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20
After you have finished reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Explain how DNA is copied into RNA by the process of transcription.
Describe how mRNA builds a protein by the process of translation.
Discuss the importance of codons, anticodons, and peptide bonds to
the process of translation and protein synthesis.
Introduction
Genes are one thing we all get from our parents. We say that we hope we
get “good genes.” Now that DNA has been shown to be what makes up the
genetic material, it is time to look more closely at genes. What is a gene?
In 1908, an English doctor, Sir Archibald Garrod, was explaining his
new ideas about diseases to other doctors. As an example, Garrod told
about a man who had a disease that made his urine black instead of yel-
low. All his life he had produced black urine. Most people have an enzyme
that destroys the black substance in urine. Garrod believed that people
who produce black urine lack the gene that makes the needed enzyme. His
idea suggested that each gene is responsible for producing a single enzyme.
Garrod was the first person to suggest what a gene is and how it works.
423
424 Genetics and Molecular Biology
Figure 20-1 The genes of the didinium, a one-celled organism, contain the
instructions for making the enzymes that will digest the paramecium it has caught.
G
Enzyme
6
F
Figure 20-2 Genes instruct cells
Enzyme
to make various enzymes. A specific Enzyme Enzyme Enzyme Enzyme 5
1 2 3 4
enzyme controls each metabolic
step. A B C D E
Chapter 20 / Genes and Gene Action 425
1960s. This effort has been called “breaking the genetic code.” In a real
sense, the secret of life was no longer a mystery.
In eukaryotic cells, DNA is stored in the nucleus. The construction of
cell proteins occurs outside the nuclear membrane. Protein synthesis
occurs at the ribosomes. These small organelles are distributed through-
out the cytoplasm in all eukaryotic cells. How does the genetic informa-
tion in the DNA within the nucleus get to the ribosomes? A third type of
molecule, ribonucleic acid, or RNA, works as a helper to transfer the
information. A flow of information can be described. Information flows
from DNA to RNA to protein. We can now examine in more detail how
this process works. (See Figure 20-3.)
Protein
synthesis
RNA
DNA
in
Nucleus Ribosomes
H H
HO O H C OH HO O H C OH
C H H C C H H C
H H H H
C C C C
H OH OH OH
a. Sugar in DNA-deoxyribose b. Sugar in RNA-ribose
P P
D A A
R
P P
D T R U
P P
D G R G
P P
D C R C
Is stored in the nucleus (of eukaryotic cells) Moves out of nucleus to ribosomes in the
cytoplasm
Contains the sugar deoxyribose Contains the sugar ribose
Has four nucleotides: adenine, cytosine, Has four nucleotides: adenine, cytosine,
guanine, and thymine guanine, and uracil (substitutes for thymine)
Consists of a double-stranded molecule Consists of a single-stranded molecule
RNA polymerase
RNA nucleotides
T C C A A T
A T U
C
G
T U
A
G
CA U C C A
T
T A G G T T A
T C A T C C A A T T G G DNA in
LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 20-5a s/s
A G T A G G T T A A C C nucleus
Same
nucleotide
sequence
mRNA in
U C A U C C A A U U G G cytoplasm
■■ FROM RNA
LIVING TO PROTEIN
ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 20-5b s/s
So far we have solved one problem. We have moved the genetic infor-
mation, stored as a nucleotide sequence, from the nucleus to the cyto-
plasm by using mRNA. However, another problem still remains: how to
use the nucleotide sequence in the mRNA molecule to build a protein
with the correct sequence of amino acids. This problem involves a change
of “language.” Going from one spoken language to another is called trans-
lation. The genetic process that now occurs—using the mRNA molecule
to build a protein—is also called translation. The nucleotide language of
RNA must be translated into the amino acid language of proteins. This
translation occurs at the ribosome. It is necessary to figure out how the
four different nucleotides present in mRNA—A, C, G, and U—can be used
to assemble 20 different types of amino acids in the correct order to form
a particular protein. Clearly, one nucleotide cannot represent one amino
acid. If the nucleotides were taken in pairs, there would be only 16 dif-
ferent pairs possible (42). Try it yourself: AA, AT, AC, AG, TA, TT, TC, TG,
and so on. This still does not provide enough codes for the 20 amino
428 Genetics and Molecular Biology
The cracking of the genetic code was one of the most fascinating accom-
plishments in recent scientific research. It occurred about 10 years after
Watson and Crick first revealed the structure of DNA. At that time, sci-
entists were faced with the same kind of puzzle as government specialists
who crack secret enemy military codes. However, the scientists needed
more than pencils and paper to solve the genetic code. The tools they
used to crack the genetic code turned out to be test tubes of chemicals
and the inner contents of bacteria.
Marshall Nirenberg, at the National Institutes of Health, was the
researcher who cracked the code. Nirenberg began by collecting the con-
tents of bacterial cells in test tubes. By adding RNA to the test tubes,
Nirenberg found that proteins were synthesized. It did not matter what
organism the RNA came from. The test tubes contained ribosomes from
bacterial cells plus everything else needed for protein synthesis. The ribo-
somes accepted and used the instructions for making proteins from the
RNA, even if the RNA was from another organism.
Nirenberg decided to use these artificial protein factories in his test
tubes. However, now he added a very special RNA. Another scientist,
Severo Ochoa at New York University, had learned how to assemble
nucleotides into a long strand of RNA. Ochoa had been able to make a
Chapter 20 / Genes and Gene Action 429
Second Position
U C A G
UUU UCU UAU UGU U
Phe Tyr Cys
UUC UCC UAC UGC C
U Ser
UU A UC A UA A Stop UGA Stop A
Leu
UUG UCG U AG Stop UGG Trp G
Third Position
First Position
CU A CC A CA A CGA A
Gln
C UG CCG C AG CGG G
A UU A CU A AU A GU U
Asn Ser
A UC Ile A CC A AC A GC C
A Thr
AUA ACA AAA AGA A
Lys Arg
A UG Met A CG A AG AGG G
GU U GC U GA U GGU U
Asp
GU C GC C GA C GGC C
G Val Ala Gly
GU A GC A GA A GGA A
Glu
GUG GCG GAG GGG G
■■ TRANSLATION
All that remained to be discovered was what are the translators. What
identifies the nucleotide triplets, that is, the codons that are lined up
along the mRNA molecule? What matches these codons with the corre-
sponding amino acids? That is, what translates the RNA code into a pro-
tein? A large group of hardworking molecules known as transfer RNA, or
tRNA, does this job. A tRNA molecule has a “split personality.” Located at
one end of the molecule is a triplet of nucleotides called the anticodon.
At the other end of the molecule, an amino acid is attached. (See Figure
20-7.) What would the “correct” amino acid be? The genetic code is
needed to explain this. The table of triplet codes shows that the codon
CCU stands for proline. If we use the base-pairing rules, we can deter-
mine that the anticodon—a triplet of nucleotides that will pair up with
the codon—for CCU is GGA. Therefore, the tRNA molecule with proline
at one end will have an anticodon of GGA at the other end. Similarly, for
the codon GCA, there will be a tRNA molecule with an anticodon CGU
on one end, and alanine as the amino acid on the other end.
The ribosomes are the organelles where the codes are read and the pro-
teins are assembled. The mRNA molecule passes through a large groove in
the middle of the ribosome. The ribosome’s structure allows only one
codon in the mRNA to be exposed at a time. The cell’s cytoplasm is full
of countless free-floating tRNA molecules. As the first codon in the mRNA
molecule is exposed at the ribosome, the correct tRNA—that is, one with
Amino acid
Point of Tail
amino acid
attachment
A
U C
Anticodon
Messenger
RNA
Codon Ribosome
the special types of cells through controlled gene expression is called cell
differentiation. This is an essential process of life. Without cell differen-
tiation, our bodies would be made up of only one type of cell. Your body
might be simply 100 kilograms of red blood cells. That would mean life
in a jar, which would not be much of a life at all! (See Figure 20-10.)
You may wonder what controls gene expression. So far, the best that
Chapter 20 / Genes and Gene Action 435
Blood cells
Hard
matter between
bone cells Canal Connective
in bone tissue cell
Bone
cell Fibers in
substance
between cells
In 1956, Francis Crick was so certain of the idea that genetic information
flows in only one direction, from DNA to RNA to proteins, that he named
it the “central dogma.” A dogma is an idea or set of ideas that is consid-
ered absolutely true. However, having read this far in the book, you might
expect that there are exceptions to this rule, as we have seen elsewhere in
biology. It turns out that Crick’s central dogma is almost always true. Sci-
entists have discovered a few rare exceptions, which are very important.
Viruses are essentially pieces of genetic material, usually contained
within a protective protein coat. Viruses must enter a living cell in order
to reproduce. When they enter a cell, viruses usually cause problems.
Viruses are the cause of the common cold, influenza (flu), and diseases
such as AIDS and herpes. Most viruses contain a DNA molecule. As would
be expected, this is their genetic material. Surprisingly, however, some
viruses contain RNA as their genetic material. (See Figure 20-11.)
Glycoprotein
Capsid
Viral envelope
Figure 20-11
Some viruses RNA (two identical strands)
contain RNA as their
genetic material. Reverse transcriptase
However, most have
DNA as their
genetic material.
Chapter 20 / Genes and Gene Action 437
HIV
RNA
Reverse
transcriptase
DNA
Transcription
mRNA
Translation
Proteins for
viruses
HIV
Figure 20-12 HIV, a
HIV
retrovirus, changes its RNA
HIV
code into a DNA code.
INTRODUCTION
Scientists consider DNA to be the most important molecule in biology
because it contains the instructions that organisms use to build proteins.
One protein molecule that performs important functions in the body is
insulin. The protein insulin is a hormone that is produced in the pan-
creas. It lowers the level of blood sugar. Insulin also increases the storage
of glycogen in muscles and in the liver. Insulin consists of three chains of
amino acids. The gene for insulin was one of the first genes to be identi-
fied. In this investigation, you will study how the protein insulin is made
from DNA. The codes for the first six amino acids in one of insulin’s two
chains are: Thr Lys Pro Thr Tyr Phe.
MATERIALS
Paper clips: 10 black, 10 white, 10 red, 10 green, and 10 yellow
PROCEDURE
1. In pairs or small groups, write down the DNA code for the six amino
acids listed above. Find the codes for each amino acid in Figure 20-6.
2. Use the paper clips as DNA letters for each nucleotide. Make a model
of a strand of DNA for the part of the insulin molecule listed above.
Use the following key:
black = adenine (A)
white = thymine (T)
red = cytosine (C)
green = guanine (G)
yellow = uracil (U)
3. Write your group’s DNA code for the six amino acids of insulin on the
chalkboard. Why might some of the codes be different from the
others?
INTERPRETIVE QUESTIONS
1. Why do you think that DNA is kept in the nucleus of the cell even
though the information it contains must be transmitted to other parts
of the cell?
2. Assume that the DNA codon for GGG mutates to GGT. Would this
mutation have an effect on the synthesis of an insulin molecule?
3. Assume that the last DNA codon, AAG, mutates to AAT. Would this
mutation have any effect on the synthesis of an insulin molecule?
■■ CHAPTER 20 REVIEW
VOCABULARY
The following list contains all of the boldfaced terms in this chapter. Define
each of these terms in your own words.
anticodon, cell differentiation, codon, gene, gene expression, genetic
code, peptide bond, polypeptide, retrovirus, ribonucleic acid (RNA),
ribosomes, transcription, translation, viruses
16. Based on the information given in Figure 20-6 on page 429, what is
the sequence of nucleotides in the gene (DNA) shown in the figure
below? What amino acids do these nucleotides code for?
1 2
mRNA
A UGGU U A U A U U U U A C UGC A G A G A UG A A U UGC C C UGG
17. What happens to this mRNA after it leaves the nucleus? Name the
anticodons on the tRNA molecules that interact with it.
18. What would happen
LIVING if the nucleotide
ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, at arrow
2e/fig. 1 mutated
20-Q16 s/s into
adenine? What if the same thing happened to the nucleotide at
arrow 2?
19. How is protein synthesis similar to constructing a building?
20. How did scientists “crack” the genetic code?
Over the past several years, numerous research groups have reported
that bone marrow, the source of a person’s blood cells, can transform
into cells of the skin, muscle, heart, liver, and even brain. These lab and
animal studies have raised hopes that bone marrow or cells derived from
it could repair hearts, cure neurological disorders, and treat many other
medical conditions.
Some investigators, however, have challenged the bone-marrow
results. The stakes are high because of the politicized debate over
whether adult stem cells, such as those in bone marrow, are as promis-
ing a therapeutic tool as stem cells derived from embryos are.
In an upcoming Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Eva
Mezey of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke in
Bethesda, Md., and her colleagues report their analysis of the brain tis-
sue of two girls and two women. Each had received a bone-marrow
transplant from a male donor in a futile attempt to treat her illness.
Mezey’s group exposed brain-tissue samples from the four females to a
marker that attaches to a DNA sequence unique to a male’s Y chromo-
some. The investigators also applied antibodies specific to nerve cells.
In each case, Mezey and her colleagues identified a small number of
nerve cells with Y chromosomes. For example, one girl studied had
received a bone-marrow transplant when she was 9 months old and
died less than a year later. When researchers examined 182,000 of her
brain cells, they found Y chromosomes in 519—and 19 of those males
cells also displayed nerve cell markers.
Another research team’s unpublished findings mirror Mezey’s study.
Last year, Martin Körbling of the University of Texas M.D. Anderson Can-
cer Center in Houston and his colleagues employed the same Y
chromosome-based strategy to discover bone-marrow-derived skin, gut,
and liver cells in a half-dozen women who had received marrow trans-
plants before dying. Now, Körbling tells Science News, “we have data
showing similar results in midbrain and cortex tissue.”
Diane Krause of Yale University notes that her research team and many
others are vigorously studying the mechanisms by which bone-marrow
cells may transform into cells other than blood cells. Unless researchers
can enhance the pace of this natural cellular makeover, the phenome-
non is unlikely to be of much medical use, both she and Mezey caution.