Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
CRANES: 1959-2004
Nenad Zrnić
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Dep. of Mechanization
11000 Belgrade, 27 marta 80, Serbia and Montenegro
E-mail: nzrnic@mas.bg.ac.yu
Klaus Hoffmann
Vienna University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Inst. for Engineering Design and for Transport, Handling, and Conveying Systems
A-1060 Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Austria
E-mail: hoffmann@ft.tuwien.ac.at
INTRODUCTION
The method of handling ship cargo in the early 1950s was not very different from that
used during the time of the Phoenicians, Figure 1 [6]. The time and labor required to
load and unload ships increased substantially with the size of the ship, requiring more
time in port than at sea, Figure 2 [6]. The problem “how to lift a load” is as old as
humankind. From the earliest times people have faced this problem. The first written
information on the use of hoisting mechanisms appeared around 530 BC, mainly
concerning the construction of the first temple of Artemis in Ephesus [13]. The
forerunners of modern cranes in the ports were the wooden slewing cranes developed in
the middle Ages, Figure 3 [20]. The slewing level luffing crane was the main means of
cargo loading and unloading between ship and shore up to the end of 1950s, Figure 4
[20].
Through the 1950s, general cargo continued to be handled as break-bulk (i.e. palleted)
cargo. Pallets were moved, generally one at a time, onto a truck or rail car that carried
them from the factory or warehouse to the docks. Each pallet was unloaded and hoisted,
by cargo net and crane, off the dock onto the ship. Once the pallet was in the ship’s
hole, it had to be positioned precisely and braced to protect it from damage during the
voyage. This process was then reversed at the other end, making the marine transport of
general cargo a slow, labor-intensive, and expensive process. All this began to change
in 1955. Believing that individual items of cargo needed to be handled only twice - at
their origin when stored in a standardized container box and at their destination when
unloaded, Malcolm McLean purchased a small tanker company, renamed it SeaLand,
and adapted its ships to transport truck trailers. The first voyage of a SeaLand container
ship commenced on April 26, 1956 between Newark, New Jersey, and Puerto Rico. In
the years that followed, standardized containers were constructed, generally twenty or
forty feet long without wheels, having locking mechanisms at each corner that could be
secured to truck chassis, a rail car, a crane, or to other containers inside a ship’s hole or
on its deck. The idea of shipping cargo in locked containers has been widely accepted,
resulting in an uninterrupted worldwide growth of about 8% a year at the beginning of
this century [16], [21].
Fig.1: Beginnings of handling ship cargo. Fig.2: Past of handling ship cargo.
Conventional STS cranes are used for servicing the following ships:
1. Panamax ships: III-generation ships with a beam of less than 32.3 m (width of
Panama Canal) – their structure was developed from end of 1960s up to early
1980s, and they operate with up to 13 containers abeam on deck and with
maximum capacity of 4,700/4,900 TEU (Twenty Equivalent Unit);
2. Post-Panamax ships: IV-generation ships, developed from 1984, whose beam
is greater than the width of the Panama Canal – they operate with up to 20
containers abeam on deck and with a maximum capacity of 7,000 TEU;
3. Mega ships or Jumbo ships: Ships of the most recent generation, pioneered in
the last years of the 1990s, they operate with more than 20 containers abeam
on deck and with a capacity of more than 7,000 TEU.
The conventional and modified A-frame crane with single trolley and one operator is
still the workhorse of container cranes industry [7]. In the last two decades there have
been many attempts to improve the productivity of cranes by introducing the second
hoist, or second trolley [23]. Dual hoist cranes have a second hoist located over the
quay. They are conceived in the early 1980s, first by ECT (European Container
Terminal) Rotterdam, and then by Virginia Port Authority [11]. These cranes can
increase productivity by about 50%, but also increase the initial costs by 30 to 50%,
require an additional operator, and increase operating costs. In practice they were not
economic, but they may be making a comeback, as only one operator is needed on the
ship trolley, and the second trolley may be fully automated. The newer solution of dual
hoist crane combined the solution of dual hoist crane and elevating platform, Figure 9
[14]. Dual hoist elevating cranes are dual hoist single cranes, but the shuttle runway
elevates to the ideal elevation. These cranes cost more than dual hoist cranes but have
higher productivity [14].
The double trolley also boosts productivity of the crane, Figure 10 [8]. The suggestion is
that two trolleys operate on the same runway. The SeaLand Ansaldo cranes in Taiwan
are designed to carry two trolleys. For double trolley operations, the landside trolley
transfer containers from the landside half of the ship to extreme landside lanes, and the
waterside trolley operates from the waterside half of the ship to the waterside lanes.
Boom deflections could cause problems when two trolleys are operating simultaneously
over the ship. Since a trolley should not carry over the personnel, some of the transfer
vehicles need to wait for the waterside trolley to pass. This reduces production, but not
significantly. The second trolley requires a second operator. Nowadays, a dual hoist
crane will be more productive than a double trolley crane. The initial and operating
costs of two cranes solutions are the same, so there is no apparent advantage in the
double trolley crane [8].
The first low profile cranes emerged in the late 1960s. The boom is supported by a
hanger system including support truck and wheels; it rides on the wheels at all times.
For the PACECO standard, all machinery and electrical equipment is on the boom. The
machinery travels with the boom and causes significant increases in the wheel loadings
[12]. Low profile cranes cost about 15% more than A-frame cranes and were used when
it was necessary to restrict the height of the crane (under max. 46 m), i.e. because they
have the advantage of keeping cranes profile below aircraft clearance lines, Figure 8.
During the period 1970-1999 approximately 40 of these cranes were built, sized to
service vessels between 13 and 16 containers wide. Except for the US, they are now
found only in Italy.
The trolley tow ropes run from the machinery house to the sheaves at the landside of the
crane, through the trolley to the tip of the boom, and back to the house, Figure 12 [2].
This arrangement allows the trolley to be shallow and lightweight, permitting greater lift
height and smaller loads on the crane structure and wharf [15].
A machinery trolley (Figure 14, [10]) has the trolley and main hoist machinery on
board. No trolley drive ropes are required, and the main hoist ropes (Figure 15, [2]) are
shorter than for a rope-towed trolley [15].
For the structural design, weight is the main difference between the two types of
trolleys. The weight of the rope-towed trolley is approximately one-third that of a
machinery trolley. The main disadvantage of the machinery trolley is the increase in
crane weight and wheel loads on the wharf.
The first dockside container handling crane, built by PACECO in 1959, utilized a RTT.
This crane was conceptualized for operation on the existing wharf. This was common in
1959 [15]. The minimization of wharf loads was the primary factor favoring the RTT
cranes for other existing facilities. This design became the model for the next generation
of container handling cranes for most ports in the world, except for a few European
ports. These RTT cranes have provided excellent service over the years and, with proper
maintenance, have exhibited high reliability. However, the resulting maze of ropes,
sheaves and trolleys has become complex. Some European crane manufacturers adopted
the MOT design concept for most of their cranes. Kocks introduced the first European
machinery trolley container crane in 1968 and have since used the same basic
philosophy for most of their cranes worldwide. Another German manufacturer, Noell,
later introduced their machinery trolley cranes [15].
Less than 10 years ago, American President Lines (APL) concluded negotiations with
the Port of Los Angeles for construction of a new port facility. APL developed a new
Post-Panamax crane specification written for the traditional RTT design. Bids were
received from many international crane manufacturers. But one manufacturer, Noell,
offered an MOT-type design. At first, APL did not consider changing from the
traditional RTT – perhaps this was because the traditional design was familiar and
worked well. But on second sight, the design began to intrigue the evaluation team.
APL’s in-house evaluation team looked at it this way [2,5]:
If no container cranes had ever been built and there were no dock wheel load
constraints, would the team recommend a crane with a RTT system or as a MOT?
Interestingly, the group was inclined toward the MOT. As a next step, APL invited a
small group of crane experts to join the evaluation team. The team was asked to keep in
mind the basic criteria: that no container crane had ever been built, no design constraints
exist, and the goal is to optimize efficiency, reliability and maintenance of the crane.
The interesting result was how easily the group concluded that, with these criteria, the
MOT design was the logical choice. Prior to making the final decision, the APL team
visited sites where Noell had installed cranes of similar design. Why was the MOT
system chosen?
Conventional cranes
manually - operated cranes,
majority of today's quay cranes,
performances mainly depend
on a human factor, i.e. capabilities
of operator
Automated cranes
Cranes of the future, equipped with
advanced and intelligent control and
measurement systems,
do not require human operation
1. Crane rail gage: 30,48 m (100 feet); although there are some good arguments
for increasing the gage to as much as 45,72 m (150 feet), the cost of shipping
the erected crane will be much greater.
2. Lift above rail: 39,92 m (131 feet) now, 47,55 m (156 feet) future. The higher
the trolley is above the wharf, the more difficult is to control the load.
Therefore, the current height should be kept to a minimum.
3. Outreach: 64/69,2 m (210/227) feet; the increase of the outreach will follow
the increase in the size of ships. Current New Standard Maersk crane orders
provide for vessels with 22 containers on deck. Ships with 23 containers on
deck are referred to as Suezmax, and with 24 containers across as Malacca-
max.
4. Trolley travel speed: 250/300 m/min, or even more. In 2002 ZPMC made
fundamental improvement on the trolley starting up, braking and traveling, and
the trolley speed has successfully reached 350 m/min, instead of previous 240
m/min. This crane is now undergoing industrial tests.
5. Trolley tipe: Both types of trolley systems, RTT and MOT have beneficial
site-specific applications, and are viable. For each crane purchase, the owner
have to evaluate each design and then choose the design which best suits the
site and the all-round operational needs. For large super productive cranes, the
MOT will be the choice of the future.
An effective crane must be designed to suit the present and future needs of the end user.
But if today’s crane is built large enough to serve tomorrow’s ships using future
technology, the crane will not perform well on today’s ship with today’s technology.
For years design team members - mechanical, structural, automation, and electrical
engineers have worked together to produce economical design that meet operational
demands and that can be efficiently fabricated and erected. As always, the “best”
(“optimum”) design requires balance. The cost and benefits of each alternative should
be considered in respect of the specific case.
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