Hydrogen sulfide Max. 10 ppm

Explanation table:
Ppm = parts per million = milligram (mg) per kilogram (kg)
1 ppm = 1 gram per 1,000,000 gram = 1 gram per 1,000 kg
1 gram per 1,000 kg = 1 mg per kg

Vol. = volume percent


1 volume percent = 1 vol. % = 10,000 ppm
1 ppm = 0.0001 vol. %

3.2.2 LIGHTNING
Chickens rest during the hot times of day and eat when the environment become cooler. With a
good light system you can make de day longer and the egg production higher. It is a pity that it
becomes dark early. There are normally around 12 hours of daylight in Ethiopia, but when the
chickens have around 14 hour’s daylight, the production becomes higher. With artificial light you
can create a longer day.

Light affects the start of sexual activities, which also is the laying of eggs and affects the start of
laying eggs after a period of rest. It influences the production intensity. So it is important to have
enough and good light in the housing.

The lightning in the chicken housing must not be too bright, because there is a chance the chicken
start fighting. The light into the housing must be less brightness than daylight outside the building.

Rearing period

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The rearing period of a hen is very important. At very young age the hens are insensitive to changes
off daylight. In the second half of the rearing period it is important to create a constant day (8-10
hours a day). Long days in the rearing period lead to an earlier maturity than short days (7-10 days
earlier). It is a funny fact that hens with no light also come into lay on right time, it probable has to
do with the maturation process.

The effect of a lighting program to delay maturation depends very much on the moment when
short-day treatments starts. Until 12 weeks of age one can say: the later the short-days starts, the
bigger delay in the onset of egg production. If you want to delay the onset of production even more,
we have to start the short-day treatment later instead of earlier.

Laying period
The lighting program in the laying period is an extension of the program in the rearing period. Tests
have shown that hens, which start production late, will not produce better towards the end of the
period of laying.

A layer that starts production with a longer length of day (increasing day-length) hardly ever
produces the maximum amount off eggs (in kg). They produce too many small eggs and the chance
on a prolapse is quite common. Layers that start production with a smaller length of day
(decreasing day-light) need a strong light stimulus to reach a high production peak. The loss of eggs
in the beginning is the cause of a lower production (in kg). The best way is to find a way between
these day-lengths: Rearing with short day-lengths (the chickens start producing on time, but not
extremely young)

TIPS FOR BUILDING AN OWN STABLE

1. The materials that are used for the stable should be:
 Durable
 Easy to handle, easy to clean and easy to repair if damaged
 As cheap as possible and reliable

2. The width of the house should do not exceed 9 meters, because of the ventilation (when
only natural ventilation is used).The length depends on the number and age of the chickens in the
stable. The height of the poultry house should not be less than 2 meters anywhere in order to make
the house easily accessible everywhere. It provides more volume to the house, which results in a
better air quality.

3. The floor should be made of concrete or other easy cleaning materials (concrete is the ideal
floor for a chicken house because it is easy to clean) or be filled with 50 cm sand.

4. In hot climates at least 2 sides should be open with wire netting, in order to have enough
ventilation for the chickens. Boards or sails could be closed for the night, to keep a constant
temperature. The other side should be closed (because of direct sunlight).

5. The roof protects the chickens against direct sunlight and rain. The roof also protects the
chickens against predators, like other chickens.

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6. The chickens should be protected against heat during the whole day. Materials which
insulate rather well are cotton fibre board, PVC and certain plant materials such as palm leaves and
banana leaves. The shades of trees prevent that the stable get too warm.

7. Besides space for the chickens, the chicken house should have:
 An entrance room, where people can change footwear and clothing, disinfect their shoes
and wash their hands before entering the stable. Disinfection must also take place here.
 A feed store with enough space for the feed that is needed for the chickens for one week.

Case study 3.2 Building chicken housing

Mr. Piri wants to build a stable for his chickens. He has bought 50 chickens, but he has no stable
and no financial materials. He wants to build the stable, but need some help from you.
Brainstorm what the best option is for Mr. Piri. Recognize that Mr. Piri needs a stable for his
chickens in short time.

Answer:
Mr. Piri has already 50 chickens and no stable. The best option in this case is to create a free
range system inside his house with:
 Optimal temperature
 Optimal humidity
 Ventilation and fresh air
 A minimum of 9 m₂
 Enough light
 No predators
When he has enough money, he can build a new stable for his chickens. Another option is to get a
micro credit.

3.3 BUILDING AN OWN STABLE


Animal safety and welfare is very important in the design and construction of the chicken housing.
The materials that are used in the construction should be locally available and strong enough,
which will result in a long lasting structure. The construction of this stable does not have to be
complicated or expensive.

A properly constructed chicken house has the following essential features (except climate):
 Proper ventilation system
 Constructions that are easy to clean
 Predator proof
 Optimal located
 Strongly built and durable
 Waterproof

3.3.1 LOCATION OF THE BUILDING


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The temperature in Ethiopia can be called as tropical (around 30 degrees). Because of this
temperature it is better to house chickens in amounts of 6 chickens on 1 square meter. This
prevents that it become too warm inside the stable. The stable should also be built in a way that
natural ventilation is possible.

To keep direct sunlight out of the stable, the stable should be built in a west-east position. The
sunshine can be minimized by an east-west orientation of the building. This means that the short
sides of the stable should be orientated to west and east. If these sides are also shaded, sunlight
cannot enter the stable. Figure 3.10 ‘East-West orientation’ shows the right position of the stable.

Figure 3.1 ‘East-west orientation’

3.3.2 FLOOR
The floor is very important by building a chicken stable. Through the floor can predators entering
the stable. There are a few options for the floor:

Concrete
The best option is to use concrete, but it is quite expensive. Concrete is waterproof, easy to clean
and also isolate from hot and cold.

Lava stone
The second option is to use lave stone. This is a very strong sort of stone, which is used for streets
and floors into stables. Lava stone has a red colour and is cheaper than concrete. Figure 3.11 ‘Lava
stone’ shows an example of lava stones.

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Figure 3.11 ‘ ava stone’

Original floor
The third and last option is to keep the original floor, this is the cheapest floor. The original floor
means that the chickens live on the natural floor. Water can be absorbed by this floor, but it is very
dusty and difficult to clean. Figure 3.12 ‘Original floor with teff’ shows an example.

Figure 3.1 ‘Original floor with teff’

3.3.3 WALL
The wall should not be completely solid, this to allow air movement through the stable
(ventilation). Good air movement is essential to remove moisture, excess heat in hot weather and
odor and gasses from animal waste. Air movement makes sure that animals stay cool, dry and clean.
Good ventilation is essential for chicken’s health. Air circulation should be placed above the
animals’ heads and ventilation openings should be placed high enough so that air does not blow
directly past the animals. Air movement can be effected through mechanical (ventilator) or natural
means. Providing openings or low built walls, about 1 meter height (with a max of 1.5 meter), will
provide sufficient ventilation without infecting the chickens.

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If there are enough financial sources, you can make the use of brick stones. Brick stones keep the
warmth for a big part away and are easy to clean. It will quickly dry when it became wet. The
second option is the use hollow bricks 6 -10 birr (local prices).

A second option is the use of a mix of earthen, cow excrements and teff. First of all, you have to
build a fundament for the stable with stones (around the first 20 centimetres above the ground)
and wood of the eucalyptus tree. Eucalyptus is very strong when it is dry and goes around three
years with. Eucalyptus wood is available in tree trunks of 3-8 meters long and the prices are
between 20 and 70 birr. The wall of eucalyptus trees should discontinue for the ventilation, there
arises a gap around 40-50 centimetres in length. Because of the open space, there is a possibility
that predators enter the chicken stable. The problem will be solved with the using of gaze. Figure
3.13 ‘Wall of Eucalyptus wood and earthen’ and 3.14 ‘Wall of earthen’ shows an example of a wall,
made of Eucalyptus and a mix of earthen.

Figure 3.13 ‘Wall of Eucalyptus wood and earthen’ Figure 3.14 ’Wall of earthen’

3.3.4 THE ROOF


The roof provides protection from the sun and rain, so it should be waterproof. A half open roof
encourages air movement but is more likely to be damaged by strong winds. The roof can be
constructed from irons sheets and wood. Iron sheets also reflect the sun; this will keep the heat out
of the stable.

The best way to build a roof is the use of corrugated metal. When building the stable sloping, the
corrugated metal attends that the water will be eliminated in the right direction. The water can be
moderated into a water barrel for own using. Another option is a grass roof; it is cheaper, but less
durable (6-10 years). A grass roof with a length of 6 metres costs around 10.000 birr.

Picture 3.15 ‘Roof’ shows an example of a roof and 3.16 ‘Inside of an own built stable’ shows an
example of the inside of an own built stable from a local farmer.

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Figure 3.15 ‘Roof’ Figure 3.16 ‘Inside of an own built stable‘

Case study 3.3 Building a own stable

Mr. Baydar has built the beautiful stable by his own. He built the stable with a completely
concrete floor. The walls are made of eucalyptus wood and a mix of earthen. The roof is made
of corrugated metal and is placed one meter longer than the walls. The four walls are
completely closed to keep the warmth and cold outside the stable. The stable is around 1.5
meters high, 9 meters in the length and 2 meters in width. Discuss the stable of Mr. Baydar,
what has he done well? And wrong?

Answer:
The materials that are used are available for the climates in middle Ethiopia. But the warmth
will be kept inside the stable, because of the closed walls. There is no ventilation in the stable.
The chickens will reduce in their egg production. Mr. Baydar has built a very good roof,
because all the materials of the stable are protected to the sun and rain.

The stable has a square of (9*2 = 18 m₂) 18 square meters. The space for 100 chickens should
be around 17 square meters (100/6=16.6 m₂), which means that there is enough space for all
the chickens. But the height of the stable is not very handy for Mr. Baydar, because it is 1.5
meters high. When he is working into the stable, it is not very practical.

3.4 TUKUL STABLE


The traditional tukul stable is a round building with walls made of manure (or bricks) and a roof
made of reed. With the use of manure, the walls get a smooth surface. This smooth surface prevents
insects nestling in the wall. The best material for the floor is concrete. This stony floor prevents the
chickens for diseases like Coxidiose. It is also easier to clean and remains dry when water is spoiled
by the animals. Figure 3.17 ‘View of the tukul stable’ shows the tukul stable.

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Fig. 3.17 ‘View of the tukul stable’

3.4.1 SIZE AND MATERIAL


The size of this tukul formed stable will be around 30 square meters, with an average length of 6
meters. 30 Square meters is enough for 200 chickens (6 chickens per 1m₂). The heights of the walls
are around one meter. Above this wall there should be one meter made of wind-braking-gaze and
plastic. The wind-breaking-gaze aloud fresh air to come in, but when it is cold, the plastic can be
shut or opened to keep the warmth inside or to ventilate. The ventilation must proper so that air
does not blow directly into the stable. The side walls have a length of 3.5 meters. The pointed roof
in the middle of the stable has a height of 4 meter. The roof can be made out of corrugated metal. A
corrugated sheet ensures that sunlight can reflecting and keeps the temperature optimal inside the
stable.

3.4.2 FACILITIES
In the middle of the stable there are boxes in two lines, with several layer nests inside it. One line
with boxes can contain ten layer nests with a size of 30 by 40 centimetres. This has a total length of
150 centimetres. There could be placed a second box against the back side of this box. Two sides of
the boxes are available so that the chickens can lay eggs on both sides. There will be a total four
boxes inside this stable. Two feeding trough can be placed beside the layer boxes. Between the box
and the trough, there can be placed water buckets, specially made for poultry. These buckets will be
placed within one meter in one straight line. Figure 3.18 ‘The tukul stable’ shows a map of this
stable.

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Legend:

Water buckets

Feeding trough

Boxes

Door

Figure 3.18 ‘The tukul stable’

Against the end of each box can be placed boxes in one row of six meters. There are eight boxes and
80 layer nests in total inside this stable. Two feeding troughs can be placed besides the layer boxes,
two at the left side and two at the right side of de boxes. Between the boxes and the feeding troughs
can be place some water buckets, specially made for poultry. These buckets can be hanged on the
ceiling and be placed in one straight line. At each side there will be placed five water buckets.

3.4.3 FINANCIAL
The floor is built with a concrete floor, the walls out of bricks and wind-braking-gaze. The roof will
be made out of corrugated metal. The price of one square meter with the use of these materials will
be between 1,000 birr and 1,400 birr. The minimum price will be between 30,000 birr and 42,000
birr for the entire stable.

Case study 3.4 Tukul stable


Mr. John, the neighbour of Mr. Baydar, has built a traditional tukul stable for his 250 chickens.
He had some help from the government and friends to build the stable. But there is one
problem: How can Mr. John furnish his tukul stable? He needs some water buckets, feeding
troughs and laying nest. Pencil a map of the tukul stable with the equipment for 250 chickens.
Pay attention to the square and place of the materials.

Answer:
Variable

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3.5 REQUIREMENTS
This subchapter describes the legal way of starting up a poultry business.

3.5.1 THE LEASE OF LAND


Before start building, you have to buy or lease enough land if you do not have it. The problem in
Ethiopia is that all the land is from the government of Ethiopia. This means that you have to lease
some land from the government. The price of the ground depends on the area where the ground is
establishing, but leasing some land is not cheap. The most effective way is to rent it from your
neighbour or friend.

The lease of land depends on the side of the land. The leasing period is mostly 45 years, and you
must own a bank account with a minimum of 12.000.000 birr. You lease the land directly from the
government. You get a license that you are leasing that piece of land.

3.5.2 LICENSES FOR POULTRY


Next to the license of leasing the land, you need a license to build a stable. The license for building a
poultry stable is also for keeping the chickens.

Procedure
The procedure to get a legal poultry farm is very easy. When you want to start poultry farm, you
have to go to the area authorized bureau of the parish where you live in. You have to improve that
you have some ground and say that you want to start a poultry farm. You get some papers to fill in.
A license is around 200 birr. You get a license when you can improve that you have a living place,
working place and some ground.

If you want to start a poultry farm with a higher investment than 500.000 birr, you need a VAT
number. The VAT number is written in chapter 8 ‘Extending your company’.

Case study 3.5 Requirements


Mr. John has rent a piece of ground from his other neighbour: Mr. Quosa. The ground is rented
for a period of 20 years. The contract is orally agreed. Mr. Quosa has leased the ground from
the government for 54 years; he has a license for it. Discus this situation, is it legal or illegal?

Answer:
Mr. John has an illegal way of renting, because there is no official procedure with the
government. Mr. Quosa is leasing the ground on a legal way, but is not handling legal. He
knows the right procedure, but is renting the ground to Mr. John, which is illegal.

3.6 EQUIPMENT OF THE HOUSING


This subchapter describes the equipment of the housing, assumed from a free range system.

3.6.1 BEDDING MATERIAL


Good bedding material materials absorbing relativity much moisture from the droppings. Because
of the financial resources and climate is ‘teff’ the best bedding material material. The seeds of teff
are used for the dish injera, but the stem of the teff is a good bedding material material (when it is
dry).
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Functions:
 Absorbs droppings of the chickens and promotes drying, which is more hygienically
 Thins out the faecal material, so it reduces the contact between birds and manure
 Isolates chicks from the cooling effects of the floor

3.6.2 ROOSTS
The natural behaviour of the chicken is to sleep above the ground, so it is important to create a
sleeping place. Meat producing chickens do not need roosts, because of their weight. But layers like
to sleep on roosts. If roosts are not provided, they sleep in or on the nests and other places and
dirty them. It also influences the level of stress of the chickens, which can influence the egg
production.

Roosts should be about 50 cm above the ground (Wethli, E. (1999)) and all at the same height.
Otherwise the chickens start to fight every night for the best and highest place on de roosts. The
timber used for the roosts should be about 5 by 5 centimetres with the upper corners rounded off.
The chickens cannot damage their feet. The length of the roosts can be defined based on the length
of the stable. Figure 3.19 ‘Roosts’ shows an example roosts for the chickens. De roosts should be
placed in a straight line. As you can see in picture 3.19, the roosts should be placed on same length
and distance. The roosts could be fastening at the walls and floor.

Figure 3.19 'Roosts'

3.6.3 LAYING NESTS


Chickens that are not housed into cages need laying nests where they can lay their eggs. Proper
nests are important aspects of a layer project. You need one laying nest for every five layers in your
housing. The most common size for a laying nest is around 35 cm long by 35 cm wide by 35 cm
high. The nests should be placed into a dark and quit part of the housing. If there are no laying nests
(or not placed on the right way), the hens lay the eggs on the floor, which results in dirty and
damaged eggs. The laying nests could be made of wood or other local materials.
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The minimum price for one nest costs around 10 birr and the maximum price for one nest costs
around 20 birr. The total costs for laying nests are between 421 birr and 632 birr. Figure 3.20
shows an example of laying nests.

Figure 3.20 'Laying nests'

3.6.4 WATER AND FEEDING EQUIPMENT


This subsection describes the water- and feeding systems. Different ages and types of chickens need
different kinds of feeders and drinkers. It is important that chickens can eat or drink from either
sides (or all sides) of the systems. The water and feed systems should always be placed so that a
chicken do not have to walk more than two meters. For chicks is the distance around 50
centimetres.

Drinkers and water systems


Water is an important aspect for chickens, because:
 The chickens’ body consists around 55-75% of water.
 An egg has water content around 65%.
 The body temperature of a chicken is for a big part regulated by water.
 Water is indispensable for feed digestion and excretion of wastes.
 Water is very often used for administering vaccines and drugs.

Poultry farmers use the words fountains, founts, waterers or drinkers for the equipment to give the
chickens water. Fresh, clear and cool water is very important for chickens and their production. You
should refresh the water at least once a day. Commercial producers use expensive systems to make
sure that the water is fresh and clear and there is enough water for the chickens. The following
waters systems are available:

Round drinkers
One round drinker is enough for thirty chickens. For example: for 200 chickens you need seven
drinkers. The minimum price for one drinker is 110 birr (total of 770 birr) and the maximum price
is 115 birr (total of 805 birr). You have to make sure that there is always enough fresh water for the
chickens.

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Chick founts
This system is used by chicks, because of the height of the system. These are 3-4 litre plastic
containers upside down over a kind of plastic saucer, a small hole in the water container, at the
right position, allows that water can flow into the saucer. You can make this system by your own
with a plastic bucket or tin can. Homemade drinkers often work not very properly. There are larger
sizes available for older chickens (12-30 litres). You need a 12-litre found for every 100 layers.

Linear drinkers
A linear drinker is the simplest system. It means that there is placed a right-angled drinker on the
ground. Mostly this is a half open system so that the chickens cannot sit in the water. It is a fine
system for chicks, older chickens shall soil the system. You need around 3 cm per chicken for a good
linear drinker.

Nipple system
This is the system what is used by commercial producers. There is always fresh, clear and cool
water available for the chickens. The chickens learn to push the nipple to get some water.

Feeders and feeding systems

Tube feeders
This is a cylindrical tube with a pan below. The feed can be put into the tube and falls into the pan
when needed. This is the most common and effective feeding system for adult chickens. Tube
feeders should be raised with the bottom of the feeders when the chickens grow older. Figure 3.21
and 3.21 show an example of a tube feeder.

Figure 3.20 'Tube feeder'

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Figure 3.21 Hanging metal feeder. A feeder with a tray of 40 cm. in diameter (for 10 chickens) 1. hanging
wire, 2. Cover: sheet metal cone, 3. Tray: sheet metal.

Linear feeders
This is the same system as the linear water system, used for chicks. For each chicken you have to
calculate 10centimeters of the feeding system. Figure 3.22 shows an example of a linear feeder.
.

Figure 3. ‘Through feeder on platform’

Tray feeders
This system is also used for chicks. It is just a round vat placed on the ground. This is a cheap and
easy way of feeding, but not very hygienic. Chickens can walk in the feeder and will manure in it.

Egg trays
You can use new egg trays as feeding system for young chicks. It is a cheap solution, but not the
most ideal solution because of hygienic reasons.

Space per bird


Table 3.5 ‘Minimum space per bird’ shows the minimum space for linear and round feeders.

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Table 3.5’ Minimum space per bird’
Age (in weeks) Space (in cm)
Linear feeder (on one side) Round feeder
0-16 4 1.5
6-18 8 3
>18 10 4

The minimum price per feeder is 120 birr and maximum costs 140 birr. The average price is around
130 birr.

Case study 3.6 Furnish of the housing

Mr. John has built another stable for 500 chickens. He built the stable like Mr. Baydar, because
the chickens from Mr. Baydar producing much better than the chickens from Mr. John. There is
only one problem: Mr. John cannot enter the chickens’ stable of Mr. Baydar, because of hygienic
rules. That’s a pity. Can you help Mr. John to furnish his housing for the chickens?

Answer:
Variable

3.7 TOTAL COSTS OF EQUIPMENT


This section gives an overview of the total costs of the housing of chickens. The example that are
used for the own built stable, is for a housing of 250 chickens. The costs that are used for the
examples are estimated costs, based on the average local prices.

For 250 chickens you need a minimum area of 42 square meters (250 chickens amongst to 6 square
meters).

3.7.1 COSTS OF THE MATERIALS


As written before, you need 42 square meters for housing of 250 chickens.

Next to the costs of the stable, you have the materials that will be used inside the stable. One round
drinker is enough for thirty chickens, so for 250 chickens you need 9 drinkers. The minimum price
for one drinker is 110 birr and the maximum price is 115 birr. The total costs of the drinkers are
around 1017 birr (9 drinkers x 113 birr).

10 centimetres of a linear feeder is enough for one chicken, 25 feeders are enough for 250 chickens.
The minimum price per feeder is 120 Birr and maximum 140 Birr. The total costs of feeder would
be around 3250 birr (25 feeders x 130 birr).

The minimum price for one nest costs around 10 birr and the maximum price for one nest costs
around 20 birr. You need at least 50 nests for 250 chickens (at least one nest for five chickens).The
total costs of nest would be around 750 birr (50 nests x 15 birr).

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You need around 12.5 meters Eucalyptus wood for the roosts (250 chickens / 20 cm Eucalyptus
wood). One meter Eucalyptus wood is around 10 birr, this is a total of 125 birr for the Eucalyptus
wood. The roosts should be fixed on the walls and floor, these costs depends on the local prices.

The total costs of the equipment of the housing are 1017 + 3250 + 750 + 125 = 5142 birr. The costs
of the building depend on the situation and local prices. Chapter 7 describes the total costs of
chicken farming. Table 3.5 ‘The costs of chicken housing’

Table 3.6 ‘The costs of chicken housing’


Part of housing Costs
Building Depending on local prices
Equipment 5142

3.7.2 TOTAL COSTS OF THE TUKUL STABLE


The minimum price for one square meter stable (bricks, wood and other materials) is 1,000 birr.
The maximum price for one square metre is 1,400 birr. The entrance has a size of 9 square meters.
The minimum price for building one square metre is 1,700 birr and the maximum price for one
square metre is 2,100 birr. The total costs for the tukul stable and materials will be between 34,900
birr and 48,400 birr.

The equipment of the stable is already told in the last subsection. The total price for this stable and
the materials will have a minimum 49,991 birr and a maximum of 67,297 birr. Table 3.6 ‘The total
costs of the tukul stable’ shows the average total costs of the tukul stable.

Table 3.7 ‘The total costs of the tukul stable’


Part of housing Costs
Stable 41,650
Equipment 5142
Total costs 46,272 birr

Case study 3.7 Total costs


Calculate the total costs of furnish from the last case.

Answer:
Variable

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3.8 QUESTIONS

True or false? (Set a cross at the right answer)


True or false? True False
1 A party bedding material system is an example of a slatted floor system.
2 There are three main forms of husbandry systems.
3 A poultry run is not very stressful for the chickens.
4 The maximum amount of chickens per square meter is 8.
5 Free range systems are one of the cheapest systems.
6 Chickens reared indoors cannot be kept outdoors later.
7 The optimal temperature of pullets is between 25 and 35 degrees.
8 The optimal humidity for chicks is between 75% and 80%.
9 Ammoniac is one of the damaging gasses into a stable.
10 N₂ is oxygen.
11 Light affects the start of sexual activities, which is also the laying of eggs
and affects the start of laying eggs after a period of activity.
12 The light during the rearing period should be very short.
13 A properly constructed chicken house has proper ventilation and
constructions that are easy to clean.
14 The best position of a stable is the East-West orientation.
15 Concrete is the best material for the floor of the stable.
16 Walls should be at least 3 meters high.
17 The tukul stable is one of the cheapest stables.
18 When starting a company, you should have some ground, a living place and
licenses.
19 Roosts are required for the well-being of the chickens.
20 A linear drinker is the most difficult water system.

Subchapter 3.1

1. What kind of global husbandry systems are available for chickens?

2. What are the advantages and problems of a battery system?

3. What is the advantage and problem of the slatted floor system?

4. What are the advantages and problems of floor system houses?

5. How many (adult laying) chickens can be hold on one square meter?

Subchapter 3.2

6. Factors which influence the climate in a chicken house are: (6 factors)

7. Which 7 things can happen when layers exposed to higher temperatures?

8. Why is the climate in the stable important?

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9. How is it possible that light influences the egg production?

10. What are the requirements of materials for the housing?

Subchapter 3.3

11. Which position of the stable is the best position?

12. Which material is the best option for the floor and why?

13. What is a problem of an original floor?

14. How can you build your own stable?

Subchapter 3.4

15. What is a tukul stable?

16. What kind of stable is the most easiest to build? The tukul stable or an own built stable?
Motivate you answer.

Subchapter 3.5

17. What are the requirements to build a stable?

Subchapter 3.6

18 What kind of equipment is not needed into chickens’ housing?

Subchapter 3.7

19. How can you reduce the costs of equipment?

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Theme 2 – Business

Week 4 – Inflow
Week 5 – Maintenance
Week 6 – Outflow
Week 7 – Business

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CHAPTER 4 – INFLOW
This chapter describes the inflow of chickens, the breeding and selection of chickens and the
selection of a good farmer.

4.1 CHICKEN BREEDS

There are more than 300 chicken breed all over the world (STOAS (1997)). Most of them being so
called land races or local breeds. The commercial breeds can be divided into three groups:
 Egg producers
 Meat and egg producers
 Meat producers

4.1.1 EGG PRODUCERS


These are the lightweight laying breeds. One breed of this group is the Leghorn (W.L.) chicken.
Figure 4.1 ‘White Leghorn’ shows a picture of a hen and a rooster. Characteristics of these chickens
are:
 High egg production
 Little broodiness
 Low feed consumption
 White eggs
 The value as meat producer is limited

Usually white eggs fetch a lower price than brown eggs.

Figure 4.1 ‘White eghorn’

4.1.2 MEAT AND EGG PRODUCERS


Important representatives of this group are Rhode Island Red (R.I.R.), New Hampshire, Plymouth
Rock and Australorp. Figure 4.2 ‘Rhode Island Red (RID)’ shows a picture if the Rhode Island Red
chickens. The characteristics of these chickens are:
 Brown eggs
 Broodiness
 Higher feed consumption than the Leghorn
 Better meat production than the Leghorn
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 Less nervous

Figure 4. ’Rhode Island Red (R.I.D.)

4.1.3 MEAT PRODUCERS


Important representatives of the meat producers are the Cornish and Cornish Rock. The
characteristics of these chickens are:
 Low egg production.
 Much broodiness.
 Fast-growing chicks.
 High weight at maturity.
Figure 4.3 shows an example of a Cornish Rock hen.

Figure 4.3 'Cornish Rock hen'

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Case study 4.1 Chicken breeds

Mr. Johnson just started as chicken farmer. He has built a big stable, so that he can expand to 400
chickens. The stable with a combined system of slats and bedding material has an optimal
climate, have drinking and water systems, laying nests and roosts. Mr. Johnson selected 50
Cornirock chickens to start with, they are very healthy and in an optimal condition. The chickens
are around 25 weeks old, they should produce around one egg a day, but they do not. Discuss
what Mr. Johnson did wrong.

Answer:
The chickens have the wrong breed; Cornirock is a meat producing chicken.

4.2 BREEDING AND MULTIPLICATION


Actual breeding is the work of different large companies which are operating internationally. What
are they doing?
 Development of (new) lines or strains in chicken breeds.
 Testing of crosses to find the best combination.
 Some aspects of chicken biology.
 Delivery of parent stocks.

Multiplication is a difficult subject, that why this subject is not specific explained in this manual.
This is the job of experts.

4.3 HIGH-BREEDS
The most common poultry high-breeds are Lowman, High-Line, Bovans, ISA-Brown and dual
purpose chickens (these chickens are held for their eggs and meat, but are not recommended by
poultry experts, because of the fact that the egg production is very low and the meat is too
expensive to sell at markets). All of these breeds are high-breeds.

Case study 4.3 Local breeds


Mr. Johnson wants to buy new chickens for egg production. The last time he has the wrong
breed. Advise him which breed is the best for Mr. Johnson.

Answer:
A hybrid breed, they produce eggs.

4.4 SELECTION PROCEDURE


This section explains the procedure of selection of farmers and healthy and good producing
chickens. All the things you have to know by this selection procedure are described.

4.2.1 THE SELECTION OF A FARMER


The first and most important aspect is the selection of a good company. When you buy chickens by
a farmer who has unhealthy chickens, there is a big risk that the production of the chickens is very
low. There is also a risk on high mortality.
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The following things are important by the selection of a good farmer:
 Make sure the farmer is reliable.
 Make sure that the farmer has enough knowledge of chickens and their care.
 The building and environment of the chickens is clean and hygienic.
 The farmer is producing for a correct price
 The farmer can tell when the chickens are vaccinated

4.2.1 SELECTION OF CHICKENS


This subsection describes the selection of the better chickens for use in the production or breeding
program. The selection is based on the weight at 8 weeks.

Good hens have the following characteristics:


 Are lively.
 Interested in their environment.
 Yellow skinned breeds have yellow coloured beaks and shanks.
 Smooth and nice-looking feathers in the colours of the breed.
 Red and fully grown combs and wattles
 The right bodyweight
 The hens are vaccinated
 Have a good water and feed consumption
 When they are old enough, they produce around one egg a day

Several changes occur in the hen during the laying period. After two months of laying, the good and
the poor layers can be distinguished from each other.

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Case study 4.4 Selection procedure
Mr. Quosa wants to start small-scale poultry farming. He already has a good stable and some
investors for the financial aspects. He wants to buy the chickens from his old friend ‘Mr. Aia’,
he has not seen his friend for years. Ten years ago was Mr. Aia one of the best farmers of
middle Ethiopia. He had a big farm with cows, goats, chickens, plants and flowers. Mr. Quosa
has made an agreement with Mr. Aia that he can buy 250 chickens at the age of 20 weeks. Mr.
Aia delivers the chickens by himself. Mr. Quosa thinks that is a good idea, it cuts a right with
the car.

There are some things that can go wrong when the chickens are delivered, discus which
things could happen.

Answer:
There could be a lot of things wrong after delivering. Times are changed and Mr. Aia could be
a bad farmer after that ten years. In this subsection is described which things are important
during the selection procedure. If you do not look to these things, the following things could
happen:
 Mr. Aia is not reliable, so he won’t deliver the chickens or is not keeping on the
agreements
 Mr. Aia does not care for the chickens, so the chickens become ill
 The price is too high
 The chickens are not vaccinated
 The chickens are not in good condition
 The chickens are not producing

4.5 BUYING THE CHICKENS


If you have selected a good farmer and good chickens, you can make a written contract with the
farmer. Most of the farmers have already edited a kind of contact with all the agreements. Take
your time to read these agreements and point out when you disagree with the contract. It is
important to know what happens if the farmer delivers the wrong chickens (or maybe chickens
with diseases) and know your guaranty.

Make clear agreements about the price of the chickens, also in a written contract. Ask to the
possibilities of a micro-credit. This is possible (for example) by Maranatha Farm in Debre Zeyt.

Let the farmer show his papers and licenses (also vaccinations) to make sure that the chickens are
grown up in good and legal circumstances.

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Case study 4.5 Buying the chickens

Mr. Johnson has picked up your advice for the breeding of the chickens. This time he wants to
make sure that he has the right chickens. He went to different farmers and has seen a lot of
chickens. Mr. Johnson selected a farmer who has a written contract with very good conditions.
For example: Mr. Johnson has guaranty on his chickens for a period of 4 weeks, he will get his
money back. The chickens were born last week, so they are one week old. They are healthy and
in good condition and housed in a clean area. The contract starts after making the contract, so
the condition also starts. The contract is directly made. Mr. Johnson picks up the chickens when
they are 20 weeks. Advice Mr. Johnson about his selection procedure.

Answer:
The chickens seem to be healthy, so there is a little chance on problems, but the contract is very
smart edited by the farmer. The contract is made on the moment of paying, which is not very
smart of Mr. Johnson. He does not know what happens in the weeks between buying and picking
up of the chickens. Maybe the chickens are not healthy anymore or are not alive? Mr. Johnson’s
guaranty is over after 4 weeks, so he cannot get his money back.

4.6 AFTER BUYING


This subsection describes the procedure when the chickens are bought. This period is very
important for as well the chickens as the farmers. There could be arisen a lot of problems.

4.4.1 TRANSPORT OF CHICKENS


Mostly the chickens are delivered by car into boxes, but small chicken farmers carry it by
themselves. The following aspects are important by the transport of chickens:
 Catch the chickens by both feet and do not carry too many chickens at a time
 Do not overcrowd the crates used for transporting the chickens; 20 chickens per crate of 0.2
cubic meter (87 × 63 × 35 cm), depending on the age of the chickens
 Load the crates into the transport truck with care
 Make sure that there is enough ventilation in between the transport crates (15 cm between
rows)
 Be careful with the chickens and pay attention to the well-being of the chickens
 Pay attention to the level of stress

Transport by truck
Make sure that the truck is cleaned and disinfected and avoid waiting periods at petrol stations by
making sure that the fuel tank is filled. Prevent the boxes from direct sunlight, heat and cold and
take care of proper ventilation.

Make sure that the time of transport is as short as possible and instruct the truck driver to driver
straightly to the deliver place, without delays. Try to avoid rush-hours, breaks for lunch, tea etc. and
off-duty time. The loading and unloading period should be also as short as possible. The boxes must
stand stable in the truck and so that the boxes cannot fall.

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Transport by air
If possible, book a flight with a direct connection with the place of delivery. How shorter the time of
transport, how lower the level of stress and a lower mortality. Transfers and route are very risky
for the chicks.

Probably more chicks die or are damage at the airport than in the plane. The following actions must
be taken:
 The captain of the airplane should be informed about the chicks
 Try to keep the chicks in shade while waiting
 Keep the chicks away from draught
 Do not allow the chicks outside in cold of hot weather
 Pay attention to proper ventilation
 Do not stack more than 8 boxes, because of the heat
 Do not allow that the boxes become wet
 Have all documents ready before the chicks arrive at the airport (export license, veterinary
certificate, bill of loading, etc.)
 Label the chick boxes

Animal friendly transport


Many boxes are sold on the market. Some call for the use of staples to hold them together; others
have intricate corner folds that can be snapped together without stapling. There are a few methods
to transport the chickens friendly by hand:
 Chick boxes, used by trucks and airplanes
 Carrying crates

Chick boxes
Chick boxes are made from cardboard or plastic. The plastic boxes can be re-used after cleaning and
disinfection, cardboard can be uses on time. The cardboard should be burnt because they are a
source of infections.

The chick boxes vary in sizes and the number of chickens, placed in the boxes, depends on the
temperature outside and the distance of transport. Each box can hold around 100 day-old chicks,
divided into four of six compartments. The chicks need something to prevent them from slipping
around in the boxes, like wood-wool. These materials should be fresh.

Carrying crates
A well-ventilated crate with an opening and flap in the top to put the chickens in is useful for
moving the chickens to the local market. Do not put to many chickens in a crate and pay attention to
the temperature and ventilation. Figure 4.4 Carrying crate 1’ and 4.5 ‘Carrying crate 2’ show
examples of carrying crates.

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Figure 4.4 ‘Carrying crate 1’ Figure 4.5 ‘Carrying crate 2’

4.4.2 CULLING
Culling’ is mostly used for the selection period to indicate that the chickens that are inferior in
appearance or production, that are sick of become sick, have to be removed from the flock. Culling
starts when the chickens arrive at the farm. One-day old chick can show the following defects:
 Crooked legs (curly toes), only one eye or a crossed beak
 Unhealed navels
 Dehydration, because too much body moisture has been lost. This condition is difficult to
correct.
 The colours are not representative for the breed, it could be a disease
 The chickens are not lively, with sunken head and drooping wings. This indicates that the
chick does not feel well and may already be sick

During the growing period, we select and remove any chicken that does not keep pace with the
others. For example: if they are too light in weight, have crooked legs or are damaged by
cannibalism. When a chicken shows a sign of illness, you have to place them in quarantine. Those
chickens have to be removed immediately, because one chicken can become a danger to the health
of the whole flock.

You can make a selection of the hens just before the laying period to select the hens which are good
enough for laying. This is more important by the selection of breeder chickens, than by the selection
of laying hens.

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Case study 4.6 After buying

Mr. Johnson’s chickens have to be sold as meat chicken, because they do not lay anymore. The
chickens are older than 90 weeks, so they are quite old. It is time for new chickens if the others
are gone. He transports the chickens every day to the local market by bus. The chickens are
placed into a carrying crate. Mr. Johnson has an own place on the market, a place in the middle
of a public square. Everyone can see him, so he can promote his chickens very good.

Discuss about the transport method

Answer:
The carrying crate is a very good method of transport, but there is no protection written in the
case. The bus is very hot, even as the local market, especially in the middle of a public square.
The sun is burning on the chickens. This is not good for the well-being of the chickens, even if
they have to be slaughtered.

4.7 REARERS
If you want a good quality and quantity of production of the chickens, you need first rate pullets.
During the rearing period, the chicken is preparing for laying. An excellent rearing period is
conditional for first class egg production. The chickens needs to be controlled in health, condition
and protected to diseases. This section describes how to manage the rearing period.

4.5.1 FIRST TEN DAYS


The first ten days are the most important days of chicken’s life. The chickens are vulnerable and
experienced hatching, have been graded, vaccinated, sexed, handled, placed on transport and other
environments, this all in a few hours or days. Comfort during this period is essential and will
prevent a high mortality.

Hygiene
Chicks have to be received into a clean and disinfected environment (described in chapter two), to
prevent that the chicks get infected immediately. To keep the environment as much as possible free
from pathogens, you have to do the following things:
 Anything and anyone who is entering the housing of the chicks has to be clean and
disinfected as much as possible. Pay attention to that there is always a vat with disinfection
available for disinfect shoes. When possible, use rubber boots or slippers near the entrance
and wear those only into the housing of the chicks.
 Clean drinkers daily.
 Only a limited number of people are allowed to enter the housing and only enter the
housing when needed.
 Before enter the housing of the chicks, clean and disinfect your hands.
 Wear an overall when possible, only used for the housing of the chicks.
 Make sure that other chickens or predators cannot enter the housing.

Expanding the chickens


Picture 4.6 ‘Expanding the chickens’ shows an example of expanding the chicks. Be careful with the
chicks and pay attention to chicks that are stuck in the cages.
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Picture 4.6 ‘Expanding the chickens’

Brooder
Construct a ring for the reception of chicks with water, feed, heat and light. This is mostly more
comfortable for chicks and farmer. A ring should not have more than 500 chicks. Five square meters
is enough for 500 chicks. After a week the ring should be extended to ten square meters. Figure 4.7
‘Brooder for chickens’ shows a brooder.

Figure 4.7 ‘Brooder for chickens’

Water and feeding


Place feeders and drinkers in a circle like the spokes of a wheel. It is important that the chickens can
easily find water and feed in the first days. The feeders and drinkers should not be placed under the

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heats. The quality of the feeding and water will become lower if they are placed directly under the
heats.

The drinkers should be placed on a higher level to prevent that bedding material come into the
drinker and prevent wet bedding material. At arrival, chicks are thirsty, so they should able to find
clean, fresh water with ease. This means that you have to make sure that the water is available for
the chicks. Refresh the water several times a day, if possible (at least one time a day).

Even though chicks can survive a few days without feed, they quickly need a good quality of feed for
their development, the feed need to be high in protein and recommended for hot climates. Place at
least one chick found of plate per 75 chickens. If egg trays are used as feeder, use one egg tray for
50 chickens. Change the feed from Starter to Grower at the age of five weeks. Chickens tend to have
a peak of feed consumption at 2-3 hours before dark.

Table 4.1 ‘Kind of feeding per age’ shows the kind of feeding per age (Maranatha Farm).

Table 4.1 ‘Kind of feeding per age’


Diet type Starter Grower Pullet Pre-layer
0-5 weeks 5-10 weeks 11-16 weeks 17 – 2% lay
Metabolic Energy kcal 2950 2850-2875 2750 2750
Crude protein (%) >22 20 16.8 17.5

Before releasing the chicks from the brooder, you have to make sure that the chicks already used
eating from bigger drinkers and feeders.

Temperature
The temperature of the housing has to be between 32 and 34 degrees at the level of the chicks.
Before the chicks are delivered, you have to make sure that the floor and area are on the right
temperature. Table 4.2 ‘Temperature of the housing of chicks’ shows the temperature of the area of
the chicks per age (Maranatha Farm). You have to remove the brooders after 22 days.

Table 4. ‘Temperature of the housing of chicks’


Age in days Brooding temperature in C˚ Temperature of the
At the edge of the At 2-3m from the room
brooders brooders
0-3 35 29-28 33-31
4-7 34 28-27 32-31
8-14 32 27-26 30-28
15-21 29 26-25 28-26
22-24 Remove the brooder 25-23 25-23
25-28 - 23-21 23-21
29-35 - 21-19 21-19
After 35 - 19-17 19-17

Also when the chicks are placed in special brooders, the behaviour of the chicks is the best way to
check the correct temperature. Picture 4.7 ‘Too hot or too cold?’ shows the behaviour of the chicks
in comparing with the brooder.
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 Too high: Chicks make no noise, chicks pant, head and wigs droop and get away from the
heater.
 Too cold: Chicks crowd to the brooder and are noisy, distress calling
 Draught: This distribution requires investigation, influenced by draught, uneven light
distribution or external noises.
 Correct temperature: Chicks evenly spread and the noise level signifies contentment.

Picture 4.8 ‘Too hot or too cold?’

Light
To give the chicks all the opportunity to feed and drink, you have to give 23 hours of daylight on the
first day. Every two days afterwards, the period of darkness could be extended with one hour. If the
chicks are 8 weeks old, they get around 12 hours daylight.

Recording
Recording data and processing it into technical parameters, this is an excellent tool to assess.
1. What is going on?
2. How does the flock compare to previous flocks?
3. How does the flock compare to published parameters for this hybrid?
4. How does the flock compare to my neighbour’s flock?
5. What is the result of the change that I made in husbandry?
6. What are the weak points and what are the strong points?

Daily
 Number of chickens that died
 Amount of feed supplied

Weekly
 Average weight of the chickens (around 2% of the flock)

Periodically
 Arrival date
 Initial weight
 Number of chickens arrived
 Vaccinated dates
 Delivery date
 Number of chickens delivered

Table 4.3 ‘Example of weekly recording’ shows an example of weekly recording.


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Table 4.4 ‘Example of weekly recording’
Week Number of chickens at the start of this week:
number:
…………………
Day Date Feed in kgs Dead Calculations
AM + PM = chickens
total
1 Mon Average bodyweight at the end of the
week
2 Tue

3 Wed Target weight

4 Thu

5 Fri Mortality % cumulative

6 Sat

7 Sun Feed/chicken/day

Total this week

Previous total Feed chicken cumulative

New cumulative
(Transport to next week)
Remarks:

4.5.2 HEALTH
Observe the chicks a few times a day to know the situation and condition of the chicks. You can
check the behaviour of the chicks in short time and pick out the unhealthy chicks. Pay attention to
the sound that they produce their droppings, water and feed consumption, hygiene of the area and
the quality of their feather.

If vaccinations, hygiene and housing conditions are optimal, there is a lower risk on diseases. The
vaccinations are already described in chapter two.

Beak trimming
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Beak trimming can be done at all ages of the chicken, but the younger the beak trimming; the less
stress is causes to the animal, but also the less effect of beak trimming. The better options are to
prevent cannibalism by giving alfalfa or maize and an optimal housing for the chickens. Just beak
trimming at the age of 10 days may be enough, if not; beak trimming at the age of 8-10 weeks may
be practiced. Figure 4.9 'Debeaking a bird' shows how to debeak a chicken’s beak.

Figure 4.9 'Debeaking a bird'

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Case study 4.7 Rearers

Mr. Johnson decided to buy some chicks and raise them up. He has prepared the stable for
the chicks with the following things:
 He has a constructed a brooder ring for 500 chicks with water, feed, heat and light.
 The ring is 5 square meters
 The temperature is around 35 degrees at the edge of the brooders and around 28
degrees away from the brooders (2-3 meters)
 The chicks get 23 hours daylight
 Someone is observe six times a day

Discus which things are good and which things are not good

Answer:
All things are good prepared

4.8 GROWERS
The modern hybrids have an incredible potential to grow. These chickens are very vulnerable and
any hampering in their condition can influence the growth, mortality, production and feed
consumption. Just as rearers, every day is an important day in grower production. When chickens
reach the age of 7 weeks, they represents every day 2% of their life. The first week is the most
important.

4.6.1 HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT


The maximum stocking rate of growers is around 6 chickens per 1m² (in tropics) when they get
older. The housing should have proper ventilation, prevent draught, etc. (already described in
chapter three).

In tropical conditions where the temperature rises above 30C˚, the maximum stocking rate depends
on the weight of the chickens. If chickens are marketed at 1.4 kg (final weight), then 18-20 growers
can be placed at one square meter, but if the chickens are to be marketed at 2.2 kg, 11-13 chickens
is enough.

Equipment for growers is limited to feeders and drinkers. The other circumstances of the housing
are already described in chapter three.

4.6.2 HEALTH
The hygiene, vaccinations, recoding and health care are the same as the rearers. You can find it in
chapter 1-3.

Water and feed consumption


The water and feed equipment depends from a big part (or the whole part) of human’s care. The
chickens mostly do not have the possibility to find water and feed for themselves.

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Water consumption
In the tropics an adult chicken needs around0.5 litre of water per day, which depends on the
temperature and the laying intensity. Table 4.5‘Consumption of water per 500 chickens’ shows the
consumption of water per 500 chickens a day, at an environmental temperature of about 30 °C
(Gietema, Bart (2005)).

Table 4.5 ’Consumption of water per 5 chickens’


Growers (8 wks) 200 litres 0,2 litre a chicken
Layers 300 litres 0,3 litre a chicken

The importance of water consumption is already explained in chapter two. Especially for growers is
the water equipment very important and big part of chickens’ health.

Weight
Table 4.6 ‘Example of grower performance’ shows an example of growers’ performance.

Table 4.6’ Example of grower performance’


Age (weeks) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Bodyweight (g) 105 270 510 800 1100 1410 1720 2040
Feed cons. g/day 12 38 59 79 90 103 115 125
Feed conv. (cum) 0.8 1.3 1.5 1.65 1.77 1.89 2.0 2.1

Case study 4.8 Growers

The chicks of Mr. Johnson are now around 8 weeks old. They are in very good condition and
very actively. Discuss what kind of circumstances there must be changed, like the space of the
chickens.

Answer:
(See subchapter 4.8)

4.9 LAYERS
Layers may produce many marketable eggs for an extended period of time. But when problems
enter the stable, the production may not reach its high level or will stop. Even when the problem is
solved, the production level could be lower. This section describes the care of the layers.

4.7.1 HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT


The maximum stocking rate of growers is around 6 chickens per 1m² (in tropics) when slats are not
used. The housing should have proper ventilation, prevent draught, etc. (already described in
chapter three).

4.7.2 HEALTH
Vaccinations

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The vaccinations should be completed during the rearing period to avoid that they have to be
vaccinated during the laying period. It will lead to some amount of stress and reduced egg
production. If the layer is not vaccinated there will be a big risk on diseases.

Health
Just as the other ages, the layers should be observing a few times a day. Pay attention to the
production of eggs and their behaviour in comparing to their feed and water consumption.

Water and feed


Clean, cool and fresh drinking water is necessary for all type of chickens. The water is required for
their metabolism, but also maintains their body temperature. 500 Layers can drink about 105 litres
a day when it is 20C˚, but when the temperature is 25C˚ they will drink around 120 litres, when the
temperature is 30C˚ the chickens will drink around 180 litres a day. If the water is not cold enough
or dirty, the chickens drink a less as possible, which can influence the production. When they drink
less, they also eat less. The temperature of the water should be between 20 and 25 degrees. Check
the water at least twice a day during hot days.

The feed consumption will be around 125 gram a day (for one layer). When the feed composition is
of poor condition, the chicken will try to eat more of the poor quality feed, they may not be able to
eat up to the requirements of egg production. If you have a good quality of feed, you can feed the
chickens ad libitum, but make sure they eat all the ingredients of the feed. Layers need feed with
enough energy, correct proteins and vitamins and minerals.

Recording
The way of recording is different than rearers and growers. Table 4.7‘ Recording of layers’ on the
next page shows the way of recording by layers.

Clarification table:MOR = Loss of eggs / AFT = Normal eggs

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Table 4.7 ‘Recording of layers’
Pen number Number of hens housed
Age in weeks Initial number of hen this week
Weeks in production Final number of hens this week
Day Date Total eggs collected 2nd Grade eggs Dead + Feeds Remarks
MOR AFT Total MOR AFT Total culls Mash Cereal Ca

Total + + =

Sample weight eggs:………………… kg per …………… eggs Live weight hen: ……………………. Gram

Real delivered Number of eggs: …………. Second grade eggs: Kg eggs: ……………….
………
Cumulative Total of eggs: …………. Second grade eggs: ……… Kg eggs: ………………. Kg feed: …………………..

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Case study 4.9 Layers

The chickens of Mr. Johnson are around 19 weeks, so they start to produce some eggs. A few
weeks later, almost every chicken is producing one egg a day (around 80%). That is a very good
production for Mr. Johnson, especially for the first time from rearers to broilers. Gosa, one of the
employees of Mr. Johnson, is telling that a lot off eggs are damaged or hided. Mr. Johnson does
not know what is happening, can you help him?

Answer:
There are a few possibilities:
 There are no laying nests
 The feed of the chickens is not good enough, what influences the egg
 The chickens damage the eggs by their own

4.10 MEAT CHICKENS


The equipment and care for the meat chickens is almost the same as laying chickens. But meat
chickens grow faster than laying chickens, so the space and kind of materials that are used are
different. In very good conditions can a chicken reach the weight of 2.5 kg in less than 6 weeks.

Housing
Meat chickens cannot be housed at a slatted floor system because of their weight. At the end of their
life, they cannot walk over the slats, they are too heavy. 4 Chickens per square meter can be hold in
case of a bedding material system.

Feeding and watering


The watering space for meat chickens is around 2.5 centimetres. The water consumption is higher
than laying hens, meat chickens drink around 350-400 ml a day (by a temperature of 27C˚). Meat
chickens need 10-13 cm of space by straight feeders and around 7 cm by round feeders. They also
need a different kind of feed.

Weight
A correct body weight is very important by laying, but also by the producing of meat. In particular,
meat-type and medium-size breeds tend to become too heavy during their growing period of life.
The meat chickens should be weighted weekly, starting at the age of 4 weeks.

Selection
The following things are important by the selection of a fast growing chicken:
 Early feathering
 Superior breast fleshing
 Good body size

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Case study 4.10 Meat chickens
The production of chicken meat is different from the production of eggs. The egg price is very
low at the moment, so Mr. Johnson decides to keep chickens for the meat production. He
bought some meat chicks to let them grow as meat chickens. He is wondering what he has to
do before the chicks come. Is the stable suitable? Which other changes has to be done?

Answer:
The slats should be removed; the rest is explained in subchapter 4.10

4.11 CHECKLIST FOR THE GROWING PERIOD

Date Actions
Week before the - The housing should be cleaned en disinfected.
chicks arrive - The disinfection room for hands, feet and clothes should be prepared
- The housing should be in good condition (proper ventilation, free of rats
and predators etc.)

24 hours before the - Temperature should be about 35C˚ (near the heat) and not lower than
chicks arrive 28C˚ in the whole stable.
- The light intensity must be correct
- The bedding material must be having a minimum depth of 5 cm.

Arrival of the chicks - Put filled drinkers with fresh, clean and cool water in position (a several
hours before arrival)
- Make sure of strict hygiene during the unloading job
- Remove chicks from the boxes and put the chicks near to the heaters.
-When immediate unboxing is impossible, prevent chicks from warmth
and cold.
- Provide the right light intensity

Day 1 - Check the brooding temperature (the behaviour of the chicks)


- Check frequently if there is enough fresh, clean drinking water and feed.
- Prevent chicks from tumbling into the feeder plates of holes in the
bedding material.
- Recording the day

Day 2-7 - Gradually reduce the temperature of the brooders and room
- The relative humidity may range from 60-80%
- Expand the brooder area gradually
- Check the health and vitality of the chicks
- Remove dead chicks
Second week - Gradually reduce room temperature
- Remove the completely brooder guard
- Start with ventilation at very low
- Use additional feeders and locate the chicks a little further away from the
heat source

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- Turn of heating (if need be)
- If the morality is higher than expected, call in a specialist
Fourth week - Lower brooder temperature, if possible and necessary.
- Keep humidity at the level by ventilation
- Reduce the light intensity to 2.8 watt/m2 of floor area
- Care for fresh, cool and clean drinking water
- Check the condition of the materials and bedding material
- Eliminate all chicks with deformities

Week 5-10 - Reduce the light intensity to 2.0 watt/m2 of floor area.
- Check the weight of the chicks
- Debeaking the chickens when cannibalism starts
- Switch from chick-size to grower size grit
- Start an established feeding program
- Make the switch from Starter to Grower
- Select breeder chickens for meat-producing chickens at week 6-8

Week 10-18 - Debeaking


- Re-debeak when necessary
- Be care of stresses, like debeaking, vaccination and changes in feeding
- Weight the chickens

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4.12 QUESTIONS

True or false? (Set a cross at the right answer)


True or false? True False
1 New Hampshire is an example of an meat and egg producing chicken
2 The commercial breeds can be divided into two groups
3 Usually brown eggs fetch a lower price than white eggs
4 When you buy chickens by a farmer who has unhealthy chickens, there is a
big risk that the production of the chickens is very low
5 After two weeks of laying, the good and the poor layers can be
distinguished from each other.
6 One of the important thing of the selection of a farmer is: ‘Make sure that
the farmer has enough knowledge of chickens and their care’
7 Good hens are lively, interested in their environment and have the right
body weight
8 Transport by truck is the best way of transport for the chickens
9 Chicks should be protected to heat during transport
10 Chick boxes are especially for chicks
11 Culling’ is mostly used for the selection period to indicate that the chickens
that are inferior in appearance or production, that are sick of become sick,
have to be removed from the flock
12 If you want a good quality and quantity of production of the chickens, you
need first rate turkeys
13 The chicks must be cleaned and disinfected when entering the housing
14 A brooder ring with a diameter of 5 meters should not have more than 500
chicks
15 Growers feed has more metabolic energy than Starters feed
16 The temperature of the housing has to be between 32 and 34 degrees at the
level of the chicks
17 Recording should be a daily activity
18 The modern hybrids have an incredible potential to grow
19 A broiler drinks around 200 ml a day
20 Early feathering is one of the characteristics of a good egg producing
chicken

Subchapter 4.1

1. The commercial breeds can be divided into three groups, which groups are that?

2. What are experts doing with breeding and multiplication?

3. What kind of breed is not a local breed?

Subchapter 4.2

4. What kind of things are important by the selection of a farmer?

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5. Mention 5 characteristics of a good hen?

6. Where can you buy good producing chickens?

7. Why is it important to make a written contract?

Subchapter 4.4

8. What kind of transports are available? And what kind of transport would you choose for
local transport?

9. What is culling? And what are the most common defects?

Subchapter 4.5

10. Why are the first ten days of a chicken the most important days?

11. Is it handy to buy chicks when you want to keep chickens for egg producing? Explain you
motivation.

12. Why does a rearer need more metabolic energy and crude protein in their food? (In
comparing to a layer)

13. Explain this picture.

Subchapter 4.6

14. When is a chicken called a ‘broiler’? (based on age)

Subchapter 4.7

15. When start a layer to produce eggs?

Subchapter 4.8

16. Why can meat chickens not be hold on slatted floor systems?

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CHAPTER 5 - MAINTENANCE
This chapter will describe the maintenance of the materials, the hygiene of the stable, equipment
and daily routines and the last subchapter will describe the ordering of food.

5.1 MAINTENANCE OF THE MATERIALS


This subchapter will describe the maintenance of the materials described in chapter 3 Housing.
These materials are:
- Feeding bin
- Plastic bucket
- Perche
- Eucalyptus tree
- Corrugated metal
- Concrete
- The mix of earth, cow excrements and teff

You can buy a feeding bin made of two different materials: plastic and metal. The plastic feeding
bins will last around the 20 years, but you need to handle them with care. This means that you can’t
step on them or fill them up to the edge. A metal bin lasts almost a life time, but they are really
expensive to buy. This is why a plastic bin is preferred by small-scale farmers.

Plastic buckets or bins can be used to provide the chickens with water. A plastic bucket will last for
two weeks if you constantly fill the bucket up to the edge or when you step on it. If you handle the
bucket or bin with care it can last for 20 years. This will only count when you fill the bucket for 70%
and not to the edge. If you see that 70% of the bucket or bin isn’t enough to satisfy the water needs
of the chickens you can do two things:
- You can buy another bin or bucket and place this one in the stable
- You can fill the bucket several times a day

Both of the options are good solutions. A con is that buying a new bin cost more money than to refill
the bin. A pro for buying a new bin is that it decreases the time management. Normally you would
lose a lot of time filling the bin with water constantly. This time gives you room to do other stuff for
the farm.

A perch can last for years, but it needs to stay dry. A perch will rot when it gets wet. Make sure that
the perch is placed on top of a stone so that the stick won’t touch the ground. This will help to keep
the perch dry in times that the ground will get wet.

A dry eucalyptus tree doesn’t rot away. If it gets wet it will only last for 1 year, because the
eucalyptus tree starts to rot. To prevent the eucalyptus tree from getting wet, you can extend your
roof. If you let your roof stick out for at least one metre. the eucalyptus tree won’t get wet. This
extends the lifetime of the eucalyptus tree. The second option to prevent the eucalyptus tree from
getting wet is to nail some corrugated metal against them. These corrugated metals are made of
metal which is waterproof.

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The corrugated metal that you can buy from the local markets will last between the 6-7 years. After
this time the corrugated metal will starts to burst at several places which makes the corrugated
metal unusable.

Concrete is really expensive, but will last 100 years. This is a great solution for a good foundation,
but the costs are 220 birr for 100 kilograms for a bag of concrete. You still need to mix this concrete
with sand and stones to create an optimal foundation. If you don’t have the money to buy yourself
concrete you can also use Red Ash (lava stones) as a foundation. These stones are cheap, strong and
known for their ability to absorb moist. The last thing to lay a foundation is to put some plastic over
the ground of the stable. You can put the Red Ash upon the plastic. Ground water can come up and
this wets the stable. The plastic prevents this. Red Ash also absorbs moist. This helps you to prevent
your stable from getting wet. You can use teff as bedding material. If you don’t have enough money
to fill up the stable with teff, you can also use the soil which the stable is built on as bedding
material and throw a little bit of teff on it. This promotes the natural scratching behaviour of the
chicken

The cheapest way to build the walls of a stable is to make a mix of earth, cow excrements and teff.
You can make you stable draught free with this mix, but this mix is also incapable of standing rain.
When this mix gets wet it will wash away. You can prevent this by extending you roof. If your roof
sticks out for one metre the rain will drop off it without touching the walls. The roof will also
protect the stable against the sunlight. Chickens don’t like to have sunlight in the stables. When the
roof is extended the sunlight won’t shine into the stable. You’re creating a constantly shadow stable
with this solution. The chickens prefer this. The walls also work as isolation against the heat of the
sun. The walls stay cool at the inside of the stable. The heat that enters the stable can escape
through the open windows in the walls. This is a cheap method to regulate the temperature in the
stable.

Case study 5.1 Maintenance of the materials

You got a great stable build of eucalyptus tree, corrugated metal and a mix of earth, cow
excrements and teff. Every time that it rains the stable gets completely wet. Is this good or
bad? How can you prevent it?

Answer:
If your roof sticks out for 1 metre the rain will drip of it without touching the walls. The roof
will also protect the stable against the sunlight. Chickens don’t like to have sunlight in the
stables. When the roof is extended the sunlight won’t shine into the stable. You’re creating a
constantly shadow stable with this solution. The chickens prefer this.

5.2 HYGIENE
On small-scale chicken farms young and old birds will be kept together. As old birds pass on
diseases to younger chicks, it will be difficult to get rid of contagious diseases. For more
commercial-oriented farms it is advisable to break each cycle of infection by applying the all-in-all-
out principle. This means that after every period of production, all chickens need to get rid of and
be replaced, after thoroughly cleaning and disinfecting everything.

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Refresh the water several times a day, if possible (at least once a day).. This is to keep high quality
water for the chickens. If you look at the water and you wouldn’t want to drink it yourself because
it’s so dirty, than the water is of a poor quality and it needs to be refreshed. You can put a drop of
chloride in the water. This drop terminates bacteria’s and parasites that live in the water. This
means that the water is now sterile. Don’t use this method every time you refresh the water. If you
use this method every time the chickens will be incapable of developing an immune system. Use
this method not more than once every two weeks. You can determine the quality of the drinking
water in a laboratory. The criteria of quality water are:
- It needs to be clear (limpid), without smell, colour or sediment
- pH needs to be between the 5 and 8
- Hardness: hard water contains various calcium and magnesium salts. In itself hard water is
not harmful for chickens, but it may influence the functioning of the water equipment. Hard
water in combination with a high sulphate level can cause diarrhoea.
- Iron: maximum 1 mg/litre. High levels may affect drugs such as tetracycline and sulpha
drugs and may affect the functioning of valves and nipple drinkers. The problem with high
levels of iron, calcium and magnesium, in particular for vaccinations and drug supply, may
be overcome by adding dried skim milk to the water.

The bedding material of the stable is recyclable. It’s not necessary to clean up the bedding material
before the chickens reach an age of 90 weeks. You need to clean the bedding material after the 90
weeks (when you sold all the chickens), but don’t throw the bedding material away. Clean up the
bedding material and disinfection it. After you’ve done that the bedding material can be fed as
concentrate to the horses, cows and donkeys. You can only use this bedding material as long as all
the chickens were healthy for the full 90 weeks. If a chicken got a disease and you feed the bedding
material to your horse, cow or donkey you can transport that disease to them. This will make them
sick and not suitable for work for a period of time. This period will end when the animals recover of
the sickness. The second option for the bedding material is to use it as a fertilizer for your soil. You
can make your soil fertile by fertilizing it with the bedding material.

5.2.1 HYGIENE PLANS


It’s very important to keep the chance of infection by contacts with sources of infection to a
minimum. Germs can be spread via animals and via people. Infection is also possible through
contact with infected objects such as crates or cars. Remember that feed and dirty drinking water
can also carry germs. A thorough cleaning out and disinfection of the stable and equipment is very
important parts of your disease control (prevention) programme. There are a few terms that need
to be followed:
- As soon as the last bird is sold, clean the stables. Don’t leave them dirty, even if you aren’t
putting in new birds straight away. This helps to avoid a build-up of disease, which could
transfer to other houses.
- Take out all the feeders, drinker and other equipment. Wash and disinfect them. Let the
feeders and drinkers lie in the disinfectant for a few hours.
- Remove all old bedding material from the floor. You can either give it as concentrate for
your horses, cows or donkeys or you can use it as a fertilizer for your soil. /don’t leave it
near the chicken houses.
- Then use a good disinfectant to clean the whole house. Make sure that the disinfectant gets
into the cracks. Check with your poultry supplier which is the best disinfectant to use as
these changes from time to time.

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- Leave the stable empty for at least 7-10 days after the cleaning. This gives time to the
organisms that kill the diseases.

By cleaning thoroughly, we can remove 99% of all pathogens. When we do it poorly, the usefulness
of our work is low; there is little difference between poor cleaning and not cleaning at all, hence is
poor cleaning is a waste of effort. After cleaning comes disinfection; disinfection without perfection
has generally little sense.

If you want to place new, bought stock with your own hens, it’s a good idea to keep the new bird
separated for some time. If a contagious disease appears, the change of infection will be less than if
you immediately place the new birds with the old stock.

5.2.2 CONTROL OF PESTS


Be aware of pests. Pests can eat your natural materials. To prevent the pests form eating you can
impregnate the materials with gasoil or insecticide.

Some predators eat chickens and eggs. These animals can transfer mutable diseases. Some
examples of these predators are:
- Hawks
- Owls
- Cats
- Hyena’s
- Rats
- Snakes
- Etcetera
A way to protect you stable against the entering of the predators is to cover all openings with 13
mm wire mesh.

Rat and mice eat the chicken feed in the stables. You might not notice them, because they mainly eat
at night. There are a few ways to get rid of rats and mice:
- You can bait them with poison and trap them
- Or you can lock a cat up in the stable to catch them, but be aware with cats. A cat is a
predator and can also hunt and catch your chickens

5.2.3 ROUTINE CHECK


Daily health control
You need to inspect the flock of chickens at least twice a day. When you inspect the flock it is
necessary to observe them:
- At behaviour, appearance of flock and individual birds, if necessary examination
- You need to control the intake (feed and water)
- You need to control the output (production, excrements, dead birds)

Animal care (daily)


Below is a check-list for the daily routine check upon the health of the flock:
- Clean water
- Clean feed (no old feed rests)

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- Temperature, ventilation, air composition
- Bedding, manure disposal, fly control
- Immediate separation of weak and sick birds
- Execution of treatments
- Reporting abnormalities immediately

Routine administration (daily)


You need to keep your administration up-to-date. This means that you need to register daily:
- Feed consumption (including grit, shell, green plants)
- Water consumption (a change in water consumption is often a warning)
- Production
- Mortality
- Incidents

You can make an easy table like table 5.1 ‘Administration’. This table is an example of an
administration table for feed consumption. You can use this table for all the administration points,
but you need to make one table per point.

Table 5.1 ‘Administration’


Chicken stable Measure Deviation + explanation
1 1 kg No
2 1 kg No
3 500 grams Yes, too little feed is being
consumed

You also need to register periodical activities such as:


- Vaccinations
- Preparation related to reception, delivery and transport of the birds
- Routine checks of (ecto)parasites once a month

Every four weeks


Of each flock a minimum of five birds should be inspected. If a bird is found positive, inspection can
stop and treatment has to start as soon as possible. Inspect the chickens preferably outside and in
broad daylight. Op the feathers cover by blowing and by fingers. Birds with ectoparasites often have
much dirt and dust inside their feather cover. Look everywhere and give special attention to the
hind part of the back, the surrounding of the vent, under the wings and to places with broken or
rough feathers. Look for quick- and slow moving lice and mites and for their eggs, deposited singly
or in clusters on the feathers or on their base. Mites can be found moving on collected eggs.

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Case study 5.2 Hygiene

You just sold out your last chicken yesterday. Today is the day that you would like to clean
your stable. The chickens have been in perfect health for the last 10 weeks, but were sick in
the first weeks when they arrived. What should you do with the bedding material?

Answer:
You can only use this bedding material as long as all the chickens were healthy for the full 90
weeks. If a chicken got a disease and you feed the bedding material to your horse, cow or
donkey you can transport that disease to them. This will make them sick and not suitable for
work for a period of time. This period will end when the animals recover of the sickness.

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5.3 FEED
Feed is one of the most important subjects of treatment of chickens. Feed consists mainly at:
 Vitamins
 Minerals
 Energy
 Protein
 Water

5.6.1 VITAMINS
Chickens need small quantities of vitamins to have a long and healthy life. Vitamins are important
for the chickens to defend itself from diseases. The overdosed vitamins will leave the body with the
faeces so it won’t harm the chicken.

Vitamins can be found in all types of fresh fruits, seeds and plants. To give the chicken all the
vitamins he needed, variation in seeds and fruit is required. Vitamin and mineral supplements are
added to the complete feed.

5.6.2 MINERALS
The chicken needs a small amount of minerals. In the first stadia of the chick, it’s important to get
enough minerals for the construction of bones and feathers. Getting enough minerals is essential
when the chicken starts to produce eggs. Enough minerals will result in good shells and strong eggs.
The most important minerals are calcium and phosphorus for the producing of eggs. These
minerals can be found in eggshells, bones and lime.

Another way to collect minerals is to collect bones from slaughtered animals. Burn them above the
fire until they become soft. It makes it easier to crush them. The created powder can be fed to the
chickens. Feed it in small quantities. Never mix more than 1 tin of kimbo to 25 tons of other feed.

A laying hen needs 3 g Ca. per day. This means that the feed should contain about 2.2% of Ca.
generally speaking, to be on the safe side, the Ca. content of the feed of laying hens should be about
3.3%.

5.6.3 ENERGY
The most important source is energy. Without energy the chicken can’t produce anything. There are
a lot of products that contains energy. Energy can be found in all kind of grains: maize, sorghum,
wheat, rice, etc. Energy and can also be found in crop by-products like maize bran, rice bran, millet
bran etc. Another big energy source is all kind of root crops like cassava, potatoes, yams and the
kitchen left-overs.

Fats have a high energy value. Fat can be added to the grower rations, to improve the feed
conversation rate.

5.6.4 PROTEIN
Chickens need a highly protein in their ration, because chickens cannot make amino-acids
themselves. Protein is made up of about 20 different amino-acids. Of this acids, 10 should always be
present in poultry feed. Protein can also be found in natural ingredients. The natural ingredients
are certain kind of seeds like beans, cow peas, grams, etc. some plants are also useful for protein.
Cowpea leaves, cassava leaves and leuceanna leaves. There are another ways to get protein for your
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chickens. The collected blood from a slaughtered animal contains a lot of protein. Mix the blood
with a teaspoon of salt and cook it for 5 minutes. Let it dry-up in the sun after cooking, or example
on an iron-sheet. Never mix more than 1/21 with mixture. The chickens don’t like the taste of
blood. Stock it for 14 days at max, no longer!

Insect also contain a lot of protein. Collect insects like termites, worms, and ants. The chickens like
it a lot. Another way of getting bugs is to produce a compost heap. This will attract them.

5.6.5 WATER
The water consumption varies per type of chicken. The range is between the 0.25-0.75 litres a day.
An important factor is the temperature; the water should be clean, fresh and clear. Be sure that you
provide your chickens with enough water. Table 5.2 ‘Water consumption’ shows the amount of
water a chicken need for one day.

Table 5.2 ‘Water consumption’


Type of chicken and sex Water consumption/chicken/day
Temperature of the housing 16 degrees 27 degrees 38 degrees
Leghorn pullet and roosters 0.22 litre 0.28 litre 0.56 litre
Medium size pullet 0.24 litre 0.30 litre 0.60 litre
Medium size roosters 0.25 litre 0.32 litre 0.63 litre
Meat-type pullet 0.27 litre 0.34 litre 0.67 litre
Meat-type roosters 0.31 litre 0.38 litre 0.75 litre

To make sure that the water is suitable, you can add 1 ml chlorine for each 10 litres water. It won’t
harm your chickens and the water will stay clean of diseases. The egg of a chicken consists for 60%
of water. Clean water will give better eggs. You must refresh the water at least once a day or if it’s
possible, twice a day. This will keep your chickens healthy.

Case study 5.3 Feed

Jerry gets some water from the lake. He gives this water directly to his chickens. One week
later, the chickens become ill. What makes the chickens ill?”

Answer:
The water from the lake could be the reason that the chickens become ill. He can add a little
bit of chloride to the water to prevent the chickens from becoming ill.

5.4 ORDERING FEED


After a period of time you need to order some food. The easiest way to buy food is at the AKF
factory in Debre Zeyt. This is a quality factory which provides you of quality food for your animals.
AKF delivers the food from an amount of 100.000 kilograms. If you want an amount that is lesser
than 100.000 kilograms, you can go to the Alema sales centre located in Debre Zeyt. You can get any
amount of food you want. AKF and the Alema sales centre sell the food for exactly the same price.
100 kilograms of layer phase 2 feed will cost around the 820 birr. This means that 1 kilogram of
food costs 8.20 birr.

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A chicken eats around the 125 grams a day and drinks around the 250 millilitre water a day. So if
you have 100 chickens the chickens will eat 12,500 grams of food a day, which is the same as 12.5
kilograms of food a day. This means that you will need to buy 100 kilograms of food every 8 days
(12.5 kilogram a day / 100 kilogram of food = 8 days).

Make sure that when you get your order of food that you immediately make another order at the
factory. At this way you can never have a shortage in feed at your farm. It can occur that the factory
can’t deliver your order at time. This can create the fact that you’re short in food. A shortage in food
at your farm has a negative effect on the production of the animals.

Every village has its own advice centre. This is a centre where you can ask for advice when you
don’t know what to do anymore with you chickens and the feeding of them. So when a disease,
parasites or even a shortage in food occurs you can ask the advice centre for help and they will
provide you of help. This is an extra tip to maintain your business at all times.

Case study 5.3 Husbandry systems

You just started your farm and you are wondering how much food your chickens will eat. You
have a saving that is enough to buy 150 chickens. A chicken eats 125 grams a day. 100
kilograms of feed costs 820 birr. This means that 1 kilogram costs 8.20 birr. How much food
do you need to buy at a monthly basis? How much does the monthly feeding costs? One
month contains 30 days.

Answer:
125 grams x 150 chickens = 18.750 gram of food a day. 18.750 grams = 18.75 kilograms of
feed a day. One month contains 30 days. 18.75 kilogram x 30 days = 562.5 kilograms of food a
month.
100 kilogram of feed costs 820 birr.

562.5 kilograms / 100 kilograms a bag = 5.625 bags, this means that we need 6 bags of feed. 6
x 820 birr = 4.920 birr a month.

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5.5 QUESTIONS

True or False? (Set a cross at the right answer)


True or False? True False
1 A wet perch doesn’t rot away X
2 The pH for quality water needs to be between the 5 and 8 X
3 Quality water needs to contain sediment X
4 Controlling the intake is a example of the animal care routine X

Subchapter 5.1
1. How long does a plastic water bucket or bin last?

2. How can you make sure that a perch is kept dry?

3. How can you prevent eucalyptus tree from getting wet?

Subchapter 5.2
4. How can you maintain a high quality of water?

5. What can you do with the bedding material that’s collected by the cleaning of the stable?

6. Why is a thorough cleaning so important?

7. What do you need to do when you want to place a new bought rooster to the flock?

8. How can you protect your stable from the entering of predators?

9. What are the daily routine tasks?

10. What are the tasks that the daily routines consist of?

Subchapter 5.3
11. What does feed mainly consists of?

12. Where can you find vitamins?

13. Why is it important to get enough minerals?

Subchapter 5.4
14. What amount does a chicken eat and drink a day?

15. When do you need to order new feed?

16. Where do you go if you don’t know what to do anymore?

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CHAPTER 6 - OUTFLOW
This chapter will contain the information about selling the eggs and chickens. In the end, this is
what it’s all about. Doing business and make money out of your poultry.

6.1 THE EGG


This subchapter will describe how to check the eggs, how to sort them, how to reflect on the health
of the chicken, how to store the eggs and how to sell them.

6.1.1 CHECK THE EGGS


As a local farmer, you can collect the eggs with a plastic basket. You can buy these baskets for a low
price at every street corner. It’s best to pick a strong one without any bursts. Figure 6.1 shows an
example of a plastic basket. It’s very important to have good feed with at least 10% chalk in it.
When you collect the eggs, it’s important they don’t break and you are able to fill the basket to the
edge. That means the eggs are strong enough and they have a strong shell. When you doubt about
an egg, whether it’s rotten or not, you can check this by filling a cup of water and put the egg in it.
When it will flow to the edge, it’s rotten. This effect is caused by the accumulation of gas in the egg
itself.

Figure 6.1 Plastic basket

6.1.2 SORT THE EGGS


When you have broken or rotten eggs, it’s necessary to collect these eggs separately and destroy
these eggs immediately. At this way you can prevent good eggs mixed with broken or rotten eggs
and you will keep your customers satisfied. You can sort the eggs at colour and seize (eggs native of
young or older chickens), but it’s not necessary. For example, you can do this by using boxes for
bigger eggs and boxes for smaller eggs. This is shown in figure 6.2 ‘Bigger and smaller eggs’. (on the
next page).

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Figure 6.2 Bigger and smaller eggs

6.1.3 REFLECT ON THE HEALTH OF THE CHICKEN


When a chicken is bold and don’t have many feathers, this means the chicken is a good laying hen,
as shown in figure 6.4. All of its energy goes to its eggs. This is a good sign. When you will see a
beautiful, good feathered chicken (shown in figure 6.3), you know it’s not laying eggs. These
chickens will not produce something for your company. You can decide to sell these chickens for
their flesh.

Table 6.1 will tell more about the differences between productive and unproductive chickens.

Table 6.1 A productive or an unproductive chicken?


Trait Productive chicken Unproductive chicken
General condition Lively Dull
Weight Good Usually fairly light
Wattle and comb Soft; bright red Pale and rough
Eyes Lively Dull; yellow rims
Pigment ( yellow breeds) Disappears Stays longer
Cloacae Large, soft, moist Shrivelled, dry
Distance between lay bones Large ( 5 cm) Small ( 2 cm)
Distance between breast- Large ( 8 cm) Small ( 4 cm)
bone and lay bones
Skin Soft, loose Skin

Figure 6.3 Young, not laying hens Figure 6.4 Older, egg laying hens

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6.1.4 STORE THE EGGS
When eggs are stored right, you can be sure that your eggs are of good quality.

Temperature
The best way to store the eggs is by storing them in proper egg trays at an average temperature of
24 degrees. It’s important to keep them cool, but it’s not recommended to cool them in a
refrigerator. This is because when transporting the eggs, they will sweat of the high temperatures
outside. At this way the eggs will rot more quickly and will be sticky.

Other circumstances
Beside the right temperature, it’s important to store the eggs at a sun free, dry place. Sunlight isn’t
good for the chickens, but it isn’t good for the eggs either.

Under the right circumstances, you can store the eggs up to three or four weeks. After this period of
time they have to be sold.

6.1.5 SELL THE EGGS


For selling eggs or chickens it’s important to have some interested personal contacts. When you are
registered, you can sell the eggs to personal contacts, the market, hotels, restaurants, local shops or
at your own shop. Hotels, shops and restaurants often need a receive with a VAT number and other
data of your business. When you are not registered, you can sell the eggs at your own shop, the local
market or to personal contacts.

Price
The price of eggs is variable. It’s important to check the prices at your local concurrent or to go
check the market. At some periods of time people are fasting. For example; orthodox people fast in
the time before eastern. There are more eggs available than the people of the district want. There is
more to offer than needed.

You will have to respond on the supply and demand and adapt the price on it.

Case study 6.1 Sell the eggs

As a fresh started local farmer, you are ready to sell your first eggs. Some family and friends
recommend selling your eggs on the market. You decide to sell the eggs for 2,5 birr an egg.
When you’ve had your first day at the market, you notice that you didn’t sell all of your eggs.
In fact, you didn’t even sell 50% of them. What went wrong?

Answer:
The reason why you didn’t sell as much eggs as possible is because you should’ve checked
the market prices first. You have to adapt the prices of the eggs on the market and your
concurrent, because you are not the only one who is selling eggs. The prices of eggs are
variable. So you can’t decide the prices of your eggs before you have checked the market.

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6.2 THE CHICKEN
This subchapter will describe when a chicken is ready for selling, how much money you can ask for
a non- producing chicken, how to sell it and what to do when the old chickens are gone and new
chickens arrive.

6.2.1 A NON- PRODUCING CHICKEN


When a chicken is about 90 weeks old, it’s not laying eggs anymore. They are now useless for your
business. When they have arrived to this stage, it’s time to sell them for their flesh, for example for
eastern, Christmas or New Year.

Price
For one non- producing chicken, you can ask up to 70 birr, as shown in figure 6.5 on the next page.
This will depend on your customer and the personal relationship with this particular person. It also
depends on the market. You will have to respond on the supply and demand and adapt the price on
it.

Figure 6.5 Price of a chicken

6.2.2. SELL A NON - PRODUCING CHICKEN

For selling chickens it’s most important to have some interested personal contacts like family,
neighbours or friends. You could also try to sell them on the market. Most chickens are sold alive.

6.2.3 HYGIENIC
During the support of the chicken, you don’t have to refresh the ground cover. Faeces of the chicken
dry very quick and bacteria have no chance to grow. Because of that it’s not necessary to clean the
ground cover. But when the old chickens are sold and the new chickens arrive, you will have to
refresh the whole ground cover, considering hygienic matters. For cleaning water stations, feed
stations and egg stations you can easily use some chloride mixed with water. Figure 6.6 shows an
example of cleaning.

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Figure 6.6 Cleaning

Case study 6.2 Buy new chickens

You’re going to buy some new laying hens (over 20 weeks old) at a local farmer. Your friend is
going with you. When he sees the hens, he recommends you to pick the best looking ones. They
look like good feathered and beautiful chickens. Will you take his advice? Why (not)?

Answer:
No, because good looking, beautiful and good feathered laying hens don’t lay any eggs. They
are beautiful because their energy is going to their feathers and appearance, and not to their
eggs. Normally, good laying hens are a little bit bold and don’t look much feathered. All of their
energy should be going to their eggs. So it’s best to pick healthy looking, but not too beautiful
and good feathered hens.

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6.3 QUESTIONS

Subchapter 6.1 The egg

1. Is the egg in the glass above rotten or not? (Circle the right answer and explain your
answer)
A) Yes
B) No

2. This basket is filled to the edge. Why is this a good sign?

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3. Can you store the eggs (as shown in the picture above) like this for a longer period of
time? Explain your answer ?

4. Write down 3 different options to sell your eggs

4. The picture above is an example of:


A) Sorting the eggs
B) Checking the eggs
C) Reflect on the health of the chicken

5. Fill in the right circumstances to store the eggs:

Temperature:
Surrounding:
Light:
Storing period:

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Subchapter 6.2 The chicken

6. Is this chicken (as shown in the picture above) producing eggs? Explain your answer.

7. Fill in the right price on the

8. Write down 3 different options to sell your chickens to

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9. Fill in the right terms at the right colom by using the 18 characteristics below.

Trait Unproductive Productive


General condition
Weight
Wattle and comb
Eyes
Pigment ( yellow breeds)
Cloacae
Distance between lay bones
Distance between breast-
bone and lay bones
Skin

1. Lively
2. Dull 12. Shrivelled, dry
3. Good 13. Large ( 5 cm)
4. Usually fairly light 14. Small ( 2 cm)
5. Soft; bright red 15. Large ( 8 cm)
6. Pale and rough 16. Small ( 4 cm)
7. Lively 17. Soft, loose
8. Dull; yellow rims 18. Skin
9. Disappears
10. Stays longer
11. Large, soft moist

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CHAPTER 7 - BUSINESS
This chapter will contain information about the aspects of doing business and how to make your
poultry successful. This means there will be information about the egg production, the marketing,
the registration and identification of the eggs and chickens, networking and working together,
customer friendliness, the logistics and last but not least; the financial aspects.

7.1 EGG PRODUCTION


This subchapter will describe the egg production of a chicken. How many eggs will be produced on
one day, week or month? And how much eggs can one chicken produce in its life?

A chicken starts laying eggs when it’s about 20 weeks old. It’s recommended to buy a chicken at
that age, so you don’t have to wait until it will lay eggs. When a chicken is about 90 weeks old, it will
stop laying eggs. The total time a chicken lays eggs is about 70 weeks. A chicken will lay about 300
eggs a lifetime, with the average of one egg a day, or 80 %, as shown in figure 7.1 ‘A quick overview’.

Table 7.1 ‘A quick overview’


Starts laying eggs About 20 weeks
Stops laying eggs About 90 weeks
Total of weeks About 70 weeks
Eggs a lifetime About 300 eggs
Average a day One egg or 80%

For example, you have a poultry farm of 250 egg laying hens. A hen lays about one egg a day, but the
average percentage is about 80%. Not every hen will lay one egg a day, so 80% is an average
number to calculate with. 250/100 x 80 = 200 eggs. Every day you are able to collect about 200
eggs. This will be 7 x 200 = 1,400 eggs a week. One month contains 30 days, so you are able to
collect 200x 30 = 6,000 eggs a month. Table 7.2 ‘A short overview’ shows a short overview of the
calculation steps. Figure 7.1 ‘One egg a day’’ on the next page shows an example of a saying.

Table 7.2 ‘A short overview’


Egg laying hens 250
Average a day About one egg a chicken
Average percentage a day 80 %
Eggs able to collect a day 250 hens / 100 % x 80 % = 200 eggs
Eggs able to collect a week 200 eggs x 7 days = 1,400 eggs
Eggs able to collect a month 200 eggs x 30 days = 6,000 eggs
Eggs able to collect a year 200 eggs x 365 days = 73,000 eggs

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Figure 7.1 One egg a day

Case study 7.1 Fill in the right terms

A chicken ….. laying eggs when it’s about ….. weeks old. It’s recommended to buy a chicken at that
age, so you don’t have to wait until it will lay eggs. When a chicken is about ….. weeks old, it will …..
laying eggs. The total time a chicken lays eggs is about ….. weeks. A chicken will lay about ….. eggs
a lifetime, with the average of …… egg a day, or ….. %.

Answer:
A chicken starts laying eggs when it’s about 20 weeks old. It’s recommended to buy a chicken at
that age, so you don’t have to wait until it will lay eggs. When a chicken is about 90 weeks old, it
will stop laying eggs. The total time a chicken lays eggs is about 70 weeks. A chicken will lay about
300 eggs a lifetime, with the average of one egg a day, or 80 %.

7.2 MARKETING
This subchapter will describe the marketing. What is marketing? How do you know if there is
market for your products? How can you get customers to buy your eggs and not your neighbours’?
And how do you earn your place into the market?

7.2.1 WHAT IS MARKETING ?


What is marketing? It is a broad concept. Marketing means: all of the activities that will bring the
seller and the buyer together. The ultimate goal of market focused businesses is to adapt on the
wishes and needs of their customers. They are constantly trying to place their self’s into their
customers, instead of focussing on the products. They are used to think back from the market itself.
Marketing creates a bridge between production and consumption.

You can see the market position of eggs and chickens in the Bostonmatrix. The Bostonmatrix is a
matrix where you can place the product in. There are four different levels. These levels are based on
the market share of the product (the percentage of the sale on the market which the business is
responsible for) and the yearly growth of the market.

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Cash Cow
The product has a relatively high market share and the market is growing less than 10 percent each
year. The product doesn’t need much investment anymore.

Stars
The product has a relatively high market share and the market is growing fast. The product will
ensure fast money, but does need much marketing compared with cash cows, dogs and question
marks.

Dogs
The product has a relatively low market share and the market hardly grows. Dogs don’t really bring
much money into the business, but they also don’t need much investment.

Question marks
The product has a relativity low market share in a fast growing market. Sometimes they are also
called ‘problem child’ or ‘wildcats’. These products need a lot of investment and won’t bring much
money into the business. Organisations will have to question themselves if they want to support
these products much longer.

Figure 7.2 ‘The Bostonmatrix’ on the next page shows an example of the Bostonmatrix.

Figure 7.2 The Bostonmatrix

Table 7.3 ‘Market form’ shows the characteristics of the market form of chickens and eggs.

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Table 7.3 ‘Market form’
Characteristics Monopoly Oligopoly Polypoly
Supplier One Some Many
Demand Many Many Many
When there are for example many suppliers and also much demand, the market form is a polypoly.
Everyone is selling your product.

7.2.2 MARKETING IN ETHIOPIA


Personal contacts are also very important with marketing. Especially because you will mostly be
selling to local customers. Make sure you have local contacts and get to know your market. If you
want to know if there is market for your eggs, you can start with something simple, like testing the
market.

Wethli (1999 p. 15) says this about testing the market:

You buy 6 weeks old chickens and try to resell them as quick as possible. Try this with personal
contacts, a roadside stall or taxi rank, any place where people are passing. Once you bought the six
week old chickens, you are ready to sell to your first customers. The best time to do this is at the
end of the month, when people have the most money. Tell your customers exactly when the
chickens will be coming and try to find enough customers to place orders for all your chickens
before they even arrive. You must be able to sell them quickly.

After selling, you must answer these questions:


 Where you able to get the price you wanted? If not, why not?
 How many chickens did you sell?
 Do you think you’d be able to sell more?
 Where there extra costs in selling, things you hadn’t thought of when you worked out the
feasibility costs?
 How much money did you spend on buying the chickens, including the transport?
 How much money did you receive from sales?
 Did you make a profit? How much was it?

You can do the same marketing test with eggs.

Once you have answered these questions, and you have noticed there is a market for it in your area;
you are able to start your business. Now you have to earn your place into the market and people
will have to get to know your business.

Then, the most important things to do are:


 Know your customers. Who are you selling to?
 Who else is selling the same products? Get to know your concurrent
 Know your market. What are the prices? Respond on it.
 Be honest and true to your customers. Don’t mix good eggs with bad eggs.
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 Make sure you deliver quality. When people are satisfied with the quality of your eggs, they
will tell it to other people and your eggs will be noticed
 Pick a name. When your eggs are being noticed, the people must know that are your eggs.
For example: people in local shops will ask for ‘Maranatha eggs’ or ‘Genesis eggs’
 Build a reputation. Now that you have named your eggs and they are being noticed, it’s
important to keep the good reputation and to ensure the quality of your eggs.
 Make sure you show the certificate of the training you followed. This is another advantage
against your concurrent. Trough this, your customers will notice you are qualified and you
know what you are talking about.

Of course it’s also possible to make some advertisement, for example posters. You can hang them in
local shops or crowded places. You could also use a board with ‘ for sale: eggs’ and put it in front of
your farm, so people notice you have a shop, this is shown in figure 7.3 ‘Advertisement’. Everything
is possible when you have a budget for it, but you have to compare the price with the effects. When
it’s not effective enough, then it’s not worth your money to go through with it.

Figure 7.3 Advertisement

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Case study 7.2 Marketing

Keta has just started a poultry farm and is ready to sell his first eggs. He doesn’t have much money to
spend, so he decides to make his own chicken food. He can’t store his eggs for too long, because he
doesn’t have enough storing space, but he doesn’t think this will be a problem. After 2 months, Keta
starts noticing that his eggs are not of very good quality. Some hens produce good eggs, but some
produce eggs without a shell. He doesn’t have enough eggs to keep up with the demand. Keta decides
to mix the good eggs with some half rotten eggs he has left from earlier weeks. Because he hasn’t have
enough storing space, he can’t store the eggs properly.
Do you think Keta will keep his customers? And do you think he will build a good reputation? Why
(not)?

Answer:
Keta has to make things in order first. He needs more storing space, so he can store the eggs properly.
At this way, he can’t store enough eggs and he can’t keep them from rotting. On the other hand, he has
to check the quality of the food he makes. Because his hens aren’t doing very well on it. When the food
is not good, the hens will produce less eggs or eggs of lower quality. When he will mix good eggs with
bad or rotten eggs, his customers will notice and will not be satisfied. At this way he will lose
customers and will not getting new one, because people will tell other people about the bad quality of
his eggs. He will not build a good reputation. He has to stay honest and true about his products and
only sell good eggs. Maybe he can’t keep up with the demand, but in this case, selling ‘no’ is better that
giving customers bad or rotten eggs.

7.3 REGISTRATION AND IDENTIFICATION

This subchapter will describe the registration and identification of chickens and eggs. How can you
register new coming chickens? And how do you manage the outflow of eggs and non- producing
chickens?

7.3.1 REGISTRATION OF EGGS

It’s important to register the eggs. You can do this as easy as possible. When you are not registered,
there is no control on it. But for you it’s useful to know the egg production a day. At this way you are
able to control the egg production, the egg laying hens and maybe you will notice changes or
diseases.

The easiest way to register the eggs is by using a chalk board or egg calendar. It’s important to think
very logical. Note the egg production a day, the number of hens you have, feed consumption per hen
and deaths or other disasters (Twinch, p. 47)
At the end of one month you can compare the different findings and maybe you will notice some
changes. You can also note the date you’ve bought new food, how much green food is available,
some reparations that still have to be done and other findings.

When selling the eggs, you can note in a separate book to who you sold them and in what numbers.
At this way you are able to register your biggest and most important customers and you can
manage the inflow and outflow of eggs yourself in an easy, logical way.
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7.3.2 REGISTRATION OF CHICKENS
When new chickens are arriving, it can be useful to also note this. Again, it’s important to think
logical. You can use for example a notebook. You can note where they came from, the number of
them, on which date they arrived and the age of the chickens. In small businesses, it’s not necessary
to identificate chickens, like shown in figure 7.4 ‘Identification of chickens is not necessary’. Overall,
it’s also not common on bigger farm too.

When chickens leave, you can do exactly the same. You can note the date they left, their age and the
number of chickens you’ve sold. You could also note to who you sold them and in what numbers.

At this way you can manage the inflow and outflow of chickens yourself in an easy, logical way.

Figure 7.4 Identification of chickens is not


necessary

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Case study 7.3 Rats?

Keta now has his things in order. After 2 more months, he notices that much food is disappearing. He
thinks maybe there are rats in the food storage. How can he make sure that it’s really a rat problem?

Answer:
By recording the grams in food a day and the egg production a day, he can make sure it’s not another
problem, like diseases or low quality food. At this way he can see how much food the chickens eat and
how much eggs they produce. He can register this on a chalk board or egg calendar, for example.

7.4 NETWORKING AND WORKING TOGETHER


This subchapter will describe the advantage of working together with another business, how to
create a win- win situation and to how to create a healthy relationship with your concurrent.

7.4.1 NETWORKING
What is networking? Networking is making contacts with other companies and build your own
contact list. These contacts will help you with fixing problems at your company, and maybe they
will even become a partner. It will help you and it will simplify your life.

Networking has a lot of advantages. The five most important advantages are:

1. It’s easier to have access to knowledge and expertise. The threshold to call someone for
advice who is in your network is lower
2. You will learn to work more effective and more efficient. The time to get the right person by
yourself is much shorter
3. You are reaching your goal faster. People who are networking will make promotion more
early and will make more profit
4. It gives less stress. You are helping people and they are helping you more quickly
5. It will give you a good feeling. People will know you are helping them and will ask for your
advice more often.

7.4.2 WORKING TOGETHER


What is the definition of working together? Working together is balancing between the advantages
and the risks. For example, when you can’t do something alone, you can get more innovative or
more accomplished by working with someone else. On the other side you are building a
dependency with that other party. Together you must search to the optimal balance between the
advantages and the risks of working together.

Together you are stronger. You will create a synergetic effect by working together. Maybe it doesn’t
seem like it, but it’s very important to have some good contacts you can always count on. Table 7.4
‘Overview of advantages and risks’ on the next page shows an overview of the possible advantages
and risks of working together.
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Table 7.4 Overview of advantages and risks
Aspect Advantages Risks
Education Learning from each other Sharing own knowledge with
the risk of losing it
Responsibility More people or parties are carrying the People or companies are hiding
responsibility behind each other, abdicate of
responsibility

Synergy Consummate of each other’s capacity Dependency from both parties


and the possibility to lose speed

Conflicts Source of ideas for improvement Losing time or running away


from problems to keep the
peace

Movement Through combinations will commence new There will commence new weak
dynamics and movement and there will chains that will influence the
commence ways to avoid the weak chains. speed

Volume of You can quarter the work and avoid double Extra communication and
work work. control is needed, considering
the volume of work

Harmony Group feeling and the accessory energy Loss of autonoom handling
Some examples of advantages in Ethiopia:
 Making price ranges with partners; like with the supplier of your chickens,
 Trade your goods with goods you need from your partner, create a win- win situation,
 Categorize; like doing different researches and exchange the information,
 Discuss marketing strategies, make sure you’re doing something else and make sure you
compete,
 Explore the market together, together you will notice more than alone.

7.4.3 DEFINITION OF A WIN - WIN SITUATION


Creating a win- win situation means; you are creating a situation that creates a win for both
partners. You both have something to offer that the other one needs. You both have an advantage of
it. This definition is also explained in figure 7.5 ‘A win- win situation’ on the next page.

7.4.4 RISKS OF WORKING TOGETHER


Of course, there are always risks. Some examples of risks:
 Problems with communication,
 Different point of view,
 Bankruptcy of your partner/ suddenly standing alone,
 Sometimes you will be depending on the progress of your partner.

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Figure 7.5 A win- win situation

Case study 7.4 Partnership

A friend of yours is also starting a poultry farm. You’ve know him for a very long time and you
fully trust him. Because of the training, you know how to make good food. Your friend doesn’t
know as much about food as you and has trouble to make his own quality food. On the other
hand, he knows a lot about housing and is able to make a good housing for his chickens. You are
having trouble with building a good housing for your chickens. Do you think you could create a
win- win situation? Why (not)?

Answer:
The situation in this case is the perfect example of creating a win- win situation. You should
trade your knowledge about food with your friend’s knowledge of housing. Maybe you could
make an arrangement: you deliver him food and he will build your stable/ housing. At this way
you both have an advantage of it.

7.5 CUSTOMER FOCUS AND CUSTOMER FRIENDLINESS


This subchapter will describe how to treat your customers. What is customer friendliness and how
can you apply this?

You can relate this subchapter mostly with subchapter 7.2 Marketing. In that subchapter it’s
described how to earn your place into the market and how you can get customers to buy your eggs
and not your neighbours’. This is very relatable to customer friendliness and customer focus.
Without customers, you won’t be able to sell anything. It’s the most important part of your business.

7.5.1 WHAT IS CUSTOMER FRIENDLINESS?


The Dutch encyclopaedia says that definition of customer focus is: ‘Giving a high priority to the
satisfaction of your customers or intern employees, and to give service or help and to act on it.’
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According to Patrick Schriel (2012), there are several tips you can follow to keep your customer
satisfaction high:

Tip 1 It’s not about you; it’s about your customer.


If you talk about yourself and your product a lot, you will miss the essence of the conversation. It’s
important to ask the right questions, so the customer will notice you understand what he or she is
saying and you can provide the best possible solution.

Tip 2 Give your customer the best possible service.


Treat your customers like you want to be treated. Give your customers the best possible service and
attention they deserve. Giving them attention, listening to them, a smile and understanding are the
key words.

Tip 3 Can you provide in your customers needs?


Everyone has their own character, personality and personal style. Try to replace yourself in the
experience your customer. In that way your customer feels that he or she is taken seriously and will
be triggered to do business with you the next time.

Tip 4 Call your customer by their name.


When it’s possible, note your customers’ name and use theirs in a conversation. At this way you
make the conversation way more personal.

Tip 5 Be honest.
You can be friendly to your consumers, but when you don’t mean it, it disturbs the communication.
Make sure you mean what you say.

Tip 6 Speak clearly.


This is mostly important when you have a phone conversation. You want to make sure that your
customers understand what you are saying. Clear talk will help you with that.

Tip 7 Go for a win- win situation.


You make the best deals when you both have the feeling you have an advantage of it.

Tip 8 Invest in a long term relationship.


Don’t go for the quick profit. By making the contact with the customer smooth you will invest in a
long term relationship.

Tip 9 The customer is not always right. You have to be assertive and you have to draw a line.
Sometimes a customer asks something you can’t give or what against your own norms and values.
In that case you have to draw the line for yourself; even it can be hard sometimes. You have to stand
up for yourself but you also have to be respectful for the other. You have to find the balance
between that.

Tip 10 Be satisfied with the feedback you get from your customer.
You can learn a lot from the feedback and improvements your customers suggest. Take them
seriously, because they will help you to do things different or better. Maybe they will attend you on
something you didn’t know about yourself. On the other hand they take the time and courage to tell
you. Feedback from your customers will help you to test your customer satisfaction.
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Tip 11 Selling ‘no’ sometimes is the best answer.
Sometimes it is better to sell ‘no’, than to suggest a solution the customer won’t help. Customers
want to be taken seriously.

Tip 12 Be yourself.
Just be you. It’s always better to be yourself than to play a role of someone you’re not. It will cost
you a lot of energy and besides that, it’s not necessary at all.

Besides customer satisfaction, customer focus plays an important role in your organisation. You can
be nice and helpful to your customers, but what do they actually need? Get to know your customer.

If you want to test the customer focus of your business, you can ask the customer the next four
questions:
1. Would you choose my product again?
2. What would you do if you were me?
3. What makes you enthusiastic?
4. Would you recommend my business to someone else? If so, why? And do you know
someone else who would? (Houden van Klanten B.V, 2010).

Case study 7.5 Customer satisfaction

Keta has built a good reputation and his eggs are of good quality. All of his food problems are solved too.
He is satisfied, but wants more. He wants to know what the customer actually thinks of his company.
Maybe he can improve himself just a little bit more. What kind of questions should he ask to his
customers?

Answer:
If you want to test the customer focus of your business, you can ask the customer the next four
questions:
 Would you choose my business again?
 What would you do if you were me?
 What makes you enthusiastic?
 Would you recommend my business to someone else?
If so, why? And do you know someone else who would?

7.6 LOGISTICS
This subchapter will describe how to manage the export of the eggs and the import and export of
chickens.

What is logistics? The definition of logistics is everything what is needed to run something
smoothly, like preparing and transporting products. It’s the structured link between all of the traffic
subjects, so it creates an efficient transport.

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7.6.1 TRANSPORT OF EGGS

Wethli (1999 p. 11) says this about transporting eggs:

It is helpful to have proper egg trays (that usually hold two- and a half dozen eggs) or egg boxes
(that hold six or 12 eggs), as shown in figure 7.6 ‘Egg trays’. This will mean less egg breakages. You
can buy cardboard trays or boxes from your poultry supplier. An example of a poultry supplier is
Alema Farm. Some producers sell boiled eggs when there is a demand (bus or train passengers, for
example). Make sure you manage your transport carefully to collect your input as well as you do
your marketing. Figure 7.7 ‘Transport egg trays’ shows an example of the transport of egg trays at
your own business.

Figure 7.7 Transport egg trays


Figure 7.6 Egg trays

For the transport, you can decide to hire or buy a car or other vehicle. But when you mostly are
selling at home, this is not necessary. Besides that, it’s expensive. When you are selling at the local
market, you can decide to buy a horse or mule to transport the eggs by gari. Maybe you already
have one. Horses are very hard working animals and you could also use them to work on your land
or as your own transport. Mules are stronger than horses or donkeys and will work more in your
advantage. Another option is to transport the eggs yourself, by carrying them with you while you
are travelling to the local market. You can use the little blue- and white busses which are used as
public transport.

7.6.2 TRANSPORT OF CHICKENS

Wethli (1999 p. 11) says this about transporting chickens:

If you are going to transport broilers or old hens alive, you will need something in which to carry
them. You could use a plastic crate or just a big cardboard box with holes cut in the sides so that the
chickens can breathe. A plastic crate will last for a long time, but you have to clean and disinfect it
after selling each batch.

For the transport, you could do the same as with the eggs. Choose the vehicle that fits best at your
company and works best in your advantage. Don’t spend money on things you don’t necessarily
need.

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Case study 7.6 Horse or mule?

As a starter, you don’t have much money to spend on the transport. A mule costs about 5000 birr, while
a horse will cost you about 3000 birr. What would you choose?

Answer:
It’s best to choose the mule. Maybe the mule is more expensive than a horse, but on the long term you
have more advantage of it. A mule is stronger and will probably have less health problems. They are
produced for doing heavier work.

7.7 FINANCIAL ASPECTS

This subchapter will describe the costs and benefits of your poultry. It will contain an overview of
the financial aspect of your business. It is mostly based on local prices.

7.7.1 COSTS

Authorization
A trade license will cost you 204 birr. You can start a procedure for this license when you have less
than 1000 chickens. They will ask you where you are working. As authorization, they will visit you
at home to get the proof they need. After that you will get you trade license.

Land
If you are starting a poultry farm, you need some land first. When you already have some land there
is no problem, but sometimes you start with nothing. This could be a problem, because all of the
Ethiopian land is owned by the government. You have to lease the land from the government. To do
this, you have to go through a procedure. This procedure will include visiting the local authority
and by filling in the needed forms. One big issue is the money. The rule is that you own a lot of
money on your bank account, but this depends on the size of the land. Considering this, it’s very
hard to lease the land from the government. The recommend solution is to hire the land from your
neighbours, friends or family. When they have land, it’s legal to hire this to you. Make sure you
make honest price ranges. For example, you lease 25m land for 100 birr a month. Another option is
to make use of a micro-credit, which is possible in every town. You have to rent it with at least two
persons, who are not family of you. The government has some plans for micro-credits.

Housing
For the housing of 250 chickens, you will have to spend about 12,000 birr for the stable. This
calculation is based on the fact that housing for 1000 chickens will cost around 40,000 birr. The
roof plates are the most expensive parts of the stable, they will cost you 170 birr a sheet. These
sheets are about 1m2. The stable will be good for a lifetime of about 5 years and it will cost about
2,400 a year. This means: 10 birr a chicken a year.

Electricity
The electricity in this area costs about 100 birr a month. This means it will cost you about 1200 birr
a year for the electricity.

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Transport
Public transport
When travelling by bus, it will cost you about 3.50 birr a zone. These costs are based on the fact that
one person costs 1.75 a zone, but with the eggs they will calculate it as two person and not just one.
For example, you’re travelling to the market twice a week. It will cost you about 28 birr a month.

Mule and horse


A mule will cost about 5000 birr. A horse will cost about 3000-6000 birr.

Gari
A gari will cost about 4000 birr. These gari’s are made in Selam Vocational Center, Addis Abeba.

Table 7.7 shows a quick overview of the transport costs.

Table 7.7 ‘Quick overview of the transport cost’s’


Transport Costs

Public transport 3.50 birr a zone


Mule 5000 birr
Horse 3000-6000 birr
Gari 4000 birr
Mule and gari total 9000 birr

Chickens
When you want to sell eggs, you will need some chickens first. You will have to decide how much
chickens you want. In this paragraph we will presume 250 chickens. One hen, ready to produce
eggs, costs about 125 birr. When you will buy 250 of them, without discount, it will cost you about
31,250 birr.

Support
One chicken eats about 125 gram feed a day. This means 250 chickens eat about 31,250 gram feed a
day. This is 31.25 kilogram a day.
100 Kilogram feed costs about 820 birr.
One kilogram feed costs about 8.2 birr.
31.25 Kilogram feed costs about 256.25.
So the feed will cost about 256.25 birr a day. An example is shown in table 7.8. ‘Example of the total
costs a day’. Table 7.9 ‘Example of the total costs for 250 chickens’ on the next page shows an
example of the total costs for 250 chickens.

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Table 7.8 ‘Example of the total costs a day’
Data Calculating Result
How many chickens 250 250 chickens
Gram a day a chicken 125 125 gram
Kilogram a day in total 125 gram x 250 chickens 31,250 gram or 31.25
kilogram
Price of the feed 820 820 birr a 100 kilogram
Price a kilogram 820 birr / 100 kilogram 8.2 birr
Total costs a day 8,2 birr x 31.25 kilogram 256.25 birr

Table 7.9 ‘Example of the total costs for 5 chickens’


Data Calculating Result
Age of arriving 20 20 weeks
Age of leaving 90 90 weeks
Total of weeks at the farm 90 weeks – 20 weeks 70 weeks
Total of days at the farm 70 weeks x 7 days 490 days
Total of gram a chicken 490 days x 125 gram a day 61,250 gram or 61.25
kilogram
Total of costs a chicken ( 70 days) 61.25 kilogram x 8,2 birr 502.25 birr
Total of costs for 250 chickens ( 502.25 birr x 250 125,562.5 birr
70 days) chickens

For the water costs you can calculate about 100 birr a month. This means it will cost you about
1200 birr a year.

7.7.2 PROFIT
What is profit? Profit is the money that will be left when you calculate the income minus the costs.
This is different than turn- over. Turn- over means: what is sold in shop or business, mostly
described as the amount of money. When you calculate the turn- over, you know what you have
sold that day. When you calculate the profit, you know how much money you have made that day.

Eggs
When a chicken will produce about one egg a day, you can collect about 200 eggs a day. The price of
eggs is variable, but for this example the eggs are sellable for 2 birr per egg. That day the eggs can
give you an afford of 400 birr. When the egg prices stay the same all week, that week can give you
an afford of 2,800 birr.

Because the price is variable, you can hold on to easy calculating steps, an example is shown in table
7.10 ‘Income a year’ on the next page.

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Table 7.10 ‘Income a year’
Data Calculating Result
Number of egg laying chickens 250 250 chickens
Number of eggs a day 200 200 eggs
Average number of eggs sold a 200 200 eggs
day ( personal contacts, market,
own shop)
Price of one egg 2 birr 2 birr
Income a day 2 birr x 200 eggs 400 birr
Income a week ( 7 days) 400 birr x 7 days 2,800 birr
Income a month (30 days) 400 birr x 30 days 12,000 birr
Income a year ( 365 days) 400 birr x 365 days 146,000 birr

Chickens
A chicken is non-producing when it’s about 90 weeks old. A non- producing chicken can be sold for
70 birr a chicken. When for example 200 chickens are not laying eggs anymore, you can sell them
for their flesh.
70 birr x 200 chickens = 14,000 birr. It will be afford of 14,000 birr if you can sell them all.
If the chickens are all the same age, you can sell them once in 1, 5 year. When you have different
ages, you can sell them for example once or twice a year.

Example: you have two different ages of chicken in your poultry. One group reached the age of 90
weeks. The calculation is shown in table 7.11 ‘Afford’.

Table 7.11 ‘Afford’


Data Calculating Result
Number of non- producing 125 125 chickens
chicken
Price a chicken 70 70 birr

Afford 125 chickens x 70 birr 8,750 birr

The other group of 125 chickens reached the 90 weeks half a year later. You can earn 8,750 birr
twice a year. So in total: 8,750 birr x 2 = 17,500 birr a year.

The total income of this example poultry farm is 17,500 birr for the chicken a year, and 146,000 birr
for the eggs a year. This makes a total income of 163,500 birr a year.

7.1.3 COSTS AND ADVANCES CALCULATION


What is a cost and advances analyse? The costs and advances analyse is a monetary evaluation
method, where the expected costs will be weight against the expected advances for one or many
subjects, so the best possible solution can be chosen. It includes, for example, calculations for initial
and expected profits. A product manager can compare the costs for production and marketing in
relation to a particular product. Based on this comparing, the acceptance of a product will be
accepted in the assortment.

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Before starting, it’s important to make a total cost of your company. To do this, you can use a excel
calculation to calculate your afford. Figure 7.8 ‘Calculation 1’ shows an example of a calculation in
excel, even as figure 7.9 ‘Calculation 2’.

Case study 7.7 Total afford

At the end of the year, Keta calculates the afford he has made during the year. He sees that the total afford
of that year is 36,609.29 birr. His costs are 114.140,71 birr and his total income is 150.750,00 birr. What
do you think of this cost- afford? Is he able to keep his company? Is he heading to the right direction or do
things have to change?

Answer:
Keta has a great afford. His costs are much lower than his advantage, which is a very good sign. Keta has
to keep up the good work.

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Figure 7.8 ‘Calculation 1’

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Figure 7.9 ‘Calculation ’

As you can see, the total profit of this poultry farm is 36,609.29 birr a yea

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7.8 QUESTIONS

True or false (set a cross at the right answer)


True or False? True False
1 A hen will begin to lay eggs at the age of 15 weeks
2 A hen lays about 1 egg a day, but the percentage is 80 %
3 The total of weeks a hen lays eggs is about 75 weeks
4 A hen lays about 250 eggs a lifetime
5 A hen stops laying eggs at the average age of 90 weeks

Subchapter 7.1 Egg production

1. You have the following data:


 Number of egg laying hens: 200
 Percentage: 75 %
 7 days a week
 30 days a month
 365 days a year.

A) How many eggs can you collect per week? Write down the calculation and the answer.

B) How many eggs can you collect per month? Write down the calculation and the answer.

C) How many eggs can you collect per year? Write down the calculation and the answer.

Subchapter 7.2 Marketing

2. Is the sentence below true or false?


Marketing means: all of the activities that will bring the seller and the buyer together.

3. How is the table above called?

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4. There is only one supplier but there is much demand. How is this market form called?
(circle the right answer)
A) Oligopoly
B) Monopoly
C) Polypoly

5. The picture above is an example of:

6. What is the most important rule of marketing?

7. Write down 3 of the 7 questions you have to answer for yourself after you’ve tested the
market

8. Write down how you are planning to earn your place into the market

Subchapter 7.3 Registration and identification

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9. Is it necessary to identificate chickens?

10. Write down how you would register the eggs

Subchapter 7.4 Networking and working together

11. Describe the advantages of networking. Why is this an advantage?

12. Describe the advantages of working together. Why is this an advantage?

13. Describe how you would create a win- win situation

Subchapter 7.5 Customer focus and customer friendliness

14. Write down and explain 5 of the 12 tips that are mentioned in subchapter 7.5.1

15. What is customer friendless, according to you?

Subchapter 7.6 Logistics


16. How would you transport the eggs and chickens?

Subchapter 7.7 Financial aspects

17. Fill in the right calculation and results

Data Calculating Result


How many chickens 200
Gram a day a chicken 125
Kilogram a day in total

Price of the food 800 for 100 kg


Price a kilogram
Total costs a day

18. Fill in the right calculation and results

Data Calculating Result


Age of arriving 20 20 weeks
Age of leaving 90 90 weeks
Total of weeks at the farm
Total of days at the farm
Total of gram a chicken
Total of costs a chicken ( 70 days)
Total of costs for 250 chickens (
70 days)

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19. Fill in the right calculation and results. The percentage to calculate with is 80 %

Data Calculating Result


Number of egg laying chickens 500 500 chickens
Number of eggs a day
Average number of eggs sold a
day ( personal contacts, market,
own shop)
Price of one egg 2 birr 2 birr
Income a day
Income a week ( 7 days)
Income a month (30 days)
Income a year ( 365 days)

20. Fill in the right calculation and results

Data Calculating Result


Number of non- producing 150 150 chickens
chicken
Price a chicken 70 70 birr

Afford

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Theme 3- Extending

Week 8 – Extending your company


Week 9 – Examination

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CHAPTER 8 – EXTENDING YOUR COMPANY
The one thing a company needs to do is grow. There are different ways to grow. Getting more
contacts, enlarge the production rate, produce different products, and so on. The way to get all
those things could be hard. People are careful when someone wants to start a cooperation. The
most important thing is that you can convince someone to start a cooperation with you. All the
possibility’s to enlarge your company are subscribed in the next subchapters.

8.1 HOW TO APPROACH OTHER COMPANIES


One of the most important things when you want to approach another company is that you got the
right competences. These competences are presenting, self-reflection, communication and
globalization. Those competences are subscribed in table 8.1 ‘Competence’.

Table 8.1 ‘Competence’


Presenting Able to present yourself in the right way to the
customers and to other company’s
Self-reflection Knowing that there are things you can do and
things that you can’t do.
Communication Knowing the right way to communicate with the
customer and the company’s that you are
dealing with.
Globalization Know what to do when foreign company wants
to do business with you.

The way of contacting another professional company is the


first thing the other company will remember. Be sure that
you got a good strategy that will make sense. The other
company must feel itself attracted to the products and the
information that is being shared. The following information is
about approaching professional companies.

This makes presenting yourself more important. There are a


few aspects that you must keep in mind. It is common to wear
formal clothes, this is the first thing that the other company
will see. The second thing is your attitude. You must stand in
the right position with your breast pressed forward. You
must communicate to the person of the other company with
talking and with gestures as shown in Figure 8.1 ‘Gestures’. It
is important to get the other company enthusiastic.

Figure 8.1 ‘Gestures’


When a company wants contact, you can give that company a
business card. A business card contains: Your name, the name
of your company, telephone number and an e-mail address. Try using positive colours, this will help
to create an positive association.

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Case study 8.1 How to approach other companies

Philip got an appointment with another company. He wears shoes, a shirt and pants with holes
in it. The owner of the company sees Philip and says that he won’t start a cooperation with
Philip. What could be the reason, the owner of the company won’t start a cooperation with
Philip?

Answer:
The owner was looking at his clothes and is thinking that it can’t be serious in doing business.

8.2 GOVERNMENT
A license is needed to start a farm. You can request this license at the government. Before getting a
license you must have some land for building a stable and that all facilities are at hand. If the
government agrees with your request, you’ll get a license. This licence contains the legally keeping
of an amount until 1000 chickens. This license also contains 2% VAT. This makes it attractive for
farmers to start.

The rules will change when a company grows larger than the amount of 1000 chickens. The VAT
will increase to 15%. The most attractive way to grow is to double the amount of chickens. The VAT
won’t harm the company if the farmer grows with these big steps. There is a license for getting a
VAT number when you got more than 1000 chickens. This license will cost around the 500.000 birr.

Case study 8.2 Government

Keta got a stable with 200 chickens. He keeps them close to the border from his neighbour. His
neighbour, called Carl, gets harm from the chickens. He calls the government and tells them about the
situation. He tells them that the chickens make a lot of noise. The government tells Carl that they will sent
the police to talk to Keta. They will search for a possible solution. After the conversation with the police,
Keta tells a friend that he got a penalty for keeping chickens. What is the reason that Keta got a penalty?

Answer:
Keta hasn’t got a license to keep chickens.

8.3 WRITING A BUSINESS PLAN


A business plan is required to explain to the government what kind of business you’re starting. It
will also help you with the financial aspects and the vision of the company. This plan will describe
how you want to start your own company. This plan must be realistic. The government won’t take
you serious otherwise. You can investigate and describe the strengths and weaknesses of your
company. The strengths and weaknesses are depending on a lot factors. The starter, the
concurrence, the product and the external factors are a few of these factors that must be described
in the business plan. You can show the external and internal factors in a SWOT-analysis. It gives you
an overview of the strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities of your own business.

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Figure 8.2 on the next page shows an example of the SWOT- analysis that is made of Genesis Farms.
The strengths are the positive or strong point of Genesis Farms and the weaknesses are the
negative or weak points of Genesis Farms. The strengths and weaknesses are part of the internal
analysis of Genesis Farms. This means; the internal subjects of Genesis Farms, like products, quality,
staff and management. Opportunities are the positive points that Genesis can adapt on, and the
threats are the negative points that Genesis has to look out for. The threats and opportunities are a
part of the external analyse. This means; the external surrounding of Genesis Farms, like
competition and trends.

In the table, the plus means that a point will be positive for the company. The minus means that a
point will be negative for the company, while a zero means that the influence will be neutral.

The SWOT analysis can be made for every company. This version is a complicated and difficult, but
you can write an easy version for your own company by checking the internal positive and negative
points of your company, even as the external surrounding, like described earlier.

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SWOT-analyses Economical/ Low income a person Foreign influence Foreign influence Everyone for themselves + _

Opportunities

Threats
agrarian
Growth

Strengths
Poultry is at the + 0 + 0 0 2 0
growth phase of the
Product life-cycle
Star position in BCG- + 0 + - - 2 2
matrix with poultry
Genesis cafeteria + + 0 - - 2 2

Genesis shop + + 0 - - 2 2

The question for 0 0 + 0 0 1 0


poultry is higher
than the farms can
provide
Providing of + 0 + 0 - 2 1
trainings for local
poultry farmers
Trainings for 0 0 + 0 - 1 1
employees
Weaknesses
Lack of 0 0 + 0 - 1 1
communication
The stock at the - 0 + 0 - 1 2
Genesis shop isn’t
optimal
The knowledge of 0 0 + 0 - 1 1
the employees isn’t
optimal
+ 5 2 8 0 0 30

- 1 0 0 3 8 24

Figure 8.2 SWOT analysis

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What is in the business plan?

A business plan contains a short resume with the reasons of starting a company. Another thing that
a business plan must contain is a short introduction of the starter. The business plan also contains a
few describing’s like: the products and the organisation. The organization includes: working space,
how to take care of your staff and how you’re going to organize your organization. All those aspects
must be financial supported.
A thing that the government wants to see is the financial aspects. You must make a budget for one
year. This will make sense to the government that it is a good running company. You need financial
support to buy food, chicken and to build a stable for the beginning of your company. An example of
this financial aspect is described in the previous chapter, chapter seven.

A business plan is a personal plan. Nobody can tell you how it must look like.

An example of a business plan is shown in appendix one, business plan.

Case study 8.3 Writing a business plan

William is showing his business plan to the government. The government gives the plan to William and
says that it must contain a financial report. William returns home with his plan. Why does the business
plan contain a financial report?

Answer:
The government wants to know how much money they must give William to start his own business.

8.4 ADVERTISEMENT
There are a lot of ways to make yourself popular amongst the local people. To get a bigger target
audience, it’s important to use the right way of advertisement. The most effective ways of making
advertisements for your company are summarized below.

 In the newspaper,
 Mouth to mouth advertisement,
 Signs along the road,
 Posters on poles and trees,
 Handing out business cards.

The prizes of advertisement are fluctuating. Check the internet or the local shop for the most
regular advertisement prices.

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Case study 8.4 Advertisements

Derek wants to make his company popular amongst the local people. He makes some advertisements.
There is a road close to his company. Derek decided to place the advertisement amongst the road. The
road, where the advertisements are placed, is a road, only for truckers. After 1 month, he still got the
same amount of customers. What is the reason Derek still got the same amount of customers?

Answer:
Truckers are not the right targets. He has to look closely on this target group and will have to replace the
advertisement if he wants more customers.

8.5 STAFF
If you have decided to extend your company, you must realize that it is impossible to do all the
work alone. For example, the maintenance and the care for around 2000 chickens will take one day.
It will make it impossible to collect the eggs. That’s where the second person is needed. The salary
for one person is around the 20 birr a day. It’s possible to make a schedule for the staff. This will
increase your time to take care of the chickens. You must make some appointments so that your
staff knows what you are expecting. Appointments about salary, working times and monthly
payment are needed to keep everything clear. Twice a year, a functional conversation is needed to
talk about your staffs’ functioning in the company and to make new appointments if needed.

It’s possible to get some more professional staff if you got cooperation with another company.

8.6 COOPERATION
Cooperation can be useful. However, there are some negative aspects. Both sides must be thinking
the same. This makes it important to communicate with each other. More resources at your
disposal is one of the positive aspects. Another positive aspect is that you can share knowledge with
each other. That makes it possible for your company to grow faster. Cooperation gives you more
knowledge. This will give you the opportunity to produce other products. You can concentrate your
company on marketing while the other company produces new products. You can also share the
costs of marketing with the other company.

Another important factor is that you must look positive critical to the work of both companies. This
is useful to improve your company. Furthermore, it’s important to make good appointments for the
risks you can take. For example, when you got an advertisement in the newspaper with the wrong
message.

Cooperation will give you more room to produce more products and to get better contacts with
your customers. Spending more time with your customers is a way to make some advertisements.
People will talk to each other about your company in a positive way.

You can reach a bigger area if you extend your company. You can open more stored yourself, or you
could sell your eggs in more shops to satisfy your customers.

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You can spent more money when there is a cooperation. On the other hand, you have to in calculate
the risks of working together. These risks are mentioned in chapter 7, subchapter 7.4.
Case study 8.6 Cooperation.

Sophie has started a cooperation with another company. She wants a better name and a bigger delivery
area. The problem is that the most people can’t come to the shop because of the long distance. What could
be a possible solution for Sophie to solve this problem?

Answer:
She must open a shop in the new area. This makes it easier for the local people to do business.

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8.7 QUESTIONS
True or false (seta cross at the right answer)
True or False? True False
1 A license can be requested at the police station
2 The vat percentage of a farmer with 200 chickens is 15 %
3 You need another license when you keep more than 1000 chickens
4 The most important thing when you approach another company is that
you got the right competences
5 A license can be requested at the police station

Subchapter 8.1 How to approach other company’s

1. What are the most important competences?

2. What is the most important thing that you must keep in mind by visiting another
company?

Subchapter 8.2 Government

3. What kind of license do you need to start a company with 200 chickens?

4. For which amount of chickens do you need another license?

5. There are 2 different vat percentages, what is the difference?

6. Where can you request a license?

Subchapter 8. 3 Making a business plan

7. What is the reason for a starting company to make a business plan?

Subchapter 8.4 advertisement

8. What are the most effective ways of making advertisements for your company?

9. What is one of the most common reasons for making advertisement?

Subchapter 8.5 Staff

10. Is it important to get a functional conversation with your employees?

Subchapter 8.6 cooperation

11. Cooperation is useful. Describe 2 negative and the positive aspects.

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CHAPTER 9 – ASSIGNMENTS AND ANSWERS

CHAPTER 1 – CHICKEN

True or False? (set a cross at the right answer)


True or False? True False
1 An broken egg won’t be eaten by another chicken X
2 Chickens copy each other’s behaviour X
3 You can leave an egg eater in the flock X
4 An empty egg shell can be fed back to the chickens X
5 An empty egg shell contains protein X
6 Roosters that haunt each other are playing X
7 Roosters show pseudo-mating to establish a dominant position X
8 Feather picking can be a form of redirection from ground pecking X
9 Experiences in an early stage of life can’t influence the pecking behaviour X
in later life
10 The first lay of an pullet is smaller than the lay of an older chicken X
11 Older hens always lay normal size eggs, because of their age X
12 The variation double-egg is also known as egg-in-an-egg X
13 A Double-Yolker only consist of yolk X
14 A windegg is only filled with egg white X
15 The size of an egg depends on the breed, age, weight of a chicken X
16 It’s possible to separate hatchling eggs from consumption eggs X
17 A hatchling egg is an fertilized egg X
18 All hatchling eggs are suitable to hatch X
19 The deviations that ensures that an egg is suitable to hatch is only X
internally
20 An inspecting lamp sends light through the egg, so that the content X
becomes visible
21 You need to collect the eggs ones a day to prevent them from becoming X
dirty
22 The embryo’s development will start when the temperature rises above X
the 26° Celsius
23 The storage room for the hatchling eggs need to variate between the 10- X
13° Celsius
24 A humidity of 75-80% prevents the dehydration of the hatchling eggs X
25 You can store the hatchling eggs for a maximum of 3 weeks X

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Subchapter 1.1
1. Is a Chicken an omnivore, carnivore or an herbivore?
A chicken is an omnivore

2. If the composition of the food changes, will the hen eat it just as easily as normal?
The hens may not change easily to eating seeds of a different shape or colour

3. On which 2 cues’ is the selection of food based on?


 Visual
 Taste

Subchapter 1.2
4. Where do the feathers protect the body from?
 Injuries
 They have an isolating function

5. What are the parts of a feather? (fill the right name of the part in at the right number)

6. What is the difference between a rooster and a hen?


Table 1.1 ‘The differences between roosters and hens’
Rooster Hen
Bigger than a hen Shorter and rounder feathers
Comb, wattles and earlobes usually bigger
Larger tail
Shiny, pointed feathers on their necks
(hackles) and backs (saddle)
Bigger spur
These are possible answers

7. What is the main function of the respiratory tract?

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The main function of the respiratory system of birds is to absorb oxygen and to release carbon
dioxide in the body. In addition, the respiratory system also gets rid of excess heat (temperature
regulation), detoxification of certain chemicals and vocalization.

Subchapter 1.3
8. Where does the digestive tract of a chicken consist of? (fill the right name of the part in at
the right number)

Subchapter 1.4
9. When do behavioural problems occur?
Behavioural problems occur when the chicken doesn’t have the chance of expressing his instinctual
behaviour.

10. When does a chicken start to show unnatural behaviour patterns?


When the chicken is exposed to stress. This type of behaviour is called stereotypic behaviour.
Immediate reaction is required when the chicken shows stereotypical behaviour. Stereotypical
behaviour is a way of communication. The chicken lets you know through his way that it’s not
happy or healthy.

11. Why does a hen needs a nest site?


Without a nest the hens will often show abnormal behaviour during pre-laying such as: pacing,
reduced sitting and displacement behaviours. So when a hen has a nesting site there is an
opportunity for more normal behaviour.

12. How can you make sure that a hen lies in a particularly location?
If you want to encourage hens to lie in a particular location, you can use some fake eggs made of
plastic, stones or golf balls.

13. When does a chicken starts cannibalising? (circle the right answer)
A) When a chicken sees a dead chicken
B) When a chicken has seen blood
C) When a chicken sees another chicken cannibalising
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D) When a chicken has caught a rat

14. Can a chicken be held in an outside run in Ethiopia? Explain your answer
This is not an option in Ethiopia, because of the nearby living predators. The chickens will
constantly get scared and this has a negative stress effect on the egg laying. It’s also uneconomical
because of labour, food requirements, disease control and wastage in egg handling and hygiene.

15. Stable dominance and subordinate relationships become established when the roosters
and pullets reach an age of: (circle the right answer)
A) Roosters 4-10 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks
B) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 6-9 weeks
C) Roosters 8-10 weeks and the pullets 6-8 weeks
D) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks

16. Can a chicken be held in an outside run in Ethiopia? Explain your answer
This is not an option in Ethiopia, because of the nearby living predators. The chickens will
constantly get scared and this has a negative stress effect on the egg laying. It’s also uneconomical
because of labour, food requirements, disease control and wastage in egg handling and hygiene.

17. Stable dominance and subordinate relationships become established when the roosters
and pullets reach an age of: (circle the right answer)
A) Roosters 4-10 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks
B) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 6-9 weeks
C) Roosters 8-10 weeks and the pullets 6-8 weeks
D) Roosters 6-8 weeks and the pullets 8-10 weeks

Subchapter 1.5

18. What can disrupt a normal laying routine? Give at least 3 options
 The moulting process
 Winter daylight shortage
 Extreme temperatures
 Illness
 Poor nutrition
 Stress
 Lack of fresh water

19. The interval between the egg laying of a hen is about: (circle the right answer)
A) 24 hours
B) 20 hours
C) 25 hours
D) 26 hours

20. How can you make sure if an egg is old ore fresh?
You can submerge it in water. The freshest egg will remain at the bottom of the container, while old
eggs will float.

21. Does a chicken give birth to a living youngster?

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No they first lay an egg

22. What are the 5 distinctive parts of the oviduct?


 Infundibulum
 Magnum
 Isthmus
 Shell Gland
 Cloacae

23. What influences the quality of an egg?


 The health and condition of the older chickens
 The hereditary predisposition
 The quality and quantity food you give the chickens
 The housing (laying nests or do you get the eggs from the ground)
 The care taking and keeping (how many times do you collect the eggs/ keeping
temperature)

24. What are the terms to ensure the quality of the hatchling egg?
 The shape of the eggs need to be normal (Vormidex)
 The egg needs to have a normal size and weight
 The egg shell needs to be clean
 The egg needs to be fresh (date)
 The shell has to be intact (not broken)
 The egg shell needs to be smooth (It has to be equally thick)
 The inside needs to be good (inspect)

25. What are the regularly occurring deviations of hatchling eggs?


- Too long and too round eggs
- Too big (double-yolkers), too small or too light
- Dirty eggshells by excrements, blood or dirt
- An egg older than 3 weeks
- Broken eggs and too thin shells
- Rough shells, sand or chalk head, ridges on the egg and egg wall

26. Why do you need to store the hatchling eggs for at least one day?
This is to promote the embryo’s resting

27. What are the behavioural changes of a broody clucker?


 She’ll sit constantly on the same spot, even though there aren’t eggs
 When you approach she’ll spread her wings to appear big
 She’ll will peck at your hands when you approach
 When the hen leaves the nest she’ll make a cluckerend sound. This is the reason you call a
broody hen a clucker
 The comb is shrivelled and dry, but the chest will feel warm

28. Describe the steps of building a nest for a clucker


To make a nest you need a piece of grass (30 x 30 x5 centimetre). Put this at the breeding place and
moist is a little. The second step is to put some teff on the moistened grass. The final step is to make
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a pit with your fist to lay the eggs in. The final stage is to lay the eggs in the pit and let the clucker
with the eggs at dawn.

29. A clucker will hatch her eggs in: (circle the right answer)
A) 21 days
B) 14 days
C) 28 days
D) 35 days

30. What are the 4 terms of using a breeding machine


1. The temperature needs to be regulated. You need to read the temperature of a thermometer
that hangs inside the breeding machine. The right temperature needs to be 100° Fahrenheit
or 37.7° Celsius.
2. The humidity has to be regulated. This prevents dehydration of the eggs. The humidity
needs to be 55% for the first 18 days. After the 18 days you need to raise the humidity to
70%. You can’t raise the humidity by adding more water in the bin, but you can by
increasing the surface of the evaporating water.
3. Ventilation is very important, because of the gas exchange between the breeding machine
and the outside surroundings. This way the carbon dioxide leaves the breeding machine and
will be exchanged for oxygen rich air. This is necessary for the breathing of the embryo.
Ventilation can be regulated (depending on the machine) with openings (that are lockable)
in the walls.
4. You need to turn the eggs around to prevent the embryo from growing with the cuticle. The
eggs need to be turned around 3 times a day for the first 18 days. The egg will be filled with
a growing chick after 18 days.

31. What are the causes of poor breeding results when using a breeding machine?
 Many unfertile eggs
 A lot of embryo’s that died
 The dying of embryo’s in a later stage
 Chicks aren’t hatching after pecking
 Moist and sticky chicks
 Chicks that hatch too soon, sometimes with bloody beaks
 Too small chicks
 Overweighed chicks
 Too slow hatching
 Rough, goluptious beaks
 Deformed chicks

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CHAPTER 2 – CHICKEN CARE

True or False (set a cross at the right answer)


True or False? True False
1 When the disease is in one of the last stadia, the chicken is still treatable X
2 Observing the chickens at least once a day, makes it easier to capture the X
disease
3 Prevention is important, because some symptoms will only occur in one X
of the last stadia
4 Chronic respiratory disease (CRD) is triggered by bacteria’s X
5 The bacterium that causes infectious Coryza is emophilusparagallinarum X
6 New Castle Disease is a worldwide disease X
7 Lymphoid leucosis is a virus disease X
8 Marek disease is a bacterial disease X
9 Egg Drop Syndrome 1976 is a viral disease X
10 Coccidiosis is caused by a one-celled parasite X
11 Good hygiene in the stable prevents unwelcome guests X
12 The drinking and water systems must be cleaned at least once a week X
13 The maximum stocking rate of chickens is 8 chickens per one square X
metre

Subchapter 2.1

1. When is a chicken healthy and in optimal condition


This means that the chickens produce as optimal as possible and that the chickens are free of
diseases

2. A disease can be spread in various ways. Name at least 3 options


1. Infection from animal to animal
2. Infection from the environment
3. People can spread a disease by clothes or by air
4. All sorts of materials can spread a disease
5. Infection by the way of hatching the egg

3. Write the 7 most common diseases down


1. Infectory respiratory diseases
2. Diseases causing tumours
3. Avian adenoviral diseases
4. Miscellaneous virus diseases
5. Miscellaneous bacterial diseases
6. Diseases caused by parasites
7. Non-contagious diseases

4. Write down the treatment and control of Chronic respiratory disease (CRD)
Control and eradication of MG infection is by far the most effective method of combating CRD.
Fertile eggs from infected chickens can be treated with antibiotics to eliminate the MG organisms
(infection of fertile eggs or egg dipping).

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5. How does the Coryza disease spread?
The disease spreads from chicken to chicken and flock to flock by contact. It also spreads through
airborne infected dust particles and via the drinking water. Equipment and personal can also
spread the disease.

6. What are the signs of Coryza?


Eradication and prevention are the most desirable means of controlling coryza. Vaccines have been
developed but are only used in areas where the disease is endemic and cannot be eradicated.
The main of the disease are inflammation of eyes and nose, with foul-smelling discharges,
conjunctivitis, sneezing and facial swellings. Feed and water intake is reduced. The chicken will lose
weight and the egg production will decrease. Mortality varies, but is generally low. The symptoms
are similar to CRD.

7. Write down the treatment and control of Coryza


Eradication and prevention are the most desirable means of controlling coryza. Vaccines have been
developed but are only used in areas where the disease is endemic and cannot be eradicated.

8. How does the New Castle Disease spread?


It is a highly contagious disease and spreads through infected droppings and respiratory discharge
between chickens. This disease can also spread itself by infected equipment such as trucks,
personnel, wild chickens or simply the air. It’s possible to incubate the chickens

9. What are the signs of the New Castle Disease


ND causes high mortality, with depression and death in 3 to 5 days as major signs. Difficult
breathing, with wheezing and gurgling, accompanied by nervous signs (such as paralysis or twisted
necks) are the main indication. Egg production decreases 30- 50% or more. Eggs may have thin
shells or have no shells at all.

10. How do you treat the New Castle Disease?


The only thing to do is to vaccinate to prevent the chickens from this disease.

11. What are the signs of the Marek Disease?


Infected chickens lose weight or may show some form of paralysis. The classic form with leg nerve
involvement causes a chicken to lie on its side with one leg stretched forward and the other
backward. The presence of tumors in liver, spleen, kidneys, lungs, ovary, muscles or other tissues
indicates MD but may also point to lymphoid leucosis. Nerve involvement is typical for MD.

12. How can you treat the Marek Disease?


There is a vaccine for MD. This vaccine only prevents the appearance of the tumors and paralysis of
Marek`s disease, it does not prevent the chickens from becoming infected with MD virus.

13. What are the signs of Gumborro?


Affected chickens are listless and depressed, pale and huddling and some may die. More important
is the subclinical form. The immune system will be affected which will lead to gumboro related
diseases, such as infectious anaemia. In growers, this form of the diseases results in poor
performance.

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14. What is the treatment for Gumborro?
There is no treatment. The best way to control this disease is to vaccinate the parent breeders
and/or young chicks.

15. Which three types of worms are there


Roundworms, Gapeworms and Tapeworms

16. What are the signs and treatment of worms?


Heavy infestations can reduce the birds’ ability to fight other infections. The most common way of
checking your chickens on parasites is to control their faeces. Healthy chicken droppings should be
fairly firm and rounded with two distinct sections. The largest darker portion should be black,
brown and/or grey in colour and the smaller portion should be white (this is the urine) and it will
form a cap at one end. Yellow coloured - loose yellow droppings which will normally stick to the
feathers of the birds’ bottom are most often a sign of internal worms. It can also be that the birds
have a diet rich in corn or maize but in our experience it is usually worms. It could also point to a
respiratory infection but there would be other signs with this kind of problem. This is not to be
confused with faecal droppings which are brown and foamy and expelled roughly every 7-10
droppings - perfectly normal.
Black, runny and sticky faeces can point to nutritional deficiency. Revisit their diet and feed only
layers pellets ad lib with treats of corn twice a day for two weeks to see if this improves their
droppings. Stop all other treats for this period.

Other signs are: worms visible in the droppings, mucky bottoms, dishevelled, depressed
appearance, weight loss, drop in egg production and a pale comb. The best way to prevent the
chickens from worms it to keep them on a wire floor. It’s always better top prevent than to cure
your chickens.

17. Which ectoparasites are most common?


Lice, Mites and ticks and Fleas

18. Fill the vaccination schedule in:

Table .7 ‘Standard vaccinations’


Disease Number of vaccinations ( at an age of 20
weeks)
New castle disease 3 times, 4 times for perfect vaccination
Gumboro 2 times
Fowl typhoid 2 times
Fowl pox 2 times

Subchapter 2.2

19. What influences the activity of the vaccinations?


Storage conditions, doses, the way of intake, the age of the animal, immunity status of the animal,
pressure of infection and the climate of the stable

20. What are the 5 methods of vaccination?


Spray, drinkwater method, Wing web method, injection method and eye-drop method

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21. What are the signs of good resistance?
Proper condition, Healthy mucous membranes and Proper functioning of the stomach.

22. What is the difference between resistance and immunity?


Resistance protects the animal from all diseases and unfavourable environmental conditions.
Immunity protects the animal from one specific disease. For that reason resistance is more
important than immunity.

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CHAPTER 3 - HOUSING

True or False? (set a cross at the right answer)


True or False? True False
1 A party bedding material system is an example of a slatted floor system. X
2 There are three main forms of husbandry systems. X
3 A poultry run is not very stressful for the chickens. X
4 The maximum amount of chickens per square meter is 8. X
5 Free range systems are one of the cheapest systems. X
6 Chickens reared indoors cannot be kept outdoors later. X
7 The optimal temperature of pullets is between 25 and 35 degrees. X
8 The optimal humidity for chicks is between 75% and 80%. X
9 Ammoniac is one of the damaging gasses into a stable. X
10 N₂ is oxygen. X
11 Light affects the start of sexual activities, which is also the laying of eggs X
and affects the start of laying eggs after a period of activity.
12 The light during the rearing period should be very short. X
13 A properly constructed chicken house has proper ventilation and X
constructions that are easy to clean.
14 The best position of a stable is the East-West orientation. X
15 Concrete is the best material for the floor of the stable. X
16 Walls should be at least 3 meters high. X
17 The tukul stable is one of the cheapest stables. X
18 When starting a company, you should have some ground, a living place and X
licenses.
19 Roosts are required for the well-being of the chickens. X
20 A linear drinker is the most difficult water system. X

Subchapter 3.1

1. What kind of global husbandry systems are available for chickens?


 Battery systems
 Slatted floor systems
 Free range systems

2. What are the advantages and problems of a battery system?


Advantages:
 Highest stocking rate
 Less risk on diseases
 Higher egg weight
 Lower food intake
 Better feed conversion rate
 Labour saving
 Easier supervision, culling and selection
 No eggs on the floor
 No hens which are brooding

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Problems:
 Relatively high investment costs per bird
 The system is not flexible
 Technical problems
 Percentage second class eggs is higher
 There have to be pay more attention to ventilation
 Debeaking and light intensity control are necessary

3. What is the advantage and problem of the slatted floor system?


Advantage:
 Lower risk on diseases

Problem:
 Expensive

4. What are the advantages and problems of floor system houses?


Advantages:
 Cheap
 Simple
 Cheap variant
 Simple
 Absorbs much moisture

Problems:
 Higher risk on infections and diseases
 The chickens could damage crops
 Risk on predators, traffic and theft
 Hided eggs
 Difficult to keep the run mud-free in rain seasons
 Higher level of stress
 Frequently moving of the run
 Higher risk on infections and diseases
 Wet bedding material has a bigger risk on diseases

5. How many (adult laying) chickens can be hold on one square meter?
6 chickens

Subchapter 3.2

6. Factors which influence the climate in a chicken house are……. ??? (6 factors)
1. Temperature
2. Humidity
3. Ventilation and fresh air
4. The volume of the house
5. Light
6. Flies

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7. Which 7 things can happen when layers exposed to higher temperatures?
1. Feed consumptions stops
2. Water consumptions stops
3. Egg production stops or the egg weight drops
4. The activity of chickens become low
5. The chickens start panting and spreading their wings
6. They are looking for colder places (cold floor)
7. Having a lower fertility and hatchability of the eggs

8. Why is the climate in the stable important?


The temperature and/or the humidity will become too high or too low, which can influence the
production of the chickens. When these factors are not optimal, the chickens will get diseases.

9. How is it possible that light influences the egg production?


Artificial light creates a longer day. Light affects the start of sexual activities, which also is the laying
of eggs and affects the start of laying eggs after a period of rest. It influences the production
intensity.

10. What are the requirements of materials for the housing?


1. Proper ventilation system
2. Constructions that are easy to clean
3. Predator proof
4. Optimal located
5. Strongly built and durable
6. Waterproof

Subchapter 3.3

11. Which position of the stable is the best position?


East-West orientated position

12. Which material is the best option for the floor and why?
Concrete, it is quite expensive, but durable, waterproof, isolates and is easy to clean.

13. What is a problem of an original floor?


It is dusty and difficult to clean

14. How can you build your own stable?


There are a lot of possibilities, see subchapter 3.3

Subchapter 3.4

15. What is a tukul stable?


The traditional tukul stable is a round building with walls made of manure or bricks and a roof
made of reed.

16. What kind of stable is the most easiest to build? The tukul stable or an own built stable?
Motivate you answer.

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An own built stable is the most easiest, because the possibilities are open, you can built it to your
own creation.

Subchapter 3.5

17. What are the requirements to build a stable?


The procedure to get a legal poultry farm is very easy. When you want to start poultry farm, you
have to go to the area authorized bureau of the parish. You have to improve that you have some
ground and say that you want to start a poultry farm. You get some papers to fill in. A license is
around 200 birr. You get a license when you can improve that you have a living place, working
place and some ground.

Subchapter 3.6

18 What kind of equipment is not needed into chickens’ housing?


A) Roosts
B) Laying nests
C) Bedding material
D) Concrete

Subchapter 3.7

19. How can you reduce the costs of equipment?


If you calculate how many chickens you have, you can calculate how many materials you need for
equipment. This will prevent too high costs.

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CHAPTER 4 – INFLOW

True or False?
True or False? True False
1 New Hampshire is an example of an meat and egg producing chicken X
2 The commercial breeds can be divided into two groups X
3 Usually brown eggs fetch a lower price than white eggs X
4 When you buy chickens by a farmer who has unhealthy chickens, there is a X
big risk that the production of the chickens is very low
5 After two weeks of laying, the good and the poor layers can be X
distinguished from each other.
6 One of the important thing of the selection of a farmer is: ‘Make sure that X
the farmer has enough knowledge of chickens and their care’
7 Good hens are lively, interested in their environment and have the right X
body weight
8 Transport by truck is the best way of transport for the chickens X
9 Chicks should be protected to heat during transport X
10 Chick boxes are especially for chicks X
11 Culling’ is mostly used for the selection period to indicate that the chickens X
that are inferior in appearance or production, that are sick of become sick,
have to be removed from the flock
12 If you want a good quality and quantity of production of the chickens, you X
need first rate turkeys
13 The chicks must be cleaned and disinfected when entering the housing X
14 A brooder ring with a diameter of 5 meters should not have more than 500 X
chicks
15 Growers feed has more metabolic energy than Starters feed X
16 The temperature of the housing has to be between 32 and 34 degrees at the X
level of the chicks
17 Recording should be a daily activity X
18 The modern hybrids have an incredible potential to grow X
19 A broiler drinks around 200 ml a day X
20 Early feathering is one of the characteristics of a good egg producing X
chicken

Subchapter 4.1

1. The commercial breeds can be divided into three groups, which groups are that?
 Egg producers
 Meat and egg producers
 Meat producers

2. What are experts doing with breeding and multiplication?


 Development of (new) lines or strains in chicken breeds.
 Testing of crosses to find the best combination.
 Some aspects of chicken biology.
 Delivery of parent stocks.
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3. What kind of breed is not a local breed? (circle the right answer)
A) Lowman
B) Leghorn
C) Bovans
D) High-Line
E) ISA-Brown

Subchapter 4.2

4. What kind of thing are important by the selection of a farmer?


 Make sure the farmer is reliable.
 Make sure that the farmer has enough knowledge of chickens and their care.
 The building and environment of the chickens is clean and hygienic.
 The farmer is producing for a correct price
 The farmer can tell when the chickens are vaccinated

5. Mention 5 characteristics of a good hen?


 Are lively.
 Interested in their environment.
 Yellow skinned breeds have yellow colored beaks and shanks.
 Smooth and nice-looking feathers in the colours of the breed.
 Red and fully grown combs and wattles
 The right bodyweight
 The hens are vaccinated
 Have a good water and feed consumption
 When they are old enough, they produce around one egg a day

6. Where can you buy good producing chickens?


The best option is to buy the chickens by Maranatha farm or a comparable company. When you buy
chickens by another local farmer, there is a bigger risk on diseases or non producing hens. You have
to check the chickens first when you decide to buy your chickens on a local farm, bij voorkeur with
an expert.

7. Why is it important to make a written contract?


To prevent problems in future (garanty and prices) or by paying the chickens.

Subchapter 4.4

8. What kind of transports are available? And what kind of transport would you choose for
local transport?
 Transport by truck
 Transport by air
 Chick boxes
 Carrying crates

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Carrying crates are the best option for local transport, because there are different kinds of crates
available on the market, opportune by the size and amount of chickens. Chicken crates are animal
friendly (by good using).

9. What is culling? And what are the most common defects?


Culling’ is mostly used for the selection period to indicate that the chickens that are inferior in
appearance or production, that are sick of become sick, have to be removed from the flock. Culling
starts when the chickens arrive at the farm. One-day old chick can show the following defects:
 Crooked legs (curly toes), only one eye or a crossed beak
 Unhealed navels
 Dehydration, because too much body moisture has been lost. This condition is difficult to
correct.
 The colours are not representative for the breed, it could be a disease
 The chickens are not lively, with sunken head and drooping wings. This indicates that the
chick does not feel well and may already be sick

Subchapter 4.5

10. Why are the first ten days of a chicken the most important days?
The chickens are vulnerable and experienced hatching, have been graded, vaccinated, sexed,
handled, placed on transport and other environments, this all in a few hours or days. Comfort
during this period is essential and will prevent a high mortality.

11. Is it handy to buy chicks when you want to keep chickens for egg producing? Explain you
motivation.
No, because chicks are very vulnerable and need special care. Especially when you are a starting
farmer, you do not have the right knowledge to let turn the chicks into wholesome laying hens. The
better way is to buy chickens when they just start laying (around 20 weeks).

12. Why does a rearer need more metabolic energy and crude protein in their food? (In
comparing to a layer)
They need the energy and protein for growing. They grow very fast during the rearing period, so it
is the most important period in their life to become a good layer.

13. Explain this picture.

It shows the behavior of the chicks into the brooder. The heat is placed in the middle of the circle.
 Too high: Chicks make no noise, chicks pant, head and wigs droop and get away from the
heater.
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 Too cold: Chicks crowd to the brooder and are noisy, distress calling
 Draught: This distribution requires investigation, influenced by draught, uneven light
distribution or external noises.
 Correct temperature: Chicks evenly spread and the noise level signifies contentment.

Subchapter 4.6

14. When is a chicken called a ‘broiler’? (based on age)


At the age of 7-22 weeks

Subchapter 4.7

15. When start a layer to produce eggs?


They start to produce eggs when they are 20 weeks old.

Subchapter 4.8

16. Why can meat chickens not be hold on slatted floor systems?
The meat chickens are too heavy for the slats, when they reach the top of their weight, they cannot
walk on the slats anymore.

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CHAPTER 5 – MAINTENANCE

True or False?
True or False? True False
1 A wet perch doesn’t rot away X
2 The pH for quality water needs to be between the 5 and 8 X
3 Quality water needs to contain sediment X
4 Controlling the intake is a example of the animal care routine X

Subchapter 5.1
1. How long does a plastic water bucket or bin last?
Plastic buckets or bins can be used as a water system. A plastic bucket will last for 2 weeks. This
fact counts when you constantly fill the bucket up to the edge or when you step on it. When you
handle the bucket or bin with care it can last for 20 years. This will only count when you fill the
bucket for 70% and not to the edge.

2. How can you make sure that a perch is kept dry?


Make sure that the sitting stick is placed on top of a stone so that the stick won’t touch the ground.
This will help to keep the sitting stick dry in times that the ground will get wet.

3. How can you prevent eucalyptus tree from getting wet?


To prevent the eucalyptus tree from getting wet, you can extend your roof. If you let your roof stick
out for at least one metre. The eucalyptus tree won’t get wet. This extends the lifetime of the
eucalyptus tree. The second option to prevent the eucalyptus tree from getting wet is to nail some
corrugated metal against them. These corrugated metal are made of plastic which is waterproof.

Subchapter 5.2
4. How can you maintain a high quality of water?
You need to refresh the water twice a day with fresh water. This is to keep high quality water for
the chickens. If you look at the water and you wouldn’t want to drink it yourself because it’s so
dirty, than the water is of a poor quality and it needs to be refreshed. You can put a drop of chloride
in the water. This drop terminates bacteria’s and parasites that live in the water. This means that
the water is now sterile. Don’t use this method every time you refresh the water. If you use this
method every time the chickens will be incapable of developing an immune system. Use this
method not more than once every two weeks. You can determine the quality of the drinking water
in a laboratory. The criteria for quality water are:
 It needs to be clear (limpid), without smell, colour or sediment
 pH needs to be between the 5 and 8
 Hardness: hard water contains various calcium and magnesium salts. In itself hard water is
not harmful for chickens, but it may influence the functioning of the water equipment. Hard
water in combination with a high sulphate level can cause diarrhoea.
 Iron: maximum 1 mg/litre. High levels may affect drugs such as tetracycline and sulpha
drugs and may affect the functioning of valves and nipple drinkers. The problem with high
levels of iron, calcium and magnesium, in particular for vaccinations and drug supply, may
be overcome by adding dried skim milk to the water.

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5. What can you do with the bedding material that’s collected by the cleaning of the stable?
The bedding material of the stable is recyclable. Clean up the bedding material and disinfection it.
After you’ve done that the bedding material can be fed as concentrate to the horses, cows and
donkeys. You can also use it as a fertilizer.

6. Why is a thorough cleaning so important?


By cleaning thoroughly, we can remove 99% of all pathogens. When we do it poorly, the usefulness
of our work is low; there is little difference between poor cleaning and not cleaning at all, hence is
poor cleaning is a waste of effort. After cleaning comes disinfection; disinfection without perfection
has generally little sense.

7. What do you need to do when you want to place a new bought rooster to the flock?
If you want to place new, bought stock with your own hens, it’s a good idea to keep the new bird
separated for some time. If a contagious disease appears, the change of infection will be less than if
you immediately place the new birds with the old stock.

8. How can you protect your stable from the entering of predators?
A way to protect you stable against the entering of the predators is to cover all openings with 13
mm wire mesh.

9. What are the daily routine tasks?


 Daily health control
 Animal care
 Routine administration

10. What are the tasks that the daily routines consist of?
Daily health control
You need to inspect the flock of chickens at least twice a day. When you inspect the flock it is
necessary to observe them:
 At behaviour, appearance of flock and individual birds, if necessary examination
 You need to control the intake (feed and water)
 You need to control the output (production, excrements, dead birds)

Animal care (daily)


Below is a check-list for the daily routine check upon the health of the flock:
 Clean water
 Clean feed (no old feed rests)
 Temperature, ventilation, air composition
 Bedding, manure disposal, fly control
 Immediate separation of weak and sick birds
 Execution of treatments
 Reporting abnormalities immediately

Routine administration (daily)


You need to keep your administration up-to-date. This means that you need to register daily:
 Feed consumption (including grit, shell, green plants)
 Water consumption (a change in water consumption is often a warning)
 Production
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 Mortality
 Incidents
You also need to register periodical activities such as:
 Vaccinations
 Preparation related to reception, delivery and transport of the birds
 Routine checks of (ecto)parasites once a month

Subchapter 5.3
11. What does feed mainly consists of?
 Vitamins
 Minerals
 Energy
 Protein
 Water

12. Where can you find vitamins?


Vitamins can be found in all types of fresh fruits, seeds and plants. To give the chicken all the
vitamins he needed, variation in seeds and fruit is required. Vitamin and mineral supplements are
added to the complete feed.

13. Why is it important to get enough minerals?


It’s important to get enough minerals for the construction of bones and feathers. Getting enough
minerals is essential when the chicken starts to produce eggs. Enough minerals will result in good
shells and strong eggs. The most important minerals are calcium and phosphorus for the producing
of eggs. These minerals can be found in eggshells, bones and lime.

Subchapter 5.4
14. What amount does a chicken eat and drink a day?
A chicken eats around the 125 grams a day and drinks around the 250 millilitre water a day.

15. When do you need to order new feed?


Make sure that when you get your order of food that you immediately make another order at the
factory. At this way you can never have a shortage in feed at your farm. It can occur that the factory
can’t deliver your order at time. This can create the fact that you’re short in food. A shortage in food
at your farm has a negative effect on the production of the animals.

16. Where do you go if you don’t know what to do anymore?


Every village has its own advice centre. This is a centre where you can ask for advice when you
don’t know what to do anymore with you chickens and the feeding of them.

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CHAPTER 6 – OUTFLOW

Subchapter 6.1 The egg

1. Is the egg in the glass above rotten or not? (Circle the right answer and explain your
answer)
A) Yes
B) No

Yes, the egg is floating towards the surface, caused by the accumulation of gas in the egg itself. This
means the egg is rotten.

2. This basket is filled to the edge. Why is this a good sign?


This means the eggs are strong enough and have a strong shell.

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3. Can you store the eggs (as shown in the picture above) like this for a longer period of
time? Explain your answer ?
No, because direct sunlight is not good for the eggs.

4. Write down 3 different options to sell your eggs to


Personal contacts, the market, hotels, restaurants, local shops or at your own shop. Hotels, shops
and restaurants often need a receive with a VAT number and other data of your business. When you
are not registered, you can sell the eggs at your own shop, the local market or to personal contacts.

4. The picture above is an example of:


A. Sorting the eggs
B. Checking the eggs
C. Reflect on the health of the chicken

5. Fill in the right circumstances to store the eggs:


Temperature: around 24 degrees Celsius.
Surrounding: cool, sun free and dry
Light: low, sun free
Storing period: up to three or four weeks.

Subchapter 6.2 The chicken


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6. Is this chicken (as shown in the picture above) producing eggs? Explain your answer.
No, these are young, good feathered chickens. When you see such a beautiful hen, it means they are
not producing eggs. When they are producing eggs, they will be bolder. All of the hens’ energy goes
to the eggs, so they don’t look as beautiful as young, non- producing hens.

7. Fill in the right price on the


70 irr

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8. Write down 3 different options to sell your chickens to
It’s most important to have some interested personal contacts like family, neighbours or friends.
You could also try to sell them on the market.

9. Fill in the right terms by using the 18 characteristics below.

Trait Productive chicken Unproductive chicken


General condition Lively Dull
Weight Good Usually fairly light
Wattle and comb Soft; bright red Pale and rough
Eyes Lively Dull; yellow rims
Pigment ( yellow breeds) Disappears Stays longer
Cloacae Large, soft, moist Shrivelled, dry
Distance between lay bones Large ( 5 cm) Small ( 2 cm)
Distance between breast- Large ( 8 cm) Small ( 4 cm)
bone and lay bones
Skin Soft, loose Skin

12. Lively
13. Dull 19. Shrivelled, dry
14. Good 20. Large ( 5 cm)
15. Usually fairly light 21. Small ( 2 cm)
16. Soft; bright red 22. Large ( 8 cm)
17. Pale and rough 23. Small ( 4 cm)
18. Lively 24. Soft, loose
19. Dull; yellow rims 25. Skin
20. Disappears
21. Stays longer
22. Large, soft moist

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CHAPTER 7 – BUSINESS

True or false (set a cross at the right answer)


True or False? True False
1 A hen will begin to lay eggs at the age of 15 weeks x
2 A hen lays about 1 egg a day, but the percentage is 80 % x
3 The total of weeks a hen lays eggs is about 75 weeks x
4 A hen lays about 250 eggs a lifetime x
5 A hen stops laying eggs at the average age of 90 weeks x

Subchapter 7.1 Egg production

1. You have the following data:


 Number of egg laying hens: 200
 Percentage: 75 %
 7 days a week
 30 days a month
 365 days a year.

A) How many eggs can you collect per week? Write down the calculation and the answer.
200x 0.75 = 150 eggs able to collect a day.
150 7 days = 1,050 eggs a week.

B) How many eggs can you collect per month? Write down the calculation and the answer.
150 30 days = 4,500 eggs a month.

C) How many eggs can you collect per year? Write down the calculation and the answer.
150 x 365 days = 52,500 eggs a year.

Subchapter 7.2 Marketing

2. Is the sentence below true or false?


Marketing means: all of the activities that will bring the seller and the buyer together.
True

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3. How is this table above called?
Bostonmatrix.

4. There is only one supplier but there is many demand. How is this market form called?
(circle the right answer)
A) Oligopoly
B) Monopoly
C) Polypoly

5. The picture above is an example of:


Advertisement.

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6. What is the most important rule of marketing?
Honesty is the most important rule of marketing. Be honest and true to your customers. For
example: don’t mix good eggs with bad eggs. Make sure you deliver quality. When people are
satisfied with the quality of your eggs, they will tell it to other people and your eggs will be noticed.

7. Write down 3 of the 7 questions you have to answer for yourself after you’ve tested the
market
After testing the market, you must answer these questions:
1. Where you able to get the price you wanted? If not, why not?
2. How many birds did you sell?
3. Do you think you’d be able to sell more?
4. Where there extra costs in selling, things you hadn’t thought of when you worked out the
feasibility costs?
5. How much money did you spend on buying the chickens, including the transport?
6. How much money did you receive from sales?
7. Did you make a profit? How much was it?

8. Write down how you are planning to earn your place into the market
According to the trainings manual, the most important things to do to earn your place into the
market are:
 Know your customers. Who are you selling to?
 Who else is selling the same products? Get to know your concurrent
 Know your market. What are the prices? Respond on it.
 Be honest and true to your customers. Don’t mix good eggs with bad eggs.
 Make sure you deliver quality. When people are satisfied with the quality of your eggs, they
will tell it to other people and your eggs will be noticed
 Pick a name. When your eggs are being noticed, the people must know that are your eggs.
For example: people in local shops will ask for ‘Maranatha eggs’ or ‘Genesis eggs’
 Build a reputation. Now that you have named your eggs and they are being noticed, it’s
important to keep the good reputation and to ensure the quality of your eggs.
 Make sure you show the certificate of the training you followed. This is another advantage
against your concurrent. Through this your customers will notice you are qualified and you
know what you are talking about.

Subchapter 7.3 Registration and identification

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9. Is it necessary to identify chickens?
No, it is not necessary to identify your chickens. But if you do, you can do this for example with
collars around their legs. On these collars will be a number of identification.

10. Write down how you would register the eggs


According to the trainings manual, the easiest way to register the eggs is to use a chalk board or egg
calendar. It’s important to think very logical. Note the egg production a day, the number of hens you
have, food consumption per hen and deaths or other disasters. At the end of one month you can
compare the different findings and maybe you will notice some changes. You can also note the date
you’ve bought new food, how much green food is available, some reparations that still have to be
done and other findings.

Subchapter 7.4 Networking and working together

11. Describe the advantages of networking. Why is this an advantage?


Networking has a lot of advantages. The five most important advantages are:
1. It’s easier to have access to knowledge and expertise. The threshold to call someone for
advice, who is in your network is lower
2. You will learn to work more effective and more efficient. The time to get the right person by
yourself is much shorter
3. You are reaching your goal faster. People who are networking will make promotion more
early and will make more profit
4. It gives less tress. You are helping people and they are helping you more quickly
5. It will give you a good feeling. People will know you are helping them and will ask more
often for your advice.

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12. Describe the advantages of working together. Why is this an advantage?

Aspect Advantages Risks

Sharing own knowledge with


Education Learning from each other the risk of losing it

People or companies are


More people or parties are carrying the hiding behind each other,
Responsibility abdicate of responsibility
responsibility

Dependency from both parties


and the possibility to loose
Synergy Consummate of each other’s capacity speed

Losing time or running away


from problems to keep the
Conflicts Source of ideas for improvement peace.

Through combinations will commence


There will commence new
new dynamics and movement and there
Movement weak chains that will influence
will commence ways to avoide the weak
the speed
chains.

Extra communication and


Volume of You can quarter the work and avoid
control is needed, considering
work double work.
the volume of work

Harmony Group feeling and the accessory energy Loss of autonoom handling

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13. Describe how you would create a win- win situation
Some examples of advantages and win- win situations:
 Making price ranges with partners; like with the supplier of your chickens,
 Trade your goods with goods you need from your partner, create a win- win situation,
 Categorize; like doing different researches and exchange the information,
 Discuss marketing strategies, make sure you’re doing something else and make sure you
compete,
 Explore the market together, together you will notice more than alone.

Subchapter 7.5 Customer focus and customer friendliness

14. Write down and explain 5 of the 12 tips that are mentioned in subchapter 7.5.1
The twelve tips that are mentioned in subchapter 7.5.1 are:
Tip 1 It’s not about you; it’s about your customer.
If you talk about yourself and your product a lot, you will miss the essence of the conversation. It’s
important to ask the right questions, so the customer will notice you understand what he’s saying
and you can provide the best possible solution.

Tip 2 Give your customer the best possible service.


Treat your customers like you want to be treated. Give your customers the best possible service and
attention they deserve. Giving them attention, listening to them, a smile and understanding are the
key words.

Tip 3 Can you provide in your customers’ needs?


Everyone has their own character, personality and personal style. Try to replace yourself in the
experience your customer. In that way your customer feels that he is taken seriously and will be
triggered to do business with you the next time.

Tip 4 Call your customer by their name.


When it’s possible, note your customers’ name and use theirs in a conversation. At this way you
make the conversation way more personal.

Tip 5 Be honest.
You can be friendly to your consumers, but when you don’t mean it, it disturbs the communication.
Make sure you mean what you say.

Tip 6 Speak clearly.


This is mostly important when you have a phone conversation. You want to make sure that your
customers understand what you are saying. Clear talk will help you with that.

Tip 7 Go for a win- win situation.


You make the best deals when you both have the feeling you have an advantage of it.

Tip 8 Invest in a long term relationship.


Don’t go for the quick profit. By making the contact with the customer smooth you will invest in a
long term relationship.

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Tip 9 The customer is not always right. You have to be assertive and you have to draw a line.
Sometimes a customer asks something you can’t give or what against your own norms and values.
In that case you have to draw the line for yourself; even it can be hard sometimes. You have to stand
up for yourself but you also have to be respectful for the other. You have to find the balance
between that.

Tip 10 Be satisfied with the feedback you get from your customer.
You can learn a lot from the feedback and improvements your customers suggest. Take them
seriously, because they will help you to do things different or better. Maybe they will attend you on
something you didn’t know about yourself. On the other hand they take the time and courage to tell
you. Feedback from your customers will help you to test your customer satisfaction.

Tip 11 Selling ‘no’ sometimes is the best answer.


Sometimes it is better to sell ‘no’, than to suggest a solution the customer won’t help. Customers
want to be taken seriously.

Tip 12 Be yourself.
Just be yourself. It’s always better to be yourself than to play a role of someone you’re not. It will
cost you a lot of energy and besides that, it’s not necessary at all.

15. What is customer friendless, according to you?


Own opinion.

Subchapter 7.6 Logistics

16. How would you transport the eggs and chickens?


According to the trainings manual, this is best way to transport eggs: ‘It is it helpful to have proper
egg trays (that usually hold two- and a half dozen eggs) or egg boxes (that hold six or 12 eggs), as
shown in figure 7.6. This will mean less egg breakages. You can buy cardboard trays or boxes from
your poultry supplier. An example of a poultry supplier is Alema Farm. Some producers sell boiled
eggs when there is a demand (bus or train passengers, for example). Make sure you manage your
transport carefully to collect your input as well as you do your marketing.

For the transport, you can decide to hire or buy a car or other vehicle. But when you mostly are
selling at home, this is not necessary. Besides that, it’s expensive. When you are selling at the local
market, you can decide to buy a horse or mule to transport the eggs by gari. Maybe you already
have one. Horses are very hard working animals and you could also use them to work on your land
or as your own transport. Mules are stronger than horses or donkeys and will work more in your
advantage. Another option is to transport the eggs yourself, by carrying them with you while
travelling to the local market. You can use the little blue- and white busses which are used as public
transport.’

According to the trainings manual, this is the best way to transport chickens: ‘If you are going to
transport broilers or old hens alive, you will need something in which to carry them. You could use
a plastic crate or just a big cardboard box with holes cut in the sides so that the chickens can
breathe. A plastic crate will last for a long time, but you have to clean and disinfect it after selling
each batch.

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For the transport, you could do the same as with the eggs. Choose the vehicle that fits best at your
company and works best in your advantage. Don’t spend money on things you don’t necessarily
need.’

Subchapter 7.7 Financial aspects

17. Fill in the right calculation and results

Data Calculating Result


How many chickens 200
Gram a day a chicken 125
Kilogram a day in total

Price of the food 800 for 100 kg


Price a kilogram
Total costs a day
How many chickens 200 200 chickens
Gram a day a chicken 125 125 gram
Kilogram a day in total 200 chickens x 125 gram 25,000 gram.
25,000/ 1,000 = 25 kg
Price of the food 800 for 100 kg 800 birr for 100 kg
Price a kilogram 800 birr/ 100 kg = 8 birr 8 birr a kilogram
Total costs a day 25 kg x 8 birr = 200 birr 200 rr a day

18. Fill in the right calculation and results

Data Calculating Result


Age of arriving 20 20 weeks
Age of leaving 90 90 weeks
Total of weeks at the farm 90 weeks- 20 weeks = 70 70 weeks
Total of days at the farm 70 weeks x 7 days= 490 490 days
Total of gram a chicken 490 days x 125 gram a day 61,250 gram or 61.25
kilogram
Total of costs a chicken ( 70 days) 61.25 kg x 8 birr 490 birr
Total of costs for 200 chickens ( 490 birr x 200 chickens 98,000 birr
70 days)

19. Fill in the right calculation and results. The percentage to calculate with is 80 %

Data Calculating Result


Number of egg laying chickens 500 500 chickens
Number of eggs a day 500 x 0,8 400 eggs
Average number of eggs sold a 400 400 eggs
day ( personal contacts, market,
own shop)
Price of one egg 2 birr 2 birr
Income a day 400 eggs x 2 birr 800 birr
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Income a week ( 7 days) 800 birr x 7 days 5,600 birr
Income a month (30 days) 800 birr x 30 days 24,000 birr
Income a year ( 365 days) 800 birr x 365 days 292,000 birr

20. Fill in the right calculation and results

Data Calculating Result


Number of non- producing 150 150 chickens
chicken
Price a chicken 70 70 birr
Afford 150 chickens x 70 birr 10,500 birr

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CHAPTER 8 – EXTENDING YOUR COMPANY

True or False (set a cross on the right answer)


True or False? True False
1 A license can be requested at the police station X
2 The vat percentage of a farmer with 200 chickens is 15 % X
3 You need another license when you keep more than 1000 chickens X
4 The most important thing when you approach another company is that X
you got the right competences
5 There are 2 factors that prevent chickens against ectoparasites X

Subchapter 8.1

1. What are the most important competences?


The most important competences are communication, self-reflection, presenting and globalization.

2. What is the most important thing that you must keep in mind by visiting another
company?
The most important thing is that you got the right competences.

Subchapter 8.2

3. What kind of license do you need to start a company with 200 chicken?
A license that contains the legal keeping of 1000 or less chicks.

4. For which amount of chickens do you need another license?


1000 or more chickens

5. There are 2 different vat percentages, what is the difference?


One is 2% and the other is 15%.

6. Where can you request a license?


At the government

Subchapter 8. 3

7. What is the reason for a starting company to make a business plan?


It is the best way for a farmer to make sense to the government.

Subchapter 8.4

8. What are the most effective ways of making advertisements for your company?
 In the newspapere
 Mouth to mouth advertisement.
 Signs along the road.
 Posters on poles and trees.
 Handing out business cards .

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9. What is one of the most common reasons for making advertisement?
To get a bigger target audience.

Subchapter 8.5

10. Is it important to get a functional conversation with your employees?


Yes, you can ask what goes wrong and the functioning in the company.

Subchapter 8.6

11. Cooperation is useful. Describe 2 negative and the positive aspects.


Negative: both company must think the same. Difficult to agree with each other.
Positive: more recourses at your disposal. You can share knowledge with each other. It gives you
more knowledge.

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APPENDIX 1- BUSINESS PLAN
1.0 Executive Summary

The purpose of this organization strategy strategy is to increase $900,000 for the growth of a
poultry village and constant facility while presenting the predicted financial records and functions
over the next three decades. Chickenfarm Inc. (“the Company”) is a New You are able to based
organization that will provide income of live poultry and egg to customers in its focused industry.
The Company was established by David Doe.

1.1 Products and Services

As stated above, the primary income flow for the organization will come from the sale of
meticulously poultry to farm owners within the target audience. The Company anticipates that each
poultry will generate approximately $10 of income for the organization. Additional sources of
income will include providing income of killed chickens/ egg to suppliers throughout the United
States. The third section of the organization strategy strategy will further explain the solutions
offered by the Chicken Farm.

1.2 The Financing

Mr. Doe is seeking to increase $900,000 from as a loan from the bank. The attention amount and loan
agreement are to be further discussed during discussion. This organization strategy represents that the
organization will receive a 15 season loan with an 8% set amount. The funding will be used for the
following: • Development of the Business’s Chicken Farm location. • Financing for the first six months of
operation. • Capital to purchase the equipment for the Chicken Farm. Mr. Doe will play a role $100,000
to the venture.

1.3 Objective Statement

The Chicken Farm’s mission is to become the recognized leader in its focused industry for income of
poultry and egg.

1.4 Management Team

The Company was established by David Doe. Mr. Doe has more than 10 decades of experience in the
animal income industry. Through his expertise, he will be able to bring the functions of the organization
to success within its first season of functions.

1.5 Sales forecast

Mr. Doe desires a strong amount of growth at the start of functions. Below are the predicted financial
records over the next three decades.

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1.6 Expansion Plan

The Creator desires that the business will strongly increase during the first three years of function. Mr.
Doe plans to apply marketing strategies that will successfully focus on plants, poultry merchants, and
slaughter homes within the focus on audience.

2.0 Organization And Funding Summary

2.1 Authorized Name and Business Structure

Chicken Village, Inc. The Organization is registered as a organization in the Condition of New You are
able to.

2.2 Needed Funds

At this time, the Chicken Village needs $900,000 of debts resources. Below is a malfunction of how these
resources will be used:

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2.3 Investor Equity

Mr. Doe is not looking for an investment from a third celebration presently.

2.4 Management Equity

John Doe owns 100% of the Poultry Village, Inc.

2.5 Exit Strategy

If the organization is very successful, Mr. Doe may seek to offer the organization to a third celebration
for a important income multiple. Most likely, the Company will hire a qualified organization broker to
offer the organization on behalf of the Poultry Village. Based on traditional numbers, the organization
could fetch a product sales premium of up to 8 times income (including the value of appreciated real
estate).

3.0 Items And Services

Below is a information of the solutions offered by the Poultry Village.

3.1 Sales of Chicken

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The primary income stream for the organization will come from the selling of chicken to plants and
slaughterhouses within the Business’s focused market. As stated in the executive conclusion, the
anticipated income generated from the selling of each lawn fed chicken will produce roughly $10 of
income. The organization plans to produce a lot of interest in the Poultry Village due to the fact that
organic agriculture methods will be used and all poultry will only be fed lawn.

3.2 Sales of Various meats and Eggs

Additionally, the service will also offer for the product sales of chicken to suppliers throughout the U. s.
Declares. Poultry and egg are in requirement on a year long foundation, and the Company will be able to
produce substantial income from selling top quality lawn chicken.

4.0 Strategic And Market Analysis

4.1 Financial Outlook

This area of the research will detail the economical system, chicken agriculture market, the client
information, and the opponents that the organization will face as it advances through its organization
functions. Currently, the economical market condition in the U. s. Declares is gradual. This slowdown in
the economic system has also greatly impacted property product sales, which has halted to traditional
lows. Many economists expect that this gradual will continue for a important time period, at which point
the economic system will begin a prolonged recovery period. This should have only a modest impact on
the Business’s ability to produce income from its chicken agriculture and egg/chicken product sales
functions.

4.2 Industry Analysis

Within the U. s. Declares, there are roughly 65,000 plants that specialize in the development of chicken
meat and egg manufacturing. Each year, these companies produce almost $85 billion dollars of income
and offer jobs to more than 700,000 people. Yearly payrolls in each of the last five years has exceeded
$10 billion dollars. This is a mature market, and the predicted future rate of growth is predicted to equal
that of the common economic system. The requirement for chicken has continued to remain powerful
despite the economic system.

4.3 Client Profile

The Poultry Farm’s average client will be a slaughterhouse, farmer’s market, or chicken distributor in
the Business’s focus on audience. Common traits among clients will include: • Annual income exceeding
$1,000,000 • Operates no more than 25 miles from the Business’s location. • Will spend $5,000 to
$30,000 with the Company on a yearly foundation. • Is licensed by the USDA to acquire, slaughter, and
offer chicken.

4.4 Aggressive Analysis

This is one of the sections of the organization technique strategy that you must write completely on your
own. The key to writing a powerful competitive research is that you do your research on the regional
opponents. Find out who your opponents are by doing a google search online directories looking in your
regional Yellow Pages. If there are a variety of opponents in the same market (meaning that it is not
feasible to explain each one) then showcase the variety of companies that compete with you, and why

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your organization will offer clients with service/products that are of better quality or less expensive
than your opponents.

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5.0 Promotion Plan

The Poultry Village plans to maintain an extensive technique that will ensure maximum visibility for the
organization in its focused market. Below is an overview of the marketing techniques and goals of the
Company.

5.1 Promotion Objectives

• Establish connections with vets, regional plants, and chicken suppliers throughout the focus on
audience.
• Implement a regional technique with the Business’s focused market via the use of flyers, regional
newspaper ads, and testimonials advertising.
• Develop an online business by developing a website and placing the Business’s name and get in touch
with details with online online directories.

5.2 Promotion Strategies

Mr. Doe plans on using a variety of selling techniques that will allow the Poultry Village to easily focus
on buyers within the focus on audience. These techniques consist of traditional print ads and ads placed
on google on the Internet. Below is a information of how the organization plans to promote its solutions
to the community. The Poultry Village will also use an online technique. This is very important as many
people looking for regional solutions, such as chicken plants, now the Internet to conduct their initial
searches. Mr. Doe will register the Poultry Village with online portals so that prospective clients can
easily reach the organization. The Company will also create its own website showcasing the service, its
inventory of poultry, initial costs details, and get in touch with details. Finally, Mr. Doe will create
ongoing recommendation connections with vets that regularly work with owners of farmers of poultry.
As time advances, these recommendation connections with become and invaluable source of income for
the organization.

5.3 Pricing

In this area, explain the costs of your solutions as well as. You should offer as much details as possible
about your costs as possible in this area. However, if you have hundreds of items, condense your product
list categorically. This area of the organization technique strategy should not span more than 1 page.

6.0 Organizational Plan And Personnel Summary

6.1 Corporate Organization

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6.2 Organizational Budget

6.3 Management Biographies

In this area of the company strategy, you should write a two to four passage bio about your experience,
your education, and your expertise set. For each proprietor or key worker, you should provide a brief
bio in this area.

7.Financial Plan

7.1 Actual Assumptions

• The Poultry Village will have an yearly income amount of growth of 10% per season.
• The Owner will obtain $900,000 of debt resources to create the company.
• The loan will have a 15 season term with an 8% interest amount.

7.2 Understanding Analysis

During times of financial slowdown or a gradual economic system, the Organization may have issues
with top line income as ranchers range down their buying activities and farm owners cut back on capital
expenses. However, the census focus on by the Organization have remarkable financial endurance, and

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as such, decreases in general financial efficiency should have only a average effect on the Business’s
earnings.

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7.3 Source of Funds

7.4 General Assumptions

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7.5 Profit and Loss Statements

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7.6 Cash Flow Analysis

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7.7 Balance Sheet

7.8 General Assumptions

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7.9 Business Ratios

7.10 Expanded Profit and Loss Statements

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Expanded Cash Flow Analysis

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Note: It’s one thing to start a chicken farm, but to start an actual business out of it is
something else entirely. You are not only going to become a chicken farmer, but a
businessperson as well, depending on what markets you want to target and what part of the
chicken industry you want to tap into. In the chicken industry there are two main sectors:
Layers, which are chickens bred and raised to produce eggs, or broilers, chickens raised and
bred to be slaughtered. Whatever sector you choose, you have to make responsible
managerial and financial decisions to make your chicken farm business a profitable one.

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