Circulation Kemper PDF

Drinking Water Hygiene
Water Supply Circulation Systems

Preface to fourth edition
Preface to fourth edition
2
This fourth edition of the Kemper Geberit Circulation The "Circulation system hydraulics" section was written
Manual has been completely revised. The coming into for- and extensively supplemented by Professor Rickmann.
ce of the amended European Drinking Water Regulations Aspects directly related to the design and installation of
and related plumbing codes and standards has given circulation systems are taken into account, and typical
drinking water hygiene a new importance, particularly in practical decontamination measures explained.
relation to public buildings such as care homes and The hygiene information is based on Council Directive 98/
hospitals. 83/EC on the quality of water intended for human con-
In fulfilling its duty of care to the public, the operator is now sumption and the amended Drinking Water Regulations
responsible for ensuring the quality of drinking water in brought into force on 1 January 2003. The design ex-
building supply systems meets these requirements. amples for circulation systems are based on the principles
Particularly in medical facilities, the monitoring health established in the DVGW codes of practice.
authorities tend to demand a more extensive test regime, Kemper, Geberit and the authors will gladly answer any
for legionellae or pseudomonads for example, and some- questions or offer further advice.
times stipulate drastic measures where results are positi-
ve. The authors have therefore completely revised the
entire "Hygiene" chapter of this technical manual in light of
the latest findings.
Kemper GmbH + Co. KG Geberit International AG
Ullrich Petzolt Martin Ziegler
Olpe, February 2005
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Dr Werner Mathys (Lecturer) Professor Bernd Rickmann
Universitätsklinikum Münster Fachhochschule Münster

Institute of Hygiene, Department of Environmental Department of Energy and the Built Environment
Hygiene
Professional development and experience: Professional development and experience:

1967 - 1974 Read Biology and Chemistry at the Westfä- Apprenticeship as "Plumber and Fitter"
lische Wilhelms-Universität Münster Studied "Heating and Sanitary Engineering" at the Staatli-
1975 Award of Doctorate by the WWU Münster che Ingenieurakademie für Bauwesen in Berlin, and "En-
From 1975 Member of staff of the Institute of Hygiene of ergy and Process Engineering" at the Technische
the WWU Münster Universität Berlin
From 1976 Head of Water, Soil and Air Hygiene Labora- Technical Manager of Sanitary and Heating Engineering
tories business
1990 Accredited as Specialist in Hospital Hygiene by the From 1980 Professorship at the Fachhochschule Mün-
Federal Office of Health (now RKI) in Berlin ster. Specialisms: "Plumbing & Hospital Engineering" and
1994 Completion of requirements and award of post- "Computer Aided Design"
doctoral lecturing qualification in "Hygiene" by the Medical
Faculty of the WWU Münster. Member of CEN, DIN, DVGW and VDI committees
1998 Recognised by the German Accreditation Council
as Expert Assessor for Accreditation of Medical Laborato- rickmann@fh-muenster.de
ries
From 2001 Deputy Head of the Institute of Hygiene and
Head of the Department of Hygiene
Member of VDI and other committees
mathys@uni-muenster.de
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Content
1 Hygiene in water systems - basic principles of microbiology of drinking water, health risks
posed by pathogens, protection .......................................................................................................... 10
1.1 Biofilms ................................................................................................................................................... 10
1.2 Cold water .............................................................................................................................................. 11
1.2.1 Pseudomonas aeruginosa....................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.2 Basic design and installation rules ........................................................................................................... 11
1.2.3 Pressure test........................................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.4 Commissioning ....................................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.5 Flushing system ...................................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.6 Operating water supply system ............................................................................................................... 12
1.3 Hot water ................................................................................................................................................ 13
1.3.1 Atypical mycobacteria ............................................................................................................................. 13
1.3.2 Legionellae.............................................................................................................................................. 13
1.3.2.1 Diseases caused by legionellae (legionellosis) .......................................................................................... 14
1.3.2.2 Channel of infection................................................................................................................................. 15
1.3.2.3 Sources of proliferation and exposure ..................................................................................................... 15
1.3.2.4 Hot water system as source of infection ................................................................................................. 16
1.4 Mode of operation................................................................................................................................... 17
1.5 Practical consequences and concepts .................................................................................................... 18
1.6 Legislation............................................................................................................................................... 18
1.7 Frequently asked questions..................................................................................................................... 18
2 Determining pipe diameters for hot and cold water ........................................................................... 22
2.1 Available pressure differential .................................................................................................................. 22
2.2 Calculating flow rates .............................................................................................................................. 24
2.3 Flow velocities......................................................................................................................................... 29
2.4 Water company meters........................................................................................................................... 29
2.5 Equipment .............................................................................................................................................. 31
2.6 Switching pressure differential of group of water heaters ........................................................................ 31
2.7 Floor pressure drop................................................................................................................................. 31
2.8 Pressure drops in pipes .......................................................................................................................... 31
2.8.1 Pressure gradient due to pipe friction ...................................................................................................... 32
2.8.2 Detailed calculations ............................................................................................................................... 35
2.8.3 Simplified calculations ............................................................................................................................. 35
2.9 Designing flow path producing worst hydraulic conditions....................................................................... 36
2.10 Balancing calculations............................................................................................................................. 37
3 Circulation systems .............................................................................................................................. 38
3.1 Design principles..................................................................................................................................... 42
3.1.1 Main distribution systems ........................................................................................................................ 43
3.1.1.1 Bottom distribution system, side feed ..................................................................................................... 43
3.1.1.2 Bottom distribution system, central feed ................................................................................................. 44
3.1.1.3 Tichelmann distribution system ............................................................................................................... 44
3.1.1.4 Top circulation collection manifold........................................................................................................... 45
3.1.1.5 Liner circulation in hot water risers .......................................................................................................... 46
3.1.2 Protection against ingress of non-drinking water .................................................................................... 47
3.1.3 Floor systems.......................................................................................................................................... 48
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3.1.3.1 3 litre rule ................................................................................................................................................ 48
3.1.3.2 Circulation to points of use...................................................................................................................... 48
3.2 Design methods for circulation systems .................................................................................................. 49
3.2.1 Short method.......................................................................................................................................... 50
3.2.2 Simplified and detailed methods.............................................................................................................. 50
3.2.2.1 Circulation flow rate................................................................................................................................. 50
3.2.2.2 Temperature drop in circulation circuit..................................................................................................... 54
3.2.2.3 Determining pipe diameter and pump pressure differential ...................................................................... 55
3.2.3 Sizing circulation liners in hot water risers................................................................................................ 57
3.2.3.1 Special features ...................................................................................................................................... 57
3.2.3.2 Determining circulation flow rates ............................................................................................................ 57
3.2.3.3 Minimum flow rate in riser........................................................................................................................ 59
3.2.4 Regulation............................................................................................................................................... 60
3.2.4.1 kV-range required for circulation regulating valves ................................................................................... 63
3.3 Available regulation technology .............................................................................................................. 63
3.3.1 Static circulation regulating valves ........................................................................................................... 63
3.3.1.1 Multi-Fix riser regulating valve.................................................................................................................. 63
3.3.1.2 Presettable isolating valve ....................................................................................................................... 64
3.3.2 Thermostatic circulation regulating valves................................................................................................ 65
3.3.2.1 Multi-Therm riser regulating valve ............................................................................................................ 65
3.3.2.2 Eta-Therm floor regulating valve .............................................................................................................. 68
3.4 Commissioning a circulation system........................................................................................................ 69
3.5 Verifying regulation through numerical simulation..................................................................................... 69
3.5.1 Bottom distribution system, side feed ..................................................................................................... 70
3.5.2 Top distribution system, central feed ...................................................................................................... 72
3.5.3 Tichelmann distribution system ............................................................................................................... 73
3.5.4 Top circulation collection manifold........................................................................................................... 75
3.5.5 Liner circulation in hot water risers .......................................................................................................... 76
3.5.6 Circulation to points of use...................................................................................................................... 78
4 System decontamination...................................................................................................................... 82
4.1 Eliminating pipes with stagnant water...................................................................................................... 82
4.2 Disinfection ............................................................................................................................................. 82
4.2.1 Unregulated system ................................................................................................................................ 83
4.2.2 System regulated with thermostatic circulation regulating valves ............................................................. 84
4.2.3 Verification of disinfection temperatures .................................................................................................. 85
4.2.4 Configuration supporting thermal disinfection .......................................................................................... 87
4.3 Increasing temperature in existing hot water supply systems................................................................... 87
4.3.1 System survey......................................................................................................................................... 87
4.3.1.1 Temperature measurements ................................................................................................................... 88
4.3.1.2 Flow rate measurements ......................................................................................................................... 89
4.3.1.3 Pressure differential measurements......................................................................................................... 89
4.3.2 Diagnostics ............................................................................................................................................. 90
4.3.2.1 Water heating system.............................................................................................................................. 90
4.3.2.1.1 Switching off circulation pump ................................................................................................................ 91
4.3.2.1.2 Backflows, circulation failure ................................................................................................................... 92
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4.3.2.2 Inadequate circulation flow rate ............................................................................................................... 92
4.3.2.2.1 Circulation pumps ................................................................................................................................... 93
4.3.2.2.2 Check valves........................................................................................................................................... 95
4.3.2.2.3 Heat exchangers..................................................................................................................................... 96
4.3.2.2.4 Undersized pipes .................................................................................................................................... 98
4.3.2.2.5 Regulating valves .................................................................................................................................... 98
4.3.2.3 Excessive circulation flow rate ................................................................................................................. 99
4.4 Follow-up tests ..................................................................................................................................... 100
5 Design example .................................................................................................................................. 102
5.1 Hot water supply pipes ........................................................................................................................ 102
5.1.1 Floor pressure drop............................................................................................................................... 102
5.1.2 Floor water meter................................................................................................................................. 104
5.1.3 Filter...................................................................................................................................................... 104
5.1.4 Available pressure differential ∆pverf calculated using simplified method ................................................ 104
5.1.5 Determining pipe diameter and calculating pressure drop ..................................................................... 106
5.2 Circulation system................................................................................................................................. 107
5.2.1 Design assumptions.............................................................................................................................. 107
5.2.2 Calculating circulation flow rates ........................................................................................................... 108
5.2.3 Calculating diameters of circulation pipes.............................................................................................. 109
5.2.4 Circulation pump delivery pressure........................................................................................................ 109
5.2.5 Designing circulation regulating valves................................................................................................... 112
5.2.6 Temperature drop in circulation circuit................................................................................................... 114
6 Tables, charts and forms .................................................................................................................... 116
7 Forms................................................................................................................................................... 158
8 Glossary............................................................................................................................................... 170
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1 Hygiene in water systems - basic principles of
microbiology of drinking water, health risks
posed by pathogens, protection
Dr Werner Mathys (Lecturer), Dr Elisabeth Junge-Mathys, MD, Institute of Hygiene of the Universitätsklinikum Münster
The presence and extent of biofilms have a particularly im-

1Hygiene in water systems - basic principles of microbiology of drinking water, health risks posed by pathogens, protection
Dr Werner Mathys (Lecturer), Dr Elisabeth Junge-Mathys, MD, Institute of Hygiene of the Universitätsklinikum Münster
It is commonly assumed that drinking water poses no risk

portant effect on the microbiological quality of drinking
to health. People are completely unaware of the potential
water in supply systems.
danger from pathogens in the water from a building's sup-
ply system. Continuous development and the growing
complexity of water supply systems have given rise to
1.1 Biofilms
new, previously largely unknown risks from microorga-
nisms not originating from sewage. This is particularly the Biofilms consist of bacterial, fungal and/or algal cells and
case where building (hospital, care home, hotel, etc) wa- an intracellular matrix (mucuses) that facilitates a build-up
ter supply systems take the form of involved networks. of iron or limescale deposits. Biofilms colonise all inter-
Pathogens of this type are sometimes not adequately de- faces on which microbial growth is possible, such as the
tected by conventional techniques, and the public and walls of pipes, storage vessels and equipment. Under the-
even experts often seriously underestimate their im- se conditions microorganisms arise as mixed rather than
portance. pure culture.
Recent investigations show the water supply system is Pathogens such as legionellae or pseudomonads can
important as a source of infection not only with legionel- also be associated with the biofilm and use it as a shield
lae, but also other microorganisms, particularly Pseu- against otherwise adverse living conditions. Insufficient
domonas aeruginosa. This means both hot and cold chlorination, for example, only leads to deactivation of the
supply systems must be considered in this respect. surface layer, leaving deeper layers of the biofilm untou-
Section 3 of the new Drinking Water Regulations (2001) ched. Bacteria can continually replenish themselves in
now covers building water supply systems and imposes these deeper zones as some become entrained in the
quality requirements. This has an impact on the duty of flow of water. Conventional microbiological checks only
care of the operator, who is responsible in the event of detect these "planktonic" bacteria. However, they repre-
waterborne diseases arising. sent just a tiny fraction of microorganisms present in the
Practical studies show that serious infringements of the biofilms.
basic rules of hygiene arising in the course of design, in- Biofilm growth is favoured by water stagnation, low flow
stallation and operation can often lead to stubborn micro- rates and the nutrient content of the water. In order to
bial contamination of the water supply system. have a lasting effect, decontamination concepts that
endeavour to eliminate or reduce bacteria in water supply
The following should be mentioned as potential risk systems must always aim to shrink or even get rid of the
factors for contamination of the building's cold water and biofilms.
sometimes its hot water system: The occurrence of biofilms in the overall water supply
system also reveals the fact that ad hoc measures often
• Inappropriate design (for example, oversizing of fail to achieve the required success, since they generally
storage vessels and pipes) only affect the free-swimming organisms.
• Irregularly used sections of pipework with stagnant
water Water systems must therefore be designed, installed,
• Defective, inexpert installation operated and maintained in such a way that they do not
• Use of unsuitable materials and components favour the growth or formation of biofilms or microorga-
• Operation in contravention of regulations nisms (see also VDI 6023). This generally requires:
• Temperature is excess of 20 ºC in cold water system
• Conditions favouring biofilm formation • Installation using materials that where possible do not
• Inappropriate leak testing prior to commissioning release any exploitable nutrients
• Inappropriate commissioning • The avoidance of water stagnation
• The avoidance of unnecessary storage of the water
• Appropriate draw-off rates in accordance with regula-
tions and design assumptions
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• The avoidance of temperature ranges that promote Pseudomonads are characterised by their extremely mo-
the growth of bacteria in general and pathogens in dest nutritional needs and ability to multiply even at tem-
particular peratures below 15 °C. These attributes enable them to
contaminate any water including drinking water. The most
The most important microorganisms that can multiply in common form of contamination is localised, for example
water supply systems and contribute to microbial pro- of point-of-use fittings. These are easily colonised via
blems include legionellae and atypical mycobacteria in hot splashes from contaminated traps. Even non-touch
water, and pseudomonads and other heterotrophic bac- fittings can be identified as a source of pseudomonads.
teria in cold water. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is familiar outside hospitals as
a cause of skin infections such as whirlpool dermatitis and
1.2 Cold water folliculitis, and otitis externa (infection of the ear canal) as-
sociated with swimming pools. Extremely high doses of
In addition to faecal indicators such as Escherichia coli, the bacterium generally never achieved in water supply
coliform bacteria and enterococci, which can indicate in- systems are needed for these infections. There is virtually
gress from non-drinking water systems, in cold water no risk of a person in normal health becoming infected
supplies unspecific contaminations (increase in the num- with P. aeruginosa. In the medical sector, however, it is
ber of colony forming units - CFU) and contamination by one of the most common causative organisms of often
pseudomonads are important. fatal wound, urinary tract and airway infections. In such
cases these organisms are generally transferred by being
1.2.1 Pseudomonas aeruginosa drawn into sensitive equipment such as ventilators, etc.
Even in their own homes patients with inherited cystic
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a ubiquitous bacterium ca- fibrosis (mucoviscidosis) are particularly susceptible to air-
pable of colonising any moist niche. It occurs regularly in way infections.
sewage, surface waters, plants, fruits, food, damp soil, Terminal, non-systematic contamination is the most com-
damp cleaning cloths and sponges, washbasin traps, gul- mon source of hospital-acquired infections. Practically all
lies, even in disinfectant solutions. On a culture medium it available reports relate to this type of infection source.
grows and produces a green pigment. Sampling is of paramount importance here. It must allow
clear identification of the source and extent of the conta-
mination (see Sampling below).
Recently, contamination of entire water supply systems
with Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been increasingly
reported. The various causes can arise anywhere in the
chain from design through installation to operation.
Commissioning in particular is very important.
1.2.2 Basic design and installation rules
The following list of typical weak points makes no claims

to completeness. All of the materials and processes that
can provide a vehicle for ingress of the substance (such
as soil, dirt, animals, dirty water or residues) containing
bacteria into a water supply system must be considered
as possible sources.
• Pipes, equipment and valves must be sized for the
Fig 1 Culture of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on a culture medium,
showing formation of typical green pigment (pyocyanin) intended use
11
Hygiene in water systems - basic principles of microbiology of drinking water, health risks posed by
pathogens, protection
• Only clean and dry installation materials may be used. operation. The manufacturer must record system installa-
Caps and plugs may only be removed (for example tion details and produce operating instructions, and hand
from pipes or point-of-use fittings) immediately prior to this documentation over to the operator at the time of
installation. commissioning.
• After commissioning, points of use must be used re-
gularly at adequate flow rates. This applies even if a 1.2.5 Flushing system
building is not being or cannot be used.
• As far as possible heat transfer from hot water pipes Only completely hygienic drinking water or compressed
to cold water pipes must be prevented. The aim must air may be used. The water used for flushing must be
be to keep the cold water temperatures permanently checked to ensure it is of drinking quality as defined in
below 25 °C and preferably below 20 °C. Annex 1 of the Drinking Water Regulations (2001). In large
• "Wet" fire mains connected to the drinking water sup- buildings the test spectrum must also include Pseudomo-
ply system cannot be operated in such a way as to nas aeruginosa.
achieve reliable hygiene. This type of fire main may Flushing must be performed immediately prior to commis-
only be installed if expressly required by the fire autho- sioning a new system, and when recommissioning an
rity (see also VDI 6023). existing system or sections that for operational reasons
have been out of use for a long time.
1.2.3 Pressure test In healthcare facilities the system must not be approved
for use until a flawless microbiological hygiene test report
Leak tests with water to DIN 1988 Part 2, 11.1 may only (also confirming freedom from P. aeruginosa in 100 ml) is
be performed with completely hygienic filtered drinking available.
water, and are only permitted provided it is ensured (see If disinfection of the water is necessary when filling for the
also proceedings of the Consensus Conference of 31 first time, adequate disinfection capacity at a terminal
March 2004 in Bonn): point of use must be demonstrated. The microbiological
condition of the water at terminal points must be checked
• that the building service connection has been flushed
in accordance with the Drinking Water Regulations
and approved for connection and operation, or the
(2001). It is advisable to also check for the presence of
site water connection is hygienically suitable for filling
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
the system and the microbiological requirements of
the Drinking Water Regulations (2001) are met. In ad-
dition to the requirements of Annex 1 to these regula- 1.2.6 Operating water supply system
tions the scope of testing should be extended to
include Pseudomonas aeruginosa, at least in hospi- It is highly advisable to check the microbial condition of
tals and care homes. the entire water supply system before a building is handed
• that the pipe system is filled through completely hygie- over to the user. This necessitates carrying out an initial
nic components; the use of hoses must be avoided. risk analysis, for example using the Hazard Analysis Criti-
• that no more than 48 hours may elapse between leak cal Control Point (HACCP) concept tried and tested in the
test with drinking water and commissioning in accor- food industry. The approach could take the following
dance with the regulations. form:
• To ensure proper hygiene, testing with drinking water 1 Comprehensive documentation of the water supply
and subsequent isolation and draining is never per- system
mitted. 2 Specification of critical control points and aspects that
• Water supply systems that cannot be commissioned could impair water quality: supply, equipment (such as
immediately (within 48 hours) after the pressure test softeners, metering systems, filters, storage vessels or
must be tested in accordance with the safety require- distribution manifolds), transfer points (such as
ments with unlubricated compressed air or nitrogen. pressure boosting systems, peripheral buildings, fully
The test may be carried out in sections (see also ex- demineralised water, wet/dry fire main or drinking
planatory notes of the ZVSHK St. Augustin's Leak Te- water systems)
sting of Water Supply Systems). 3 Specification of descriptive control points representa-
tive of the system (for example at risers, circulation
1.2.4 Commissioning returns, floor distribution systems, most remote areas,
etc)
System commissioning must be timed to ensure conti- 4 Installation of special valves allowing appropriate
nuous subsequent operation. The system must be sampling at all control points
handed over to the operator/user immediately afterwards. 5 The building must be brought to life by using water!
At the time of handover the representative of the operator/
user also takes over responsibility for completely hygienic
12
6 Microbiological testing of the water quality (inclusion of sources of infection, effective preventive measures and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa recommended) at all the importance of atypical mycobacteria for the general
control points. The frequently encountered practice of public. Measures to reduce legionellae can also be expec-
taking only 1 or 2 samples from the periphery is ted to be effective in reducing mycobacteria.
completely inadequate for large buildings such as
hotels, hospitals and care homes. To enable an 1.3.2 Legionellae
appropriate response the test regime should be ca-
pable of identifying a potential source of contami- Legionellae are among the most important causes of
nation when first applied. environmental infections in all buildings, particularly in
7 Handover to operator only when perfect microbio- hospital facilities, and will therefore now be described in
logical test results available. detail.
As a result of their high mortality rate and epidemiological
During the handover the operator in particular must character, diseases caused by legionellae are often very
arrange for regular and complete changing of the drinking spectacular and are therefore reported with newspaper
water at all points of use until the system is operating in headlines, such as Killer Bacteria Strike During Sale,
accordance with the regulations and as intended. This is Bacteria Lurking in the Shower or Killer Bacteria Visit the
one of the most important measures for maintaining good Queen, that create great uncertainty amongst the public.
drinking water quality. Without adequate changing of the The first outbreak described took place in 1976 in the
water even decontamination measures are generally un- Bellevue Stratford Hotel in Philadelphia at the annual
successful. It is advisable to formulate a plan with clear convention of the American Legion of Philadelphia. The
instructions specifying exactly where and how often water 221 guests contracted a severe pneumonia. Despite
must be drawn off. inpatient treatment in the nearby hospitals 29 died and the
The Drinking Water Regulations (2001) (11) only allow event was characterised by anxiety and hysteria. As it was
materials notified by the German Federal Ministry of mainly veterans who were affected, the press and tele-
Health and Social Security in a list in the Federal Health vision dubbed this illness Legionnaires' or Veterans'
Bulletin to be used for disinfection. All measures must be disease. It was not until six months after this outbreak that
carefully documented. After necessary decontamination McDade, a member of the staff of the Center for Disease
the standard of microbiological hygiene must be re-tested Control (CDC) in Atlanta, managed after an intensive
and documented. search to isolate a previously unknown bacterium. This
bacterium was completely unrelated to microorganisms
1.3 Hot water described in the past and cannot be detected with con-
ventional microbiological methods. It was named
Even if the cold water is in perfect microbiological condi- Legionella pneumophila. More than 35 other species and
tion, specific colonisations with "hot water bacteria" can 50 subgroups have now also been described.
arise in hot water within certain temperature ranges. For
hot water as well it makes sense to establish an HACCP
concept in the design phase and include suitable
sampling points.
1.3.1 Atypical mycobacteria
Mycobacteria such as M. gordonae, M .kansasii, M.

xenopi and M. marinum are counted among the facultati-
ve pathogens and often categorised as "nontubercular" or
"atypical" mycobacteria. In addition to soil, the environ-
ment, and hot water in particular, seems to be the natural
habitat of many mycobacteria. They are generally asso-
ciated with biofilms, within which they can multiply. They
are characterised by a relatively high resistance to
chlorine. Some species have been shown to be trans-
ferred by drinking water, particularly endangering dialysis
patients and the HIV positive. In industrialised countries a Fig 2 Growth of legionellae from contaminated sample of hot water on
significant percentage of AIDS patients develops fatal special medium (BYCE-a agar)
infections caused by atypical mycobacteria; infection from

the environment is regarded as unlikely. However, there
are still many uncertainties involved in assessing relevant
13
One of the last outbreaks of Pontiac fever arose in May

2002 in a café in a shopping mall in Tennessee, affecting
about 100 patrons. The cause was evidently a water
misting system.
The non-specific clinical progression means isolated
cases of Pontiac fever are virtually never identified as
such. Intensive investigations have shown that legionello-
sis occurs worldwide and is by no means a rare infectious
disease.
Classic examples of epidemic outbreaks originating from
hospitals include that in the Wadsworth Medical Center in
Los Angeles with 218 cases, the extremely dramatic epi-
demic in a hospital in Stafford with 39 deaths, one in the
North Bavarian REHA-Klinik in 1990 affecting ten patients
Fig 3 Rod-shaped Legionella bacteria under fluorescing microscope at and resulting in three deaths, and the outbreak of Legi-
magnification of about 1000x onnaires' disease in a hospital in Frankfurt an der Oder in
2003 with at least two deaths. Much more frequent, even
Pathogens
if generally undetected, are isolated non-epidemic cases
Legionellae are widespread, rod-shaped to roundish
of illness, where it is very much more difficult to determine
aerobic water bacteria (Figs 2 and 3). Their natural habitat
the channel of infection. The number of cases of Legio-
is warm water and they are regularly isolated from lakes,
nella pneumonia in the USA is estimated at about 25,000,
ponds, rivers, hot springs and tropical rainwater. Their fre-
and in Germany between 400 and 500 cases have been
quent intracellular occurrence within unicellular organisms
reported to the RKI in recent years. However, it has to be
such as amoebae and ciliates, or in association with
assumed that "dark figure" is very high, and probably only
algae, enables them to withstand even adverse living con-
5 - 10% of cases are correctly diagnosed.
ditions. From their natural reservoirs they are sporadically
introduced into artificial biotopes created by people, in
Not every contact with legionellae leads to an infection.
which given optimal conditions - preferable in the tempe-
Only under specific conditions can the condition develop:
rature range between 30 and 45 ºC - they can multiply
rapidly. Virulence of legionellae
The majority of species, and especially Legionella pneu- The Pontiac strain of Legionella pneumophila SG 1 is
mophila, serogroup 1, Pontiac strain, are significant in particularly aggressive. It is responsible for most epide-
terms of human pathology. All of the representatives of mics (for example, Philadelphia and REHA-Klinik in
the Legionella pneumophila species, and numerous non- Bavaria).
pneumophilic species, are now counted among the most Number of absorbed bacteria and mode of trans-
important pathogens of infectious diseases (= legionello- mission
sis) inside and outside hospitals. As the number of legionellae absorbed by humans grows
the risk of disease increases. However, an infectious dose
1.3.2.1 Diseases caused by legionellae cannot be specified at present, as it depends on many
(legionellosis) factors internal and external to the person involved. It is
assumed that inhalation of legionellae inside unicellular or-
1 Legionnaires' disease (more accurately known as Le- ganisms is more likely to lead to development of a pneu-
gionella pneumonia): monia than to absorption of free-living bacteria. The
- severe, often fatal, atypical pneumonia transmission mode primarily discussed is inhalation of
- 25 - 30% of sufferers require intensive therapy extremely fine aerosols. High-risk patients in hospitals can
- Antibiotic therapy always needed also contract infections through aspiration or even
- Incubation period: 2 - 10 days drinking contaminated water.
- Multiple risk factors favour contraction of the disea- Susceptibility of the infectee
se In an age in which people are living longer and can under-
2 Pontiac fever: go increasingly complicated medical inventions, their
- Highly feverous, spontaneous infection of the re- immune status is particularly important. Multiple risk fac-
spiratory tract with spontaneous recovery (influen- tors can dramatically increase the likelihood of contracting
za-like illness) legionellosis.
- High rate of infection In addition to general risk factors for contracting legionel-
- Does not require hospitalisation losis, such as age, being of the male sex, smoking,
- Incubation period: 5 - 66 hours alcohol abuse and underlying diseases such as diabetes
- No risk-increasing factors known mellitus, autoimmune diseases, malignant lung tumours
14
and malignant haematological diseases, immunocompro- chlorine per litre) and all outlets flushed with chlorine. The
mised patients, undergoing, for example immunosup- storage vessels were drained and cleaned and deposits
pression or steroid therapy, or recovering from surgical removed. However, samples taken after these measures
intervention, run a particularly high risk. Organ and bone still showed a high level of contamination with legionellae.
marrow transplant patients are at extremely high risk. The entire system was then heated up to 70 °C and each
outlet flushed with hot water at 70 °C for five minutes.
1.3.2.2 Channel of infection Tests for legionellae were then negative. All of the guests
who had stayed at the hotel within the relevant time period
Inhalation of aerosols containing bacteria, or aspiration of and all doctors were informed.
legionellae or protozoa containing them from water in the
built environment, is probably the only potential cause of Japan, public swimming pool, 14 cases, one fatality,
infection by legionellae worth considering. Person-to- June 2000
person transmission is unknown. In the initial phase after 14 people aged between 58 and 85 showed symptoms
transplantation, however, obviously any contact with of Legionnaires' disease, a 73-year-old man died. All of
legionellae can lead to a disease being triggered. them had visited the pool a short time before it had been
closed because of the outbreak.
1.3.2.3 Sources of proliferation and exposure South Wales, UK, five cases, two deaths, February
2000
The epidemics of legionellosis from 1999 - 2004 de- Five guests of a hotel in South Wales contracted Legi-
scribed below are intended as examples that reveal the onnaires' disease between July 1999 and February 2000,
source of importance for an infection, and the fact that two died. The investigations conducted covered the ho-
infections involving a high proportion of deaths are still tel's swimming pool, the whirlpool facility, the water sup-
arising worldwide. ply system and a water mister for food on display. This
mister, which sprayed extremely fine droplets over cooled
Bovenkarspel, the Netherlands, whirlpool bath, 192
salads and vegetables to keep them looking attractive,
cases, more than 20 deaths, March 1999
was identified as the source of infection.
192 cases of Legionnaires' disease with a high mortality
rate were confirmed by the Dutch health authorities. All of Denmark, two cases in the same apartment building,
those infected had visited the Flora flower show in Boven- Spring 2000
karspel am Ijsselmeer. Intensive investigations lead to Two people living in the same apartment block and
identification of an exhibition whirlpool bath as the source supplied by the same hot water system fell ill with Legion-
of infection. This exhibit, which was filled with water and naires' disease. Legionellae were isolated in both apart-
heated, but not disinfected, produced aerosols that could ments and in the overall circulation system of the building,
be inhaled by the visitors to the exhibition hall. It caused and identified as the cause. The water temperatures were
the biggest epidemic in Europe to date. In the Nether- raised to 60 °C. A month later legionellae were still being
lands the shock of this outbreak triggered extensive legis- isolated from the water, but in lower concentrations. The
lation and regulations intended to prevent the growth of water system was then disinfected with chlorine. It is not
legionellae in water systems. known whether this decontamination measure was
successful.
Germany, prison, four cases, September 1999
Four inmates of a prison contracted legionellosis. High Paris, new hospital, four deaths, December 2000
concentrations of L. pneumophila SG1 were analysed in At least four patients in a newly built hospital in Paris died
water from the showers and other parts of the water of Legionnaires' disease. The ultramodern 750-bed
system. Two of the contaminated showers had been facility had been only been opened six months before-
used by those suffering from the disease. New shower hand and was only partially occupied. The official
facilities had been installed only three months beforehand. assumption was that stagnant water in unused parts of
the supply system was the source of the contamination.
Belgium, hotel, four cases, one death, June 1999
Two patients in a Dutch hospital were diagnosed as Murcia, Spain, 800 cases, two deaths, July 2001
having Legionnaires' disease. Both had stayed in the The cause of this, the world's biggest epidemic, was
same hotel in South Belgium during an event. Two other apparently a contaminated cooling tower in the inner city.
cases of Legionnaires' disease could be traced back to a Early detection and efficient health management evidently
stay in the same hotel. Testing of the hot water system re- made it possible to prevent further deaths.
vealed massive colonisation with legionellae of the same
species discovered in the infected guests. The tempera-
ture of the hot water was between 42 and 46 °C. The sy-
stem was hyperchlorinated (approximately 50 mg of
15
Hospital in Paris, twelve cases, five deaths, July 2001 the water system. Thermal disinfection carried out did not
In the Pompidou Hospital in Paris nine cases of Legion- achieve the required success and only hyperchlorination
naires' disease, three of which resulted in deaths, arose in killed the legionellae. Further decontamination measures
the period between November 2000 and January 2001. are required.
Changes were made to the hot water system. Despite
these measures three further cases occurred in July, two These examples very vividly demonstrate the widespread
of which resulted in deaths. Additional measures were nature of infection with legionellae, the severity of the
taken in relation to the hot water system. potential commercial losses and how difficult it is to com-
bat effectively. The most important sources are:
Barrow-in-Furness, UK, 131 cases, four deaths,
July 2002 • Open cooling towers of air conditioning systems
The air conditioning system (open cooling tower) of a pub- • Building hot water systems operated at excessively
lic building in Barrow-in-Furness in Cumbria was identified low temperature (30 - 48 °C)
as the source of 131 cases of Legionella pneumonia and • Heavily used whirlpool baths, hot tubs, hot spas, etc
at least four deaths. More than 300 people with symp- • Equipment producing aerosols (misters, humidifiers,
toms of Legionnaires' disease were given inpatient treat- etc)
ment. This was one of the biggest outbreaks in the UK.
A large number of cases of legionellosis are observed
Japan, thermal springs, 252 presumed cases, six after holidays, for example in the Mediterranean. Pneumo-
deaths, July 2002 nias or bronchial illnesses that have been contracted after
A newly opened thermal bath in Southern Japan suffered stays in hot countries and whose cause has not been cla-
252 suspected cases of Legionnaires' disease and six rified should therefore always be examined for the possi-
deaths. All of those affected had bathed in the pool. The bility of a Legionella infection. The European Working
authorities closed the resort immediately. Group on Legionella Infection (EWGLI) documents
centrally all reported of case of legionellosis contracted by
Koper, Slovenia, hotel, five cases, one death, August tourists and all hotels in which infections have arisen.
2002
Five members of a party of 19 tourists from Saxony con- 1.3.2.4 Hot water system as source of infection
tracted Legionnaires' disease, one 73-year-old man died.
The cause of the infection was identified as the hotel's hot The hot water system, particularly where operated at low
water system, which was operated at only 43 ºC. temperatures (< 55 ºC) to prevent scalding or save ener-
gy, is particularly important as a source of infection.
Valencia, Spain, 25 cases, one death, June 2003 Ingress of extremely small amounts of bacteria from the
In Valencia in May and June 2003 there were two out- municipal water supply or other sources (for example,
breaks, one involved an outpatient in Alcoy, and the other construction, equipment installation and repairs) is un-
a hospital cancer ward inpatient. In addition to patients a avoidable. At temperatures between 30 and 48 ºC massi-
number of visitors were affected. The source of the infec- ve proliferation can take place in the building water supply
tion was the hospital's hot water system. The system was system within a few days. Primarily affected are large buil-
hyperchlorinated then the hot water temperatures dings, which frequently have kilometres of pipe carrying
increased. water that is often stagnant, and large quantities of stored
hot water. More than 70% of the hot water of these buil-
Germany, Klinikum Frankfurt-Oder, seven cases, at
dings can be colonised with legionellae.
least two deaths, July 2003
However, the latest research by the Institute of Hygiene of
Several patients were evidently infected via a contamina-
the Universitätsklinikum Münster shows that even
ted water supply system. Both hot and cold systems were
detached houses and houses divided into maisonettes
identified as a source of infection. The Public Prosecution
with a common supply can have Legionella contami-
Service brought a charge of causing death by negligence.
nations that can be quite comparable or even higher than
New Jersey, July 2004, two cases, one death in a care those in large buildings. The crucial factor here was a tem-
home perature level that promotes growth and a central hot
Both of those who contracted the disease (82-year-old water supply. This means that, in order to ensure maxi-
man and 76-year-old woman) lived in the same unit. The mum protection of the public, every possible measure
cause was a contaminated hot water system. The autho- must be taken to reduce legionellae in private housing as
rities closed the home and had the system disinfected. well. Throughout the water supply system the tempera-
ture of hot water should always exceed 55 ºC and that of
Camping ground in Klagenfurt, Austria, June 2004, cold water should always be below 25 and preferably
three cases, one death 20 ºC. A connection between the contamination of hot
High numbers of L. pneumophila SG1 were detected in water systems and the occurrence of legionellosis has
16
been reported by numerous authors and is now regarded 1.4 Mode of operation
as confirmed. Since transmission is almost exclusively
caused by direct or indirect contact with tap water, The aim must always be to achieve operation that
hygiene measures to reduce legionellae in water systems produces a stable situation in the supply system. When
are extremely important. designing new systems and undertaking major modifica-
tions this can be achieved through consistent compliance
Potential critical points at which temperature ranges that with the relevant standards and codes of practice.
promote growth can be achieved are shown in Fig 4: With already contaminated systems the objective must be
• Temperature stratification in storage vessels consistent, sustainably hygienic and safe management.
• Deposits in the storage vessel and distribution Thermal or chemical disinfection of these systems is ge-
manifolds nerally not effective, as such measures cannot eliminate
• Sections of pipe carrying stagnant water (change in the causes of the colonisation.
use, sections not directly isolated from the circulation
System optimisation measures always paramount.
system and installation of spare capacity)
System optimisation is always essential and cannot be
• Inadequate water circulation
replaced with other measures such as disinfection.
• Excessive heat losses in the circulation system
In practice the common experience of failed attempts at
• Non-optimal regulation of hot water circulation
decontamination can almost always be explained by a
systems
lack of proper system optimisation and remaining system
Also to be taken into account is the possibility of heat weak points that inevitably lead to re-colonisation. One-off
being transferred from the hot to the cold water, so that removal of the microbial growth is generally not sufficient,
legionellae arise in the heated cold water. The cold water since there are numerous factors that can lead to
problem is often overlooked. However, it must be allowed regrowth.
for in a risk assessment, particularly in large buildings. When contamination is detected the first priority is to keep
Points of use in calm, analyse the system and assess the risk! Plotting a
Construction Phase B temperature profile of the hot and cold supply systems is
(showers, taps, etc)
an easy way of obtaining initial indications of potential
Points of use in
Construction Phase A flaws.
(showers, taps, etc) The technical and hygiene needs have to be coordinated
Riser to suit the system. There is no universal solution. Custo-
mised measures recognising the potential infection risk,
limits of technical feasibility and cost effectiveness have to
be applied. The success of each individual measure must
Circulation 1 return
always be checked. The aim must always be to come up

with a stable, lasting solution. Simply comparing the level
Circulation 2 return
of colonisation with technical guide values is not an effec-

tive way of deriving decontamination measures.
Additional measures in the sense of a multibarrier concept
have to be taken to protect high-risk hospital patients,
who are endangered by even extremely small counts of all
Legionella species and subgroups. One important
requirement for reducing infections of immunosup-
Hot water pressed or immunocompromised patients involves strict
Main return
protection from any contact with hot or cold tap water.

This can only be achieved through the use of sterile water
(produced with, for example, a point-of-use sterile filter)
that is completely free from bacteria for all purposes affec-
ting the patients.
Cold water
Storage vessel Heater
Fig 4 Schematic diagram of a hot water system, showing components

that favour colonisation with legionellae: 1: Sediments containing
iron; 2: Temperature stratification in the storage tank; 3: Sections
of pipe carrying water that is stagnant (not constantly flowing);
4: Installation of spare capacity; 5: Unoptimised circulation resul-
ting in low temperature zones
17
1.5 Practical consequences and concepts in accordance with (3), No 2, c that are used to provide
water for the public." This makes it mandatory to test for
The two-pronged approach of technical and, in hospitals, legionellae in virtually all public buildings. The Health
organisational measures is necessary to achieve the level Department and the operator of the system are obliged to
of hygiene needed to reduce the incidence of legionel- carry out risk assessments, inform the public and im-
losis: mediately introduce suitable health protection measures.
It therefore becomes absolutely essential to take effective
1 Technical measures to permanently reduce the num- measures against the growth of legionellae and if neces-
ber of legionellae in water and other technical systems sary keep documentary evidence that sufficient account
by establishing stable management of a lean system. has been taken in the design, installation and operation of
It particular cases installation of UV systems or the water supply system of all the hygiene-relevant
continuous chemical disinfection with chlorine/ standards and regulations.
chlorine dioxide or hydrogen peroxide can be expe-
dient. In each individual case the concept must be
1.7 Frequently asked questions
established and tested on site with an expert.
2 Additional organisational measures in hospitals: A
I would like to have my water supply tested for the
special approach is needed on transplant wards, in
presence of legionellae. What do I have to do?
intensive care units, Oncology and other departments
The most important prerequisite is to obtain an accurate
treating immunocompromised or immunosuppressed
overview of the hot water system (get hold of any available
patients. After successful decontamination of the
plans and measurement data). Potential weak points of
water supply system, it is extremely important with
the system should be determined with the aid of the plans
high-risk patients to ensure strict compliance with
and in-situ testing. The most important instrument is tem-
clinical and care measures in conjunction with the
perature measurement at different points of the system.
Specialist in Hospital Hygiene. This can be summa-
Are the required temperatures reached in all circuits? How
rised by recommending immunosuppressed patients
long does it take to achieve the maximum temperature?
be strictly protected from exposure to tap water.
Are certain sections of the building rarely or never used?
Are there sections of pipe in which water does not flow?
Only consistent adherence to the hygiene requirements
Is temperature stratification arising in the storage vessel?
can ensure safe operation of water supply and other
All zones in which temperatures below 50 ºC are
water systems. The success of each individual measure
measured are critical and may be colonised. Only when a
must be checked and should ideally lead to complete eli-
clear overview of the system and its weak points has been
mination of Legionella infection.
obtained can an approved institute be commissioned to
conduct the tests.
1.6 Legislation
What points of the system should I have checked to
When the legislation for preventing and combating human determine whether it is contaminated with legionel-
infectious diseases (IfSG), which superseded the earlier lae?
communicable diseases legislation, came into force on 1 Basically all points identified as potential weak points in
January 2001, detection of legionellae as a cause of ill- the preliminary check or specified as control points must
ness became notifiable ((7), Notifiable Detection of Patho- be checked. Testing must fully clarify whether systematic
gens, No 26 Legionella sp.) and therefore has to be contamination is taking place and whether the entire
reported to the responsible health authority. To clarify epi- system or just certain parts are affected. A minimum test
demiological relationships the Health Department is en- programme for hot water supplies is to be found in DVGW
titled to have assumed sources of infection investigated Code of Practice W 551. The outlet of the storage vessel,
and to initiate other measures. the individual returns (the main (collecting) return often
Only non illness related detection of legionellae in water leads or incorrect assessments) and samples from the
systems is not legally notifiable. periphery. The peripheral samples must be taken as far
With the introduction of the new Drinking Water Regulati- away from the central unit as possible and be representa-
ons (18) on 1 January 2003 the Health Department beca- tive of the individual circulation circuits. The cold water
me responsible for monitoring the quality of drinking water must also be included in the check, particularly if heat
in supply systems of public buildings, particularly in transfer to this system is to be feared or has already been
"schools, kindergartens, hospitals, restaurants and other detected.
communal facilities", in relation to compliance with the re-
gulations through suitable testing. How is sampling to be carried out?
Under Scope of testing, (2), Periodic tests, the regulations Sampling must be conducted in such a way that systema-
state: "... Periodic testing also includes testing for legio- tic contamination can be detected. This is extremely
nellae in central heating systems of water supply systems important, particularly when checking for Pseudomonas
18
aeruginosa, otherwise incorrect conclusions can be Schematic diagram of a system with sampling points
reached and attempts at decontamination misdirected. It to DVGW Code of Practice W 551
is also essential to eliminate all factors that could falsify the Sampling points (minimum number required)
result (for example, shower hose, point-of-use fitting or
reinforced hose). Unless there are special questions to be
answered, rather than from showers the samples for initial
testing must therefore be taken from special sampling
valves that allow the water to be drawn off without being
affected, and clearly related to the hot or cold supply.
These special sampling valves must be installed at critical
points (control points) throughout the system. The
standard methods specified in DIN 38402-A3, -A14, -A19
and -A21 must be followed for all sampling, including that
for legionellae. In practice it is unfortunately evident that
there is a severe deficit of information about this aspect,
even on the part of the health authorities.
The necessity of sampling is clear, but how should it

be done?
The Drinking Water Regulations ((4), (14) and (19) in con-
junction with Annex 4) prescribe annual testing of the
drinking water in public buildings for legionellae.
Operators that provide the public with drinking water are
obliged to commission, for example, a local hygiene
institute to test it. Exploratory, and possibly further and
follow-up tests are required. DVGW Code of Practice W
5511 defines more closely the sampling points for deter-
mining whether a water supply system is contaminated
with legionellae. In practice, however, there are generally
no suitable sampling valves at these points. Sampling is Exploratory testing
therefore unnecessarily time-consuming and cannot as defined in DVGW W 551, 9.1:
always be carried out expertly. "Exploratory testing with a limited sampling plan is cost
A more extensive, second sampling session is then often effective for systems free from legionellae. The limited
necessary, since the initial results do not show whether scope of the sampling possible may make it impossible to
the microbiological contamination originates from the introduce specific measures for decontaminating conta-
municipal water supply or the points of use. The nar- minated systems. ... The number of samples required for
rowing down process is, however necessary to enable the exploratory stage must be chosen so as to ensure that
introduction of effectively targeted remedial measures. every pipe run is covered. ... A sample must also be taken
These multiple sampling sessions and temporary installa- at the outlet of the supply heater (hot water pipe) and
tion of 'makeshift sampling points' make the procedure another at the inlet into the heater (circulation pipe)."
more expensive. To avoid this it is advisable to provide The positioning of the sampling points on the risers and in
suitable sampling points at the initial system design stage the vicinity of the inlet and outlet of the heater must be
or to retrofit them. specified by the operator and the sampler. The points
The following diagram shows the sampling locations must then be suitably identified on the key plan Water
defined in DVGW (CP) W 551 for the water supply system. supply sampling points, for example as nodes with identi-
They are divided into points for exploratory and further fication numbers.
tests.
Further testing
as defined in DVGW W 551, 9.2:
"The number of samples required for further testing
depends on the size, extent and complexity of the system.
In addition to the sampling points for exploratory testing
on each pipe run it is advisable to take additional samples
1. DVGW Code of Practice W 551, April 2004: "Water Supply Heating
in the individual pipes for the different floors (which offer
and Water Supply Pipes; Technical Measures for Reducing the information about potential contamination) ... .
Growth of Legionellae, Design, Installation, Operation and Deconta-
mination of Water Supply Systems", Wirtschafts- und Verlagsgesell-
Samples must also be taken from sections of pipe that
schaft Gas und Wasser GmbH, Bonn
19
carry stagnant water (for example, ventilation pipes for My hot water system contains legionellae. What
general protection, drain pipes, infrequently used points should I do? In what order?
of use and diaphragm type expansion tanks) ... . If there An effective risk assessment must always be conducted
are indications that cold water pipework is being heated in conjunction with an experienced laboratory, an engi-
samples must also be taken from cold water sampling neer specialising in hygiene and possibly the Public Health
points." Officer. An absolute prerequisite for the success of any
According to DBGW W 551, for further testing sampling decontamination measure is always a clear overview of
points must be installed at defined points of the hot water the entire water distribution system including all equip-
system to determine whether it is contaminated with ment. Plotting of temperature profiles is an indispensable
legionellae. This also applies to cold water systems if there first step. There is no universal decontamination concept.
are indications that they are being heated. Each case, each building requires individual analysis and
a tailor-made package of measures. The primary objec-
tive must always be appropriate state of the art operation
of the system. Safe water supply hygiene always takes
priority over potential energy savings. A clean, lean
system with adequate circulation in all sections and hot
water temperatures above 55 ºC is crucial whatever the
measures adopted. Design methods must be state of the
art. Sections of pipe that are not required must always be
isolated from the circulation system. The volumes of
stored and transported water must always be minimised.
The measures must always cover the entire system and
be continuous. Checks must be carried out to verify the
success of each individual measure.
Do I have to notify the presence of legionellae in my

hot water system?
The IfSG only require notification of detection of legio-
nellae related to illness. The legal position was significantly
tightened with the introduction of the new Drinking Water
Regulations in 2003.
(3) of these regulations (which came into force on 1 Janu-
KEMPER sampling valve (Fig 187) on an isolating valve (Fig 173) ary 2003) states: "The operator or holder of a building wa-
ter supply system as defined in (3), 2, c who has become
Where can I have tests conducted? Can I carry them
aware of facts indicating that the water in this system is
out myself?
being changed in such a way that it no longer meets the
Only microbiological laboratories accredited to DIN EN
requirements of (5) to (7), where necessary must imme-
ISO 17025 and listed by the German states in accordance
diately have tests conducted to clarify the situation and
with the Drinking Water Regulations (14) are entitled to
take or initiate remedial measures and notify the Health
conduct tests for legionellae that have been approved by
Department accordingly." The criterion for such notificati-
the Public Health Officer. It is always advisable to ask the
on would be (5), 1: "Water for human consumption must
Health Department for details of reference laboratories.
not contain pathogens as defined in (2), 1 of the infection
The test must be conducted in accordance with the appli-
protection legislation in concentrations that could give rise
cable standards in order to obtain comparable and repro-
to concerns about danger to human health." As there are
ducible results. Sampling by the operator for exploratory
no clear principles and guide values for such evaluation
tests is basically possible by agreement with the labora-
when legionellae arise in drinking water, this could basi-
tory (see also Sampling). You can only conduct your own
cally lead to every positive result having to be reported to
tests for legionellae with test kits in the event of extremely
the Health Department, which would then have to carry
strong indications and after training. They never replace
out a risk assessment itself.
checking by an approved laboratory. Strict account must
be taken of the sometimes considerable limitations on the
significance of the tests.
20
What do I do when a water system is contaminated

with Pseudomonas aeruginosa?
The following have been mentioned as relevant risk fac-

tors for sometimes chronic or recurrent contamination of
cold water pipework with Pseudomonas aeruginosa (see
also Consensus Conference in Bonn 2004):
• Inappropriate design (for example oversizing or long
spur pipes)
• Contamination through central entrainment from
water supply
• Inadequate, inexpert installation
• Use of unsuitable materials and components/
equipment
• Operation in contravention of regulations
• Temperature significantly above 20 ºC in cold water
system
• Irregularly used sections of pipework with stagnant
water
• Biofilm formation promoted by materials and
operation
• Biofilm formation (for example, on organic compo-
nents such as diaphragms)
• Inappropriate leak testing prior to commissioning
• Inappropriate commissioning
This means that numerous water hygiene shortcomings

can lead to colonisation with P. aeruginosa. The primary
objective must therefore be to describe the extent and
possible sources of contamination through systematic
sampling and microbiological analyses. The reports on
decontamination of water supply systems contaminated
with Pseudomonas aeruginosa revealed different experi-
ences. The decontamination measures included both
chemical disinfection with chlorine and chorine dioxide,
and thermal methods. Methods that could not be used
continuously often did not lead to the desired success.
One important - perhaps the most important - factor is
deliberate consumption. Water must flow and must be
changed. In some systems consumption is the only way
of achieving a stable situation.
One of the most serious mistakes is to shut down an
affected system in which contamination has been detec-
ted. This often makes further attempts at decontami-
nation impossible. Even when disinfectants are being
used the top priority is consume, consume, consume.
21
2 Determining pipe diameters for hot and cold
water
Professor Bernd Rickmann, Fachhochschule Münster, Department of Energy and the Built Environment
A quick look at the technical codes and regulations shows

2Determining pipe diameters for hot and cold water
Against the backdrop depicted in Section 1, the extensive

that the following design calculations are currently regar-
rules already contained in DIN 1988 Drinking Water
ded as necessary in order to achieve drinking water of
Supply Systems have to be supplemented and modified
acceptable quality in the properly installed pipework of a
in some respects. Such supplements to DIN 1988 are
supply system:
included in the DVGW's current publications. Reducing
the Growth of Legionellae in Hot Water Systems (Codes • Designing pipe system for hot and cold water to DIN
of Practice W 551 and W 553) in particular will have a 1988-32 taking account of VDI Guidelines 60233
lasting effect on the design, installation and operation of • Designing circulation pipes on the basis of DVGW
building water supply systems. Codes of Practice W 5514 and W 5535
To prevent the possibility of supply systems getting con- • Verification that the water capacity of sections of pipe
taminated, their water capacity must be minimised throu- where it does not circulate is less than the permissible
gh design measures and pipe sizing. This ensures the value
area of internal surfaces is small and the water only
remains in the system for a short time and is rapidly chan- This manual aims to collate the most important rules for
ged. Stagnant water and the heating of cold water in the determining pipe diameters in water supply systems and
supply system by its surroundings must always be avo- provide practical comments.
ided. Circulation systems or self-regulating trace heating
systems must ensure that the temperature is not conti- 2.1 Available pressure differential
nuously below 55 ºC at any point of the supply system.
Pipes for particular floors with a water capacity of less Hydraulic design calculations for a water supply system
than 3 litres are exempt from the requirement. can only ever be performed along the flow paths. The in-
dividual paths start in the building service pipe and end at
The sizing of water heating, distribution and circula- a particular point-of-use fitting. The first step in the DIN
tion systems must take account of drinking water 1988 design method for hot and cold water supply pipes
hygiene as a well as the purely functional and com- is to determine the worst flow path from the different ones
mercial aspects. available. The worst path is the one with the lowest per-
missible pressure drop per metre run of a straight pipe.
The quality of the water depends not only on it being sup-
plied in perfect condition by the water company, but also The starting point for the hydraulic calculations can
heavily on the following factors: be found by considering the balance of pressure
• Design established along the associated flow paths.
• Choice of pipe materials
All pressure and pressure drop components throughout
• Standard of workmanship
the system must be calculated for this state. This is
• Sizes of the pipe system in the building
expressed as follows:
If drinking water hygiene problems are discovered, the
person responsible must expect to have to verify that the
2. DIN 1988-3: 12-98 "Drinking Water Supply Systems; - Pipe Sizing",
design, sizing and installation of the entire water supply Beuth Verlag, Berlin
3. VDI 6023 "Hygienic Aspects of the Planning, Design, Installation,
system were in accordance with accepted practice at the Operation and Maintenance of Drinking Water Supply Systems", VDI-
time of installation. Gesellschaft Technische Gebäudeausrüstung.
and Water Supply Pipes; Technical Measures for Reducing the
5. DVGW Code of Practice W 553, December 1998: "Designing Circu-
lation Systems in Central Water Heating Systems", Wirtschafts- und
Verlagsgesellschaft Gas und Wasser GmbH, Bonn
22
Equation 1
pminV Minimum static pressure at the point of ∆pSt Pressure drop in pipes for particular
connection to the municipal service floors and individual spur pipes (only
pipe as specified by the responsible using simplified design calculations)
water company Σ(l ⋅ R + Z) Pressure drop from pipe friction and
pminFl Required static pressure at the point of minor losses along flow path, starting in
connection for a point-of-use fitting at the building service pipe and ending at
its minimum flow rate (Fig 6) a particular point-of-use fitting or at the
∆pgeod Geodetic pressure differential resulting connection for a particular floor
from the difference in head between
connecting pipe and point-of-use fitting
∆pwz Pressure drop across water meter
∆pAp Pressure drop across equipment such
as filter ∆pFIL, metering systems ∆pDOS,
softening systems ∆pEH, etc
Fig 5 Definitions and notation for water supply systems
23
Determining pipe diameters for hot and cold water
A positive (available) pressure differential ∆verf must then this aspect in the standard should be regarded as
remain to overcome pipe friction and minor losses maxima, manufacturers' data for specific models and
Σ(l ⋅ R + Z), and can therefore be used to size the pipes. detailed calculations generally lead to less conservative
This differential can be calculated as follows: assumptions for designing the pipes.
2.2 Calculating flow rates

Equation 2
In order to choose a suitable diameter for a particular
Evenly "distributing" the available pressure differential section, in addition to the pressure gradient Rverf available
∆pverf after subtracting the minor losses (a) along the to cope with pipe friction, at least the flow rate for the
entire length of the flow path (lges) gives an important particular design case - the peak flow rate VVs must be
design parameter for determining the pipe diameter, the known.
pressure gradient available to cope with pipe friction Rverf. The peak flow rate VVs to be expected in a section is signi-
This relative pressure gradient is a minimum for the worst ficantly influenced by the number and design of the point-
flow path and a maximum for the best. of-use fittings to be supplied, the various design flow rates
of these fittings VVR and the type of use of the fixture. A
basic distinction is drawn between normal and conti-
nuous consumption.
A point-of-use fitting is classified as a "continuous load" if
Equation 3
the type of service means it is used for longer than
15 minutes.
∆pverf Pressure differential available for the
Typical continuous loads include point-of-use fittings
pressure drop from pipe friction and minor
used for sprinkler systems. If several continuous loads are
losses
to be supplied by one section, the extent to which they
a Estimated percentage contribution of the can be expected to be used simultaneously must be spe-
minor losses to the total pressure drop cified in conjunction with the user of the pipe system.
lges Total length of the design flow path However, the individual fitting is normally only used for a
much shorter period of time than 15 minutes (normal
consumption). If continuous consumption VVD and peak
As the above equations show, the pressure gradient flow rate from normal consumption VVS,normal coincide, the
available to cope with pipe friction is mainly determined by two values must be added.
the geodetic pressure differential ∆pgeod and the mini-
mum flow pressure requirement of the point-of-use fitting
pminFl.
Equation 4
The quickest way of finding the worst point of use is
The design flow rate of a point-of-use fitting VVR is an aver-
to perform the calculations for the fittings with the
age of the point-of-use flow rates at a maximum flow
highest flow pressure requirements on the top floor.
pressure (generally poFl = 3.0 bar) and the minimum flow
Relatively large diameters must be chosen if Rverf is small, pressure (generally pminFI = 1.0 bar).
and smaller diameters can be chosen if a relatively large
pressure gradient is available. This available gradient
therefore significantly affects not only the installation
costs, but also the water capacity of the pipe system.
Before starting to calculate the pressure drops a

sufficiently large available gradient
(Rverf = 5.0 - 10.0 mbar/m) must therefore be ensured
along the worst flow path.
The peak flow rate, minimum supply pressure, pipe

lengths and geodetic heads are largely fixed and cannot
be significantly changed for given system requirements.
The designer of a pipe system can appreciably influence
only the hydraulic data of the equipment (∆pWZ, ∆pFIL and
∆pAp), the system for a particular floor ∆pSt, and that of
the point-of-use fittings (pminFl). As the specifications for
24
Fig 6 Definition of the design flow rate VVR of a point-of-use fitting
If the design flow rate VVR, minimum flow pressure pminFl

and maximum flow pressure poFl of the fitting concerned
are known, the minimum flow rate of a point-of-use fitting
under standard conditions can be calculated using
Equation 5.
Equation 5
For example the minimum cold water or hot water flow

rate of a bath mixer with the following data:
VVR = 0.15 l/s, poFI = 3.0 bar, pminFI = 1.0 bar
25
Type of fitting pmin FI Mixed water Mixed water cold or heated

cold hot water only
VVR VVR VVR
mbar l/s l/s l/s
Outlet valves without aerator DN 15 500 0.30
Outlet valves with aerator DN 10 1000 0.15
Outlet valves with aerat DN 15 1000 0.15
WC push button flush system DN 20 1200 1.00
Urinal push button flush system DN 15 1000 0.30
Cistern to DIN 19542 DN 15 500 0.13
Domestic dishwasher 1000 0.15
Domestic washing machine 1000 0.25
Mixer DN 15 for:
Showers 1000 0.15 0.15
Baths 1000 0.15 0.15
Kitchen sinks 1000 0.07 0.07
Countertop basins 1000 0.07 0.07
Bidets 1000 0.07 0.07
Mixer DN 20 1000 0.30 0.30
Electric instant boiler water heater 1000 0.10
Table 1 Guide values for the design flow rate and the minimum flow pressure of common point-of-use fittings
The total flow rate ΣVVR is the sum of the design flow In other words in the calculations the peak flow rate for
rates VVR of all point-of-use fittings that can be "luxury systems" can be reduced to the level actually
supplied by a section. required. For the example shown in Fig 7 the total flow
rate of this system for an individual floor used to determine
Point-of-use fittings within a utilisation unit beyond a cer- the nominal diameters of the basement distribution
tain standard of equipment6 are not allowed for in deter- manifolds and risers can be reduced for cold water from
mining the total flow rate. ΣVVR = 1.61 l/s to at least ΣVVR = 1.19 l/s, and from
ΣVVR = 0.65 l/s to at least ΣVVR = 0.36 l/s for hot water. In
In flats the following, for example, may not be included: the case of a larger installation unit (such as an owner-
• Bidets occupied dwelling) this purely computational measure
• Additional washbasins or toilet facilities based on DIN 1988-3 can lead to a notable reduction in
• Shower in addition to bath, etc the system costs and water capacity.7
7. Th Nyhuis and I Schmidt: "Effect of System for Individual Floor on the

6. VDI 6023, 4.3 "Sizing and Routing of Pipework of Water Supply Diameter of Stainless Steel Pipes to DVGW W 541 for Water Supply
Systems" Systems", dissertation1996, Fachhochschule Münster, unpublished
26
Fig 7 System for individual floor
Up to a total flow rate of ΣVVR = 20.0 l/s the peak flow rates
to be expected also depend on the design of the point-of-
use fitting and its design flow rate. If the design flow rate
of the individual fitting is greater than ΣVVR = ≥ 0.5 l/s (for
example in the case of WC push button flush systems) a
higher peak flow rate must be expected for the same total
flow rate in the section. For converting the total flow rate
into the peak flow rate DIN 1988 categorises the use of
the installation unit as a residential building, office/
administration building, hotel building, department store,
hospital ward or school. The design equations are identi-
fied with letters.
Ident. Range Equation Unit
A ΣVVR > 1.0 1) VVS = 1.7 ⋅ [ΣVVR]0.21 - 0.7 l/s
B 0.07 < ΣVVR ≤20 VVS = 0.682 ⋅ [ΣVVR]0.45 - 0.14 l/s
C ΣVVR > 20 VVS = 0.4 ⋅ [ΣVVR]0.54 + 0.48 l/s
D 1.0 < ΣVVR ≤ 20 VVS = [ΣVVR]0.336 l/s
E 0.1 < ΣVVR ≤ 20 VVS = 0.698 ⋅ [ΣVVR]0.5 - 0.12 l/s
F ΣVVR > 20 VVS = 1.08 ⋅ [ΣVVR]0.5 - 1.83 l/s
G ΣVVR > 20 VVS = 4.3 ⋅ [ΣVVR]0.27 - 6.65 l/s
H ΣVVR > 20 VVS = 0.25 ⋅ [ΣVVR]0.25 + 1.25 l/s
I 1.5 < ΣVVR ≤ 1.0 2) VVS = 4.4 ⋅ [ΣVVR]0.27 - 3.41 l/s
K ΣVVR > 20 VVS = -22.5 ⋅ [ΣVVR]-0.5 + 11.5 l/s
1) Between ΣVVR = 0.5 and 1.0 l/s: VVS = ΣVVR

2) for ΣVVR = 1.5: VVS = ΣVVR
Table 2 Design equations for converting the total flow rate into an anticipated peak flow rate
27
Fig 8 Peak flow rate for a total flow rate ΣVVR < 20.0 l/s as a function of design flow rate of largest point-of-use fitting installed and type of use of building
Fig 9 Peak flow rate at a total flow rate > 20.0 l/s depending on the use of the building
28
2.3 Flow velocities drop in the pressure to below the minimum flow value at
critical points of use, particularly on upper floors, leads to
In practice, instead of using the pressure gradient avail- supply deficiencies. Unless otherwise specified by the
able to cope with pipe friction, pipes are often still sized by water company, it is always advisable to size the meter for
means of average flow velocities. Pipe diameters that the peak flow rate as defined in DIN 1988.
appear to be reasonably appropriate can indeed be
specified with this method, but no account is taken of the This is achieved by choosing the meter on the basis of:
hydraulic relationships expressed in terms of the pressure VVS ⋅ 3.6 ≤ VVmax in m3/h
gradient as described above.
Mistakes are inevitable, as the method consistently leads VVg ⋅ 3.6 ≤ VVn in m3/h
to designs whose sections with poor hydraulic conditions
are too small and those with better conditions too large. and the pressure drop calculated with
In addition to the purely commercial aspect, from the
hygiene viewpoint a system designed in this way has an
unnecessary large pipe volume with the potential dangers
already described. It can basically be said that the level of
error increases with the size of the pipe system - and Equation 6
therefore particularly in the case of the hospital and care
home systems shown to be at risk. In the design methods ∆pg Pressure differential determined by the
stipulated by the standard flow velocities only have a manufacturer of the equipment at a given
limiting and not a design function. flow rate VVg in m3/h. For calculation of the
pressure drop across the water meter
Pipe section Maximum permissible velocities VVg = Vmax; nd also in exceptional cases
for a flow duration of (continuous duty) VVg = VVn.
VVS Peak flow rate in l/s
≤15 minutes > 15 minutes
V n
V Nominal flow rate in m3/h, corresponds
Building service 2.0 m/s 2.0 m/s to the permissible continuous load due to
pipes continuous consumption (VVD).
VVmax Maximum permissible flow rate in m3/h,
Supply pipes with 5.0 m/s 2.5 m/s corresponds to the short-term permissi-
low-loss isolating ble peak load of the water meter in m3/h.
valves ζ < 2.5
Supply pipes with 2.5 m/s 2.0 m/s

As well as covering the worst case this design approach
isolating valves
provides the basis for economical design of the pipes. It
ζ ≥ 2.5
must also be used if the water company is actually instal-
ling a smaller meter. Any malfunctions arising can then be
Table 3 Permissible flow velocities in water supply systems
readily and cost-effectively remedied by substituting the
water meter for the design case.
2.4 Water company meters
The water company specifies the size of the meter in

accordance with the "General Water Supply Regulations"
(AVB WasserV). Despite the fact that DIN 1988 specifies
use of the seconds peak for designing water supply
systems, the water meter supplied by some water com-
panies is based on the five minute peak. This longer
period results in the meter being designed for a different
(lower) flow rate than the downstream pipe system. The
method of determining the pressure drop across the
water meter must therefore always be agreed with the
responsible water company. If the peak load as defined in
DIN 1988 arises, in marginal cases the different design
basis can lead to the effective pressure drop across the
meter exceeding the design value. The associated brief
29
Type of meter Connection to Nominal diameter ∆pg VVg = VVn VVg = VVmax
DIN ISO 228-1 flange
bar m3/h m3/h
Impeller G 1/2 B 1000 0.6 1.2
Impeller G 1/2 B 1000 1.0 2.0
Impeller G 3/4 B 1000 1.5 3.0
Impeller G1B 1000 2.5 5.0
Impeller G 1 1/4 B 1000 3.5 7.0
Impeller G 1 1/2 B 1000 6.0 12.0
Impeller G2B 1000 10.0 20.0
Woltmann 50 300 1) 15.0 30.0
Woltmann 65 300 1) 25.0 50.0
Woltmann 80 300 1) 40.0 80.0
Woltmann 100 300 1) 60.0 120.0
Woltmann 150 300 1) 150.0 300.0
Woltmann 200 300 1) 250.0 500.0
1)
600 mbar with vertical Woltmann water meters
Table 4 Flow rate and pressure drop with water meters to DIN ISO 4064-1
Fig 10 Equipment pressure drops ∆pAp as a function of flow rate ratio VVS / VVg and the given pressure differential ∆pg
30
2.5 Equipment 2.7 Floor pressure drop
The generic term "equipment" covers filters, softeners, When using the simplified method as defined in DIN
metering systems, demineralisation systems, heat 1988-3 the pressure drop for a particular floor can be ta-
exchangers, etc. ken from tables (see Table 13 on page 104).
The considerable impact of equipment pressure However, detailed design calculations for a simple
drops on the results of the hydraulic design means floor system in residential buildings show that with
they must always be determined using the detailed the same floor pressure drop ∆pSt, in most cases pipe
method of calculation and the manufacturer's data systems with smaller diameters than those worked
(Equation 6). out with the simplified method can be achieved (Table
12).
For a filter downstream of the water meter a pressure
drop of ∆pFIL = 200 mbar at the nominal flow rate can be The diameter of DN 20 often still encountered in systems
used with sufficient accuracy when the system is new. for a particular floor is based on experience with older
design rules (DVGW Code of Practice W 308) and in many
2.6 Switching pressure differential of group of cases is not hydraulically necessary. The additional or
water heaters new rules for installing water supply systems in DVGW
Codes of Practice W 551 to W 553 mean unnecessary
When using hydraulically controlled groups of water generous sizing of such sections of pipe, particularly in the
heaters the generally very high switching pressure differ- hot water system, should be a thing of the past. Compa-
ential in the units must be taken into account. In this case rative calculations show that in larger systems for
as well, specific manufacturers' details give more reliable commercial and hygiene reasons it is sensible to concen-
results than the guide values from Table 5. The specified trate the total available pressure differential in the floor
values for ∆pTE (water heater) generally must not be used pipes and risers rather than in the basement distribution
in Equation 6. The pressure drop in central water heating manifolds.8
systems (storage vessel system) is generally much smaller
than in group water heaters and is taken into account in 2.8 Pressure drops in pipes
the calculations for the pipe system in the form of the
storage vessel inflow and outflow losses (minor loss Flows in water supply pipe systems can be laminar or
constants ζ from Table 23). turbulent. Laminar flow is the orderly flow of fluid particles
in layers or lamina that is to be expected primarily at low
flow velocities. Friction considerably slows the particles
Equipment type ∆pTE
close to the pipe wall, with the velocity increasing towards
bar the centre of the pipe (Fig 11). In water supply systems
this type of flow occasionally arises in circulation pipes in
Electric instantaneous water heater 0.5 the design case. With turbulent flow complex motion
(thermally regulated) normal to the centreline of the pipe is superimposed on
the main flow. This decelerates higher velocity particles
Electric instantaneous water heater 1.0 and accelerates lower velocity particles. The difference in
(hydraulically controlled) velocity is therefore relatively small across the cross-
Electric or gas storage water heater 0.2 section of the pipe (Fig 11). This type of flow is promoted
(up to 80 litres) by high velocities and predominates in almost all design
cases covered by DIN 1988.
Gas instantaneous and combination 0.8
heaters to DIN 3368
Table 5 Guide values for switching pressure differentials of individual

and group water heaters
8. Th Nyhuis and I Schmidt: "Effect of System for Individual Floor on the

Diameter of Stainless Steel Pipes to DVGW W 541 for Water Supply
Systems", dissertation1996, Fachhochschule Münster, unpublished
31
Equation 9
I⋅ R Pressure drop in a straight pipe of con-

stant cross section
Z Minor losses
2.8.1 Pressure gradient due to pipe friction
This gradient R is defined as follows:
Equation 10
With laminar flow (Re ≤ 2320), according to the Hagen-

Fig 11 Velocity profile and average velocity v for laminar and turbulent flow Poiseuille law the friction factor λ only depends on the
Reynolds number.
The Reynolds number Re is defined as the ratio of the
inertial and viscous forces. In plays an important role in
dimensional analysis. Flows are hydraulically similar when
the Reynolds number is the same.
Equation 11
With turbulent flow (Re > 2320) the friction factor has to be
determined using the Prandtl-Colebrook equation:
Equation 7
ν Kinematic viscosity (Fig 12)

ν = 1.31 x 10-6 in m2/s at 10 °C
ν = 0.47 x 10-6 in m2/s at 60 °C Equation 12
di Inside diameter of pipe
v Average flow velocity ρ Density of water in kg/m3 (Fig 12)
ρ = 1000.0 kg/m3 at 10 °C
ρ = 982.8 kg/m3 at 60 °C
di Inside diameter of pipe
k Natural inside wall roughness of pipe
k = 0.15 Galvanised steel pipes
Equation 8 k = 0.007 Ductile cast iron pipes with
Tests have show that the transition from laminar to turbu- cement mortar lining
lent flow and vice versa occurs at a Reynolds number of k = 0.1 Plastic pipes
approximately Re = 2320. For this reason calculation of k = 0.0015 Copper pipes, stainless steel
the Reynolds number with Equation 7 can be used to pipes
ascertain whether the design case involves laminar k = 0.00035 Mepla pipe
(Re < 2320) or turbulent flow (Re ≥ 2320).
DIN 1988 stipulates the use of Equation 9 to calculate the
pressure drop ∆p. It distinguishes between "detailed" and In the interest of simplification the pressure drop
"simplified" (blanket) calculation of the pressure drop. calculations in DIN 1988-3 assume a water tempera-
With the detailed method the two components in ture of 10 °C for both hot and cold water pipes.
Equation 9 are calculated separately. However, for normal
applications the standard emphasises the simplified The errors introduced by the different density and visco-
method, which enables the pressure drop for the given sity into the calculation of the R-value for flows in hot
system requirements to be determined sufficiently accu- water pipes can generally be accepted, since they are on
rately. the safe side.
32
Because of the relatively high accuracy required for

hydraulic balancing for circulation systems, in this ca-
se, however, the calculations according to DVGW
Code of Practice W 553 must take account of a water
temperature of 60 °C.
Fig 13 Detail from a pressure drop chart for stainless steel pipes at 60 ºC
showing examples of values read off
Example: Turbulent flow in cold water pipes

Given: Peak flow rate VVS = 1.0 l/s
Stainless steel pipe, DN 25 (28 x 1.2),
Fig 12 Kinematic viscosity and density of water as function of temperature di = 25.6 mm
Water temperature 10 °C
Example: Laminar flow in circulation pipes
To find: The pressure gradient due to pipe friction R
Given: Circulation flow rate VVz = 50 l/h in mbar/m and the average flow velocity v
Stainless steel pipe, DN 20 (22 x 1.2)
Water temperature 60 °C
To find: The pressure gradient due to pipe friction R The flow velocity calculated with the continuity equation is
in mbar/m and the average flow velocity v
With a flow velocity of The kinematic viscosity of ν = 1.31 x 10-6 in m2/s at a wa-
ter temperature of 10 °C gives a Reynolds number of:
and a Reynolds number of

With turbulent flow the friction factor λ can be determined
either by iteration using Equation 12, or graphically from
the Moody diagram (Fig 14). With iteration an estimated
The Hagen-Poiseuille law gives a friction factor of value of λ must be changed until each side of the Prandtl-
Colebrook equation works out to approximately the same
value, λ = 0.02241 in this case (Table 6).
If λ is known, the pressure gradient due to pipe friction R
can be calculated with:
33
λgeschätzt
1- k 2.51
(estimated) ------ – 2.0 ⋅ lg ----------------------- + ---------------
λ 3.71 ⋅ di Re λ
0.02000 7.071 6.632
0.02500 6.325 6.726
0.02240 6.682 6.680
0.02241 6.680 6.680
Table 6 Steps in iterative calculation of friction factor λ
The Reynolds number and the relative roughness di/k are

needed in order to determine the friction factor from the
Moody diagram:
With these values Fig 14 gives a friction factor of

λ = 0.022. As a result of the relatively low absolute
roughness k of the stainless steel pipe, the flow is
approximately on the hydraulically smooth boundary
curve (di/k = 17067). If λ is known, the pressure gradient
due to pipe friction R can be calculated.
In both cases the computation is too complex for practical

applications, so suitable pressure drop tables or charts
are generally used to determine the flow velocities and the
pressure gradient due to pipe friction (cf Fig 17 showing
examples of values read off).
Fig 14 Friction factor λ as a function of Reynolds number and relative roughness of pipe di/k (Moody diagram), showing examples of values read off for laminar
and turbulent flows
34
With the detailed method, in addition to the pressure drop

in straight pipes (l ⋅ R), significant minor losses (Z) such as
• Elbows and bends
• Tees
• Valves
• Reducers, etc
can be determined with Equation 13.
Equation 13
The dimensionless minor loss constants ζ for substitution

in the equation are determined on the basis of pressure
drop measurements on a test stand and/or examination
of flow pulses. As the minor loss constant is heavily
dependent on the form of the flow resistance, in detailed
pressure drop calculations it is preferable to used the
minor loss constants determined by the manufacturer for
specific pipe fitting (Table 23).
2.8.2 Detailed calculations

Fig 15 Isometric of system for particular floor from Fig 7 drawn in prepa-
ration for detailed calculation of the pressure drops on the particu-
Detailed calculations can only be carried out lar floor
meaningfully if the type and exact location of each
minor loss in the pipe system is known. 2.8.3 Simplified calculations
Detailed working drawings for water supply systems that Simplified calculation of the pressure drop ∆p as defined
could provide this information are generally not available in DIN 1988 has the following important attributes:
at the design stage. For this reason "detailed" pressure
• Pressure drop calculations in the true sense are only
drop calculations for water supply systems as specified in
DIN 1988 can only be performed in special cases. Such still carried out for sections of the basement distri-
bution system and for the risers to the branch pipes
cases generally only arise when in borderline situations
for the different floors (Fig 5).
the necessity for a pressure boosting system has to be
shown, the longest flow paths on a particular floor are • A blanket allowance of a = 40 to 60% of the total pres-
sure drop is made in these sections. The smaller value
more than 10.00 m, the total flow rate of a system for a
is to be used in more extensive, the smaller one in
floor exceeds ΣVVR = 2.0 l/s, the floor pressure drops ∆pSt
for prefabricated elements, units or general installation small branched pipe systems. As the correctness of
standards, etc, have to be accurately determined and if the estimate made is not indicated in the subsequent
for special systems for industry, agricultural sprinkler calculations, the pressure drop calculations are limited
systems, etc, have to be designed. to the straight sections of pipe.
• The relatively high pressure drops in the system for the
floor ∆pSt can be determined from tables by detailed
calculation.
The blanket allowance for the floor pressure drop ∆pSt

takes account of the following factors:
• The design flow rate VVR of the largest point-of-use
fitting installed
• The inside diameter of the floor pipes (permissible total
length lSt = 7.00 m) branching off from the riser. "Floor
pipe" means all of the sections on the particular floor
supplying more than one point-of-use fitting.
• The inside diameter of the spur pipe leading from the
floor pipe to an individual point of use (permissible
length lEZ = 3.00 m)
35
• The system mainly associated with the floor and the

spur pipe
• Cold water supply
• Central water heating system
• Group water heating system
• Design of the isolating valve (ζ-value) in the floor pipe
• The available pressure differential
Fig 16 Definition of components of floor system
2.9 Designing flow path producing worst

hydraulic conditions
In choosing a suitable pipe diameter, the pressure

gradient available to cope with pipe friction Rverf must
always be used as the characteristic parameter in
addition to the peak flow rate VVS.
This gradient is more a guide than a precise quantity for

calculation purposes. When a diameter is chosen from
pressure drop tables or charts the value must necessarily
fall below or exceed this guide, as there is always only a
limited number of diameters available with a pipe series
(Fig 17). It is important for the sum of all pressure drops
Σ(I ⋅ R + Z) along the entire flow path to be of approxima-
tely the same magnitude as the available pressure
differential ∆pverf.
Example showing how values are read off:
Given: Peak flow rate VVS = 1.0 l/s
Pressure gradient available to cope with
pipe friction Rverf = 10.0 mbar/m
To find: Suitable nominal diameter (DN)
R in mbar/m
v in m/s.
Results: See Table 7 and Fig 17
36
VV DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32 DN 40 DN 50
18 x 1.0 22 x 1.2 28 x 1.2 35 x 1.5 42 x 1.5 54 x 1.5
R V R V R V R V R V R V
l/s mbar/m m/s mbar/m m/s mbar/m m/s mbar/m m/s mbar/m m/s mbar/m m/s
0.98 151.9 4.9 57.3 3.3 15.9 1.9 5.5 1.2 2.1 0.8 0.6 0.5
1.00 157.6 5.0 59.4 3.3 16.5 1.9 5.7 1.2 2.2 0.8 0.6 0.5
1.02 – – 61.6 3.4 17.1 2.0 5.9 1.3 2.3 0.9 0.6 0.5
Table 7 Example of figures read off for pressure drop tables The check specified above must then be repeated each
time. It must also be ensured in the process that the maxi-
mum permissible flow velocities are not exceeded (Table
3). The pressure differential that remains "unused" in the
calculation increases the flow pressure at the point of use.
Hence even in the design case at peak flow rate there is
a higher flow pressure than the required minimum pminFl
available at almost all point-of-use fittings.
2.10 Balancing calculations
Once the worst flow path has been designed, all of the
other flow paths have at least one section whose diameter
has already been specified. The pressure drops of the
sections already calculated must be taken into designing
the subsequent flow paths. The pressure available for the
sections yet to be sized is then reduced by the sum
Σ(I ⋅ R + Z)TS of the pressure drops of the sections al-
ready designed.
Equation 14
This aspect of the flow calculations is generally called

"balancing".
It often allows sections yet to be designed in the vicinity of
the building service pipe to be made smaller for the same
peak flow rate.
Fig 17 Example of figures read off for pressure drop charts
The design assumptions and results must be expressed

in formulae for the individual flow paths (Step 0). When the
diameters of all sections of the worst flow path have been
specified, the total pressure drop Σ(I ⋅ R + Z) must be
determined. The result corresponds to the theoretical
design assumption when Σ(I ⋅ R + Z) = ∆pverf. However, it
is generally necessary to accept a result in which ∆pverf is
larger.
Substantial positive or negative differences necessi-

tate recalculation. This involves changing the dia-
meters appropriately until an acceptable result is
achieved.
37
3 Circulation systems
The requisite circulation pump pressure differential (∆pP)

3Circulation systems
To ensure drinking water hygiene requirements are met,

must be determined by calculating the pressure drop for
the technical measures for reducing the growth of legio-
the worst (longest) circulation circuit. This calculation
nellae in water supply systems (DVGW Code of Practice
must include checking that the maximum permissible flow
W 551) place particular importance on the temperature of
velocity (vmax = 0.5 m/s) is not exceeded in the circulation
the hot water in the storage vessel and in the pipe system.
pipes. It may be necessary to choose a larger diameter
For this reason a temperature of 60 ºC must be main-
than that predetermined. For hydraulic balancing
tained at the hot water outlet of the water heater. The
DIN 1988-3 already requires installation of throttle valves
temperature may only drop below this value for a matter
in each riser. In practice, however, regulation is only
of minutes and not consistently.
carried out if the temperature in the circulation circuit of a
Circulation systems or self-regulating trace heating
water supply system drops below 45 ºC after a long
systems must be used to ensure the temperature in the
period of time without any water being drawn off.
pipe system does not drop more than 5 K below the
In practice circulation systems designed and installed in
storage vessel outlet temperature. Only floor or spur pipes
accordance with DIN 1988-3 have almost always been
with a water volume ≤ 3 litres may be installed without
commissioned without presetting the regulating valves.
circulation pipes.
As a result of "hydraulic short circuits", in such systems
As is known amongst experts, the design method in
the circulation flow rates through risers near the pump are
DIN 1988-3 for circulation pipes in large systems does not
high, whereas those further away from the pump are
allow the temperatures required for drinking water
correspondingly lower. Numerical simulation for a block
hygiene to be maintained throughout the system! The in-
with 48 flats, with circulation diameters designed to
correct results to be expected as a result of designing to
DIN 1988-3 (Fig 18), shows the flow rate distribution to be
DIN 1988 are largely attributable to the simplifying
expected.
assumption that, depending on the volume of water circu-
In riser ST 1 this simulation gave a flow rate in excess of
lating (VZirk), and the fact that it is circulated three times an
350 l/h, and in riser ST 12 it was just VVSteig ≈ 5 l/h. The
hour, the circulation flow rate VVSt) should be the same in
low circulation flow rates in the risers distant from the
each riser (Equations 15 and 16). These rules for determi-
pump make it possible for temperatures to drop below
ning the circulation flow rate apply irrespective of the
45 °C here.
extent and design details of the circulation system. With
this method the nominal diameters for circulation pipes The temperature drop in an unregulated DIN 1988
are essentially assigned depending on the diameter of the crculation system can only maintained within the
associated hot water pipe. Once the pipe diameters are required 5 K range in the front half of the system (up
known, the circulating volume of water for the entire circu- to riser ST 5).
lation system (VZirk), the pump flow rate (VVP) and the rate
at which water should flow through the risers (VVSt), can be Quite apart from the resultant hygiene risks, users regard
calculated. hot water temperatures below 45 ºC, and corresponding
delays before low-temperature water runs hot, as mal-
functions of the hot water supply.
Equation 15
Equation 16
38
Fig 18 Flow rate distribution and temperature profile in an (unregulated) circulation system designed to DIN 1988-3 (circulation pump (2))
Past attempts at decontamination in such cases tended

to involve fitting of a more powerful pump rather than
regulating the system. Fig 19 shows that in the example
case this approach can increase the circulation flow rate
in the system from ≈ 800 l/h to 1400 l/h. Although this
slightly improves the flow through the risers with the worst
hydraulic conditions, most of the circulation flow
produced continues to pass through the "short circuit"
sections in the front part of the system. The circulation
flow rates needed to maintain the temperature (> 55 °C)
throughout the system can never be achieved by means
of excessive pump capacity (Fig 20).
Even if pumps with a suitable characteristic are available,
or pumps can be connected in series to achieve suffi-
ciently large pressure differentials, the conditions cannot
be decisively improved. High flow velocities in the short
circuit sections can cause noise and possibly erosion
corrosion.
39
Circulation systems
Fig 19 Pump and system characteristic for design examples shown in Figs 18 and 20.
Operation with flow velocities significantly above throughout the entire circulation system (Fig 21). The
v = 1.0 m/s, at least in systems with copper pipes, design example therefore confirms what has been found
can markedly increase the risk of erosion corrosion. in practical experience, namely that the DIN 1988 method
yields circulation systems that function adequately
With large pump pressure differentials regulation creates provided the only design objective is serviceability. At the
additional problems, as in the circulation circuits near the same time, however, this example also makes it clear that
pump corresponding pressure differentials have to be the high temperatures (> 55 °C) required in the DVGW
established across the circulation regulating valves at very codes of practice often cannot be achieved with this me-
low flow rates. Under such hydraulic conditions effective thod, particularly in larger systems.
regulation can only still be achieved at great expense.
Full regulation to achieve the circulation flow rates of the
design case gives temperatures significantly above 45 ºC
Fig 20 Flow rate distribution and temperature profile in an unregulated circulation system designed to DIN 1988-3 with more powerful pump (3)
40
Circulation systems
Fig 21 Flow rate distribution and temperature profile in a statically regulated circulation system designed to DIN 1988-3
Defined temperatures cannot necessarily be ensured They have the following important features:
in larger water supply systems with the method of
• Use of the pipe heat losses to determine the requisite
designing circulation pipes described in Part 3 of
circulation flow rates
DIN 1988!
• Stipulation of a temperature differential less than 5 K
To maintain the temperature of the circulating water within between water heater outlet and circulation connec-
the 5 K range much higher circulation flow rates than tion
stipulated in DIN 1988-3 must be achieved in the circula- • Stipulation of flow velocities for designing the worst
tion circuits further away from the pump (Fig 22). These circulation circuit and determining the pump pressure
relatively high circulation flow rates not only ensure the differential
temperature is maintained in the last risers, but also make • Hydraulic balancing of better circulation circuits initially
an important contribution to temperature maintenance in using pipe diameters alone, and taking account of the
the circulation collection manifolds of the main distribution minimum inside diameter of DN 10 and maximum per-
system. As a result of this flow rate distribution the new missible flow velocity (vmax = 1.0 m/s)
design rules also give correspondingly larger nominal dia- • Regulation using circulation regulating valves
meters in the sections of the circulation system further
away from the pump (Table 8). The DVGW design rules for circulation systems
The new requirements for operating circulation pipe supersede the corresponding rules of DIN 1988-3
systems from DVGW Code of Practice W 5519 have led (TRWI) in Section 14 as generally accepted practice!
to the development of design methods based on thermo-
dynamics (DVGW Code of Practice W 55310 ). The
methods formulated in this publication aim to ensure
energy efficient temperature maintenance in the circula-
tion system.

10. DVGW Code of Practice W 553, December 1998; "Designing Circu-
41
Circulation systems
Fig 22 Flow rate distribution and temperature profile in a statically regulated circulation system designed to DVGW Code of Practice W 553
Small and medium-sized circulation systems designed

TS TWW TWZ TWZ using the DIN 1988 method can generally still be regula-
DIN 1988-3 W553 DIN 1988-3 ted to meet the new requirements of DVGW Code of
Practice W 551 (Section 4).
4 / Z1 DN 50 DN 25 DN 25 The higher network resistance of a DIN 1988 circulation
system in the sections of the circulation system further
5 / Z2 DN 50 DN 25 DN 25 away from the pump can lead in larger systems - even
after regulation - to temperature maintenance problems,
6 / Z3 DN 40 DN 25 DN 20
as the required circulation flow rates cannot be achieved
7 / Z4 DN 40 DN 25 DN 20 at reasonable cost. In such cases the pipe system has to
be modified (see 4.3.2.2.4).
8 / Z5 DN 40 DN 25 DN 20
3.1 Design principles
9 / Z6 DN 40 DN 25 DN 20
10 / Z7 DN 40 DN 20 DN 20 The actual pipework and use of the required regulation

systems in its design predefine the critical characteristics
11 / Z8 DN 40 DN 20 DN 20 for problem-free operation of the water circulation
system. The accepted distribution principles for water
12 / Z9 DN 32 DN 20 DN 12 supply systems will therefore be introduced and evaluated
13 / Z10 DN 32 DN 20 DN 12 in the following sections. Important tips on effective and
use of the regulation systems necessary for the particular
14 / Z11 DN 32 DN 15 DN 12 distribution principle and installation location will also be
given. The schematic diagrams of thermostatic valves
15 / Z12 DN 25 DN 15 DN 12 include the basic temperature setting data.
The regulation system diagrams use the following
Table 8 Circulation pipe diameters to DVGW Code of Practice W 553 symbols:
and DIN 1988-3 for a block of 48 flats (reference example, see
Fig 122 for dimensions) Isolating valve
Thermostatic circulation regulating valve

(Multi-Therm or Eta-Therm)
Static circulation regulating valve (Multi-

Fix or preset isolating valve)
42
Circulation systems
The design of a circulation system must pursue the 3.1.1 Main distribution systems
following objectives:
• Reduction of the area of surfaces losing heat, particu- 3.1.1.1 Bottom distribution system, side feed
larly in the riser ducts, in which hot and cold water
pipes have to be laid in parallel. For construction reasons the points of use on the various
• The differences in the lengths of the individual circu- floors are supplied with hot and cold water generally origi-
lation circuits must be minimised. nating from basement distribution manifolds and risers on
• Hydraulic short circuits must be eliminated by using the "bottom distribution" principle (Fig 23). The lengths of
suitable regulation systems. the individual circulation circuits of distribution systems
• Relatively large flow rates must be possible in risers with side feed generally differ very considerably. The
with poor hydraulic conditions. design of both the supply and the circulation pipes is
based on the longest flow path (with worst hydraulic
In 3.5 an example with 12 risers and 48 flats shows the conditions). As with given pressure relationships the
effects of the chosen distribution principle on the diameter "pressure gradient available to cope with pipe friction"
of the circulation pipe, the circulation flow rate, the pres- (see 2.9) reduces with the length of the flow path, the
sure differential of the circulation pump and the regulation pipes of the main distribution system have to be made
system on the temperature level in the circulation circuits. relatively large. Such a pipe configuration also leads to
This is described below as the "reference example". larger nominal diameters for the circulation system, a
As the geometric configuration of the pipe system higher pump pressure differential and hence more difficult
remains unchanged in these example calculations, they regulation conditions. These tendencies are unhelpful in
provide a quick overview of the advantages and dis- terms of both cost and hygiene. Distribution principles
advantages of each distribution principle. with a more central feed are therefore to be preferred. In
very large water supply systems the hot supply may only
be configured with a central water heating system. Divi-
ding this system up into several small units is a better
solution. This is especially the case with distribution
concepts that require high volumes of circulating water to
maintain temperature, for example systems with circu-
lation systems extending to the points of use.
Fig 23 Circulation system with "bottom distribution"
43
Circulation systems
3.1.1.2 Bottom distribution system, central

feed
If structurally feasible, a pipe configuration with approxi-

mately central feed (Fig 24) is to be preferred, since it
achieves better hydraulic conditions than one with a side
feed.
Fig 24 Circulation system with "central feed"
3.1.1.3 Tichelmann distribution system
With a "Tichelmann distribution system" the aim is to

make all of the circulation circuits the same length (Fig 25).
This approach is based on the assumption that the pump
has to overcome equal pressure differentials in circuits of
about the same length. In heating circuits this can be
regarded as being approximately the case. However, in
the circulation systems of water supply systems the
hydraulic conditions have to be evaluated differently, as
the parallel flows and returns have different diameters, so
this distribution principle also leads to a significant
hydraulic imbalance here. The slight improvements in the
hydraulic conditions are offset by higher pipework costs,
larger water capacity and larger internal surface. In most
specific design cases the disadvantages of this distri-
bution principle predominate, so each individual case
always has to be critically examined. As shown by the
design example in 3.5, highly effective regulation is still in-
dispensable even with a Tichelmann distribution system.
With a Tichelmann distribution system in the circulation
systems, it is initially surprising to find that the "worst"
circulation circuit is the one including the riser next to the
pump. This is because although this circuit has only a few
large hot water pipe sections, it also has many smaller
circulation sections. Unlike all of the other distribution
principles discussed in this manual, with this principle a
large circulation flow rate must be possible in the riser
near the pump (see 3.5.3).
44
Circulation systems
Fig 25 Circulation system based on Tichelmann principle
3.1.1.4 Top circulation collection manifold
With all of the circulation systems discussed above the

circulation pipes are laid parallel to the hot water pipe. If
water temperatures in excess of 55 ºC are maintained, in
these cases a significant reduction in the stand-by heat
losses for the central hot water supply can only be
achieved through increased lagging or a reduction in the
surface of the pipe system losing heat.
The considerable extra expense involved in improving the
lagging beyond the requirements of EnEV11 means this
seemingly obvious measure is not a suitable solution.
Reduction of the pipe surface losing heat can however be
achieved relatively simply by using different distribution
principles. A "top distribution system" avoids, for
example, the need to lay hot water and circulation pipes
in parallel near the risers (Fig 26). This enables the cost of
pipework and the water capacity of the supply system to
be reduced. At the same time, however, heat losses in the
riser ducts are also reduced by at least 40%. As hot and
cold water pipes have to be installed in parallel in the
confined space of these ducts, even when little cold water
is being drawn off its temperature can be kept below
25 ºC for significantly longer (see Chapter 1). This distri-
bution principle therefore meets the commercial and
hygiene requirements for installing a circulation system
very effectively. However, in most buildings there is not
enough space to lay the hot water distribution manifold or
the circulation collection manifold in the top or attic storey.
11. Energy Conservation Regulations (EnEV) of 16 November 2001

covering heat insulation and low-energy building services
45
Circulation systems
Fig 26 Circulation system with "top distribution system"
3.1.1.5 Liner circulation in hot water risers
By way of departure from the standard systems

described above, circulation systems whose pipes take
the form of liners in the hot water risers have been
installed in the tower blocks built in the new Federal
German states since 1984.
Like the "top distribution system" shown in Fig 26, this
circulation principle reduces the surfaces losing heat in
the riser ducts. Moreover, this system can be combined
with a main distribution system laid in the basement,
thereby also simplifying repairs and maintenance, as the
isolation valves for the risers can be positioned centrally.
In addition to this central advantage for maintaining the

quality of the drinking water, liner circulation has other
virtues that improve the cost effectiveness of central water
heating and distribution systems:
• Lower heat losses thanks to reduced pipe surface
• Longer maintenance of cold water temperatures in ri-
ser ducts
• Smaller circulation pipes
• Reduced pipe support costs
• Less lagging
• Noise insulation and fire protection required for circu- Fig 27 Principle of liner circulation
lation pipe in slab no longer required However, the apparent benefits of liner circulation are only
reaped in installed systems if a modified method is used
for designing the hot water risers and the circulation
system (see 3.2).
46
Circulation systems
Fig 28 Circulation system with liners in the hot water risers
3.1.2 Protection against ingress of non-drin- If the opening pressure of check valves in the circu-
king water lation circuit has not been allowed for sufficiently or at
all in the pump design, circulation may be prevented,
In the case of new systems the principle of individual pro- as the pump can then no longer open the check
tection as defined in DIN 1988-412 should always be used valves.
to protect against ingress of non-drinking water, foreign
Hence in circulation systems only check valves with a low
matter and pollutants (Fig 29).
opening pressure may ever be used, for example the
The general protection using riser ventilation valves con-
Kemper models shown in Figs 158/159 and 145/146 with
ventionally employed in old systems causes unnecessarily
∆pRV = 10 bar (Fig 29).
high pipework costs, increases the pipe volume and signi-
ficantly increases the proportion of stagnant water in the
system. For these reasons 8.3.2 of DVGW Code of Prac-
tice W 55113 also requires the following for decontamina-
tion of old systems:
„Connecting pipes for ventilation valves for general pro-

tection must be removed. Fittings with individual protec-
tion must be installed.“
There is also a problem in that the check valve necessary

in the riser with general protection generally develops a
considerable flow resistance (opening pressure), which
has to be overcome by the circulation pump during circu-
lation. The opening pressure of normal combined check
and isolation valves is general of the order of magnitude of
the resistance of all of the pipes in the circulation system
(Table 23) and therefore greatly increases the necessary
circulation pump pressure differential.
Fig 29 Configuration of a riser with individual or general protection as
defined in DIN 1988-4
12. DIN 1988-4 "Drinking Water Supply Systems, Protection and Quality
Control"
47
Circulation systems
3.1.3 Floor systems 3.1.3.2 Circulation to points of use
3.1.3.1 3 litre rule If in a floor system the water capacity of the flow path is
greater than 3 litres, a floor circulation system must be
DIN 1988 permits a non-circulating volume of water along provided. It should be noted here that no circulation pipes
flow paths of floor and/or spur pipes of up to 3 litres. This may be connected downstream of the water meters for
volume relates to the individual flow path, calculated from the individual flats, as this would lead to serious errors in
the connection for the particular floor to the point of use, estimating water and heating charges on the basis of con-
and not to the total water capacity of the floor system. sumption.
Careful sizing of the pipe diameters in the floor systems
using detailed calculations as defined in DIN 1988-3 not With a floor circulation system the necessary flat
only improves the cost effectiveness of the entire water water meters must be positioned downstream of the
supply system, but also reduces the non-circulating circulation connection, for example in the vicinity of
volume in the hot water pipes, thereby improving the the points of use.
hygiene conditions (see also design example of a floor
In high-risk systems (for example in hospitals, care
system in the appendix)!
homes, etc) for hygiene reasons circulation to each indivi-
dual point of use is preferred. Although circulation pipes
taken to the points of use improve the basic conditions for
hygienic operation of the water supply system, they result
in significantly higher pipework, regulation and operating
costs (see 3.5.6). Such systems may therefore only be ac-
tually installed by agreement with the operator and the
person responsible for hygiene, after taking into account
all of the factors involved.
In such cases specified circulation regulating valves
(general Eta-Therm) must be installed in the floor circula-
tion pipes. These valves must be able to adopt the regu-
lating positions for the service conditions. The necessary
Fig 30 Floor system terminology and definitions throttling positions cannot be achieved with "presettable"
concealed valves!
Floor circulation systems must be designed so that

the additional cost is justified by perfect system
operation.
Perfect operation of the floor circulation system can only

be expected if only one additional circulation circuit is
installed on the floor. Such a solution automatically results
from installing on the particular floor a ring pipe system
that starts at the riser connection for hot water and ends
at the connection to the vertical circulation pipe. The
always necessary regulation of the additional circuit with
an effective valve should preferably be carried out in the
vicinity of the floor isolation valves (bottom of Fig 32).
The conditions for regulation become much less favou-
rable if parallel connection of circulation pipes within the
floor system produces hydraulically redundant circulation
circuits (middle of Fig 32). In such systems it is generally
not possible to keep the temperature above 55 ºC right to
the point of use.
Fig 31 Time taken for low-temperature water in a floor system to run hot
at the point of use, using a fitting with a draw-off characteristic as
shown in Fig 6
48
Circulation systems
Integration of numerous floor systems into a larger circu-

lation system can result in unrealistic regulation settings
(very large pressure differentials at extremely low circul-
ation flow rates) of the floor regulating valves near the
pump. This situation can be improved by a multistage
regulation system consisting of a thermostatic valve in the
floor system and further static regulating valves, for
example at the bottom of the riser and/or on a central
circulation collection manifold (bottom of Fig 32).
With a multistage regulation system it must be

ensured that only one thermostatically controlled
valve is ever allowed in the circulation circuit. To
maintain the valve authority the first valve in the circu-
lation circuit must always be thermostatic. All other
valves in the circuit may only have static restriction
functions (Fig 33).
Fig 32 Configuration of circulation system taken to points of use
Fig 33 Circulation via floor system
3.2 Design methods for circulation systems nary or working designs of medium-sized systems.
All sizes of system can basically be designed with the
DVGW Code of Practice W 55314 distinguishes between detailed method. This method should be used particu-
three design methods for circulation systems depending larly for larger systems if the ambient temperatures in the
on the supply system requirements: basement differ significantly from 10 ºC (standard tempe-
rature assumed in simplified method), as can happen
The short method is intended for designing circulation with, for example, continuously heated basement rooms.
pipes in smaller systems without thermal or hydraulic This ensures the design results are a better approximation
calculations. of the actual service conditions. Because of the comple-
The simplified method can be used to provide prelimi- xity of the individual calculation steps, detailed designs
should always only be carried out with the aid of a
14. DVGW Code of Practice W 553, December 1998; "Designing Circu- computer program (Fig 56)!
49
Circulation systems
3.2.1 Short method
Fig 34 Limits of applicability of short method
The short method can only be used if the system meets 3.2.2 Simplified and detailed methods
the following requirements:
• The water supply system may only have individually 3.2.2.1 Circulation flow rate
protected point-of-use fittings and hence no addi-
tional check valves. The circulation flow rate must be able to transport the
• The pressure drop across a check valve (gravity) quantity of heat lost via the surface of the pipe system at
downstream of the pump must not exceed 30 mbar. a given temperature. Only if this equilibrium can be en-
• The total length of all of the hot water pipes affected sured at every point of the circulation system can the desi-
by the circulation Σ(ITWW) in the water supply system red temperature level be maintained in the pipe system.
must not exceed 30 m. The associated circulation The heat loss via the surface of the pipe is directly related
pipes are not taken into account in determining the to the circulation flow rate needed to maintain the tempe-
length. rature and therefore forms the basis for calculating the
• The total length of the circulation pipe in the longest flow rate.
circulation circuit must not exceed 20 m. The heat loss from a section (ll ⋅ qqW) is heavily dependent
• The DN 15 circulation pump must be able to deliver a on the area of the surface of the lagged pipe, the thick-
pump flow rate of at least VVP ≥ 200 l/h at a pump ness of the lagging, the thermal conductivity of the lagging
pressure differential of ∆pP = 100 mbar . and the average temperature differential between the
water and ambient air (Equations 17 and 18). With a
If these conditions are met, the circulation pipe can be reasonable degree of accuracy all other factors relating to
designed with di ≥ 10 mm. internal and external heat transfer can normally be regar-
ded as constant or neglected.
50
Circulation systems
Example:
Calculation of the heat loss from a stainless steel pipe laid
in the basement and having a diameter of DN 40 (42 x 1.5)
Equation 17
and full lagging (40 mm thick) to EnEV
q W
q Specific heat loss of a lagged pipe in W/m
kR Heat transmission coefficient of the pipe in
W/(m ⋅ K)
∆ϑ Average positive temperature differential
between the hot water in the pipe and the With a temperature differential of ∆ϑ = 50 K:
ambient air
∆ϑ = 50 K at a basement air temperature qqW = kR ⋅ ∆ϑ = 0.196 ⋅ 50 = 9.78 W/m
of 10 °C (Fig 35 and Table 22)
∆ϑ = 35 K at a basement air temperature The heat losses of a circulation system can be calculated
of 25 °C using the detailed method and hence Equation 17, or
using the simplified method.
As shown by the evaluations of calculations based on
Equation 17, with thermal insulation to EnEV heat losses
arise that are approximately the same for all pipe dia-
meters. With sufficient accuracy this situation can be used
as an initial design simplification, with the heat losses un-
Equation 18
der normal conditions being regarded as constant whate-
ver the diameter of the pipes:
λD Thermal conductivity of the lagging (accor-
Exposed pipes in basement qqW = 11 W/m (Fig 35)
ding to HeizAnlV λD = 0.035 W/(m ⋅ K)
Laid in duct qqW = 7 W/m (Fig 36)
D Outside diameter of the lagged pipe in m
d Outside diameter of the unlagged pipe in m
αa External heat transfer coefficient
(with normal environmental factors
αa ≈ 10 W/(m2 ⋅ K)
Fig 35 Heat losses of insulated stainless steel pipes with different lagging thicknesses (λ D = 0.035 W/m ⋅ K), with a temperature differential of ∆ϑ = 50 K,
giving an average of 11.0 W/m, fully lagged to EnEV
51
Circulation systems
Fig 36 Heat losses of insulated stainless steel pipes with different lagging thicknesses (λ D = 0.035 W/m ⋅ K), with a temperature differential of ∆ϑ = 35 K,
giving an average of 7.0 W/m, fully lagged to EnEV
However, if there are any deviations from the standard

assumptions, for instance different ambient tempera-
tures, or strong air currents are to be expected where the Equation 19
pipes are laid, the heat losses must be calculated using
the detailed method and hence Equation 17. Σ(ITWW) Total length of the hot water pipes in the
The normal approach of laying the hot water and circula- worst circulation circuit
tion pipes in parallel in the basement and in the riser ducts
Σ(ITWZ) Total length of the circulation pipes in the
gives approximately equal pipe lengths for the different
worst circulation circuit
sections (Fig 23). From the above description it can be
concluded with sufficient accuracy that the temperature Account must also be taken of the fact that for continuity
drop in the hot water pipes of a circulation circuit must reasons the flow rates must be the same in the parallel hot
then be as large as in the circulation pipes. water and circulation pipes.
With the simplified method the temperature drop ∆ϑ W The circulation flow rate therefore only has to be worked
from the storage vessel to the start of the circulation pipe out for the hot water pipes.
always corresponds to exactly half of the total tempera- Only when the heat losses are calculated using the
ture differential permitted in the circulation circuit (Fig 37). "detailed" method does a certain level of error have to be
If the lengths of the hot water and circulation pipes are tolerated as a result of this simplification, as the diameter
very different, as for example with a supply system with of the circulation pipe is generally smaller than the
top distribution system (Fig 26), the permissible tempera- associated diameter of the hot water pipe. As this can
ture drop in the hot water pipes ∆ϑ W can be estimated only result in a slightly smaller temperature differential bet-
with Equation 19. If this calculated temperature differential ween water heater outlet and circulation connection on
exceeds 3 K, Equations 23 and 24 must be used to verify the storage vessel than initially predicted by the calcula-
that the total pressure differential of 5 K permitted by tion, the discrepancies to be expected are always on the
DVGW Code of Practice W 551 is not exceeded. safe side. This discrepancy therefore generally only has to
be chekked by calculation in very large systems, or if, for
example with a "top distribution system", the lengths of
hot water and circulation pipes are very different.
With the "simplified" method only the location in which the
pipe is laid and the length of the section are required to
52
Circulation systems
work out the heat loss. The sum of the heat losses that
have to be covered from this section onwards in the flow
direction can then be worked out from these details
Σ(l ⋅ qqW).
Fig 37 Circulation system notation (temperature relationships relate to the simplified method)
Calculation of the flow rates starts with the first section QQa = VVa ⋅ ρ ⋅ c ⋅ ∆ϑ and
downstream of the water heater. Here the circulation flow Q d = VVd ⋅ ρ ⋅ c ⋅ ∆ϑ
Q
rate VV is identical to the pump flow rate VVP (Equation 20).
Equation 20
Σ[l ⋅ q
q W] Sum of the heat losses over the surface
of all hot water pipes in W Fig 38 Tee (branch point) notation
ρ Density of the water (ρ ≈ 1 kg/l)
As the temperature differential ∆ϑ from any branch point
c Specific heat capacity of the water
to the water heater must always be the same along both
(c ≈ 1.2 Wh/(kg ⋅ K))
flow paths, the following ratios can be equated:
∆ϑ W Temperature drop permitted in the hot
water pipes (TWW) between hot water
heater (TWE) outlet and start of the circu-
lation pipe, for example with the simpli-
fied method ∆ϑ W = 2.0 K
The flow continuity equation at the branch point
A relatively simple method of working out the required cir- VV = VV + VVd
culation flow rates in all other sections is provided by gives the basic equations for calculating the flow rates:
considering a branch point in a hot water (TWW) pipe sy-
stem (Fig 38). For the branch heat flow (subscript a) at any
separation point, and for the line heat flow (subscript d),
the following initially completely generally expressions can
Equation 21
be derived for pure circulation:
53
Circulation systems
3.2.2.2 Temperature drop in circulation circuit
When determining the flow rates Equation 24 can be used

to calculate the temperature drop at the end of each par-
Equation 22 ticular section. This step also gives the calculated tempe-
The flow rate in the section downstream of the water rature setting for the circulation regulating valve.
heater (TWE) corresponds to the pump flow rate
(Equation 20):
Equation 23
If the pump flow rate is known, the branch (a) at the first
tee and the line (d) circulation flow rates can subsequently
also be calculated: Equation 24
∆ϑ TS Temperature drop between beginning

and end of a section
I⋅ q
q W Heat loss from the section being consi-
dered in W
ϑ TWE Storage vessel outlet temperature, e.g.
60 ºC
Σ∆ϑ TS Temperature drop to design point
VV Flow rate in the section
ϑW Temperature of the hot water at the end
of the current section
Hot water temperature at the end of the first section (Fig

39) downstream of the water heater (TWE). The tempera-
ture drop in section TS 4 is
and the hot water temperature at the calculation point, at

the end of the section
Fig 39 Example of calculation of circulation flow rate (see also design (Fig 40 and Table 21)
example in the appendix)
Calculations of this complexity do not add to costs if the
project is handled with a computer and a powerful design
program for water supply systems, such as Geberit
ProPlanner.
The calculated temperature setting for the circulation
regulating valve can be used to achieve more accurate
regulation, particularly if thermostatically controlled valves
are used.
The temperature drop can also be used to calculate the
circulation flow rate as an alternative to Equations 21 and
22 (Fig 40).
54
Circulation systems
Fig 40 Temperature drop in the circulation circuits for risers ST 1 and ST 12 from Table 21 and resultant circulation flow rates (Fig 122)
3.2.2.3 Determining pipe diameter and pump In the hot water pipes sized for the peak load during use
pressure differential the relatively low circulation flow rate only causes a small
pressure drop. When using the "simplified" method, the-
The hydraulic calculations for a circulation system in a refore, the pressure drop in the hot water (TWW) pipe
water supply system are carried out for steady-state does not have to be checked by calculation.
service conditions with water no longer being drawn off. On similar lines to the design rules in DIN 1988-3 for hot
The basic equation (25) for designing such a circuit and cold water pipes, the pressure drop calculations can
system can then be developed from a consideration of also be carried out using either the "detailed" or the "sim-
Bernoulli. It applies to any circulation circuit starting in the plified" method.
delivery connection of the pump and ending in its inlet Because of the low velocities in circulation systems the
connection. minor losses "a" make up a relatively small proportion of
the total pressure drop. With the simplified method, ac-
cording to DVGW Code of Practice W 6553 this contribu-
Equation 25 tion can be estimated as equivalent to adding 20 to 40%
of the pressure drops for a straight pipe.
∆pP Pump pressure differential
Σ(I ⋅ R + ZTWW) Pressure drops in the hot water
pipes (TWW) of the circulation
Equation 26
circuit
Σ(I ⋅ R + ZTWZ) Pressure drops in the circulation When using the detailed method minor losses must be
pipes (TWZ) of the circulation circuit calculated using Equation 13 and the constants listed in
∆PRV Pressure drops across check Table 23.
valves, for example downstream of The circulation nominal diameters are specified for the
the pump (60 mbar) or across the circulation flow rate in the section, preferably taking
protection combination for the riser account of a maximum flow velocity and not on the basis
(100 mbar). The manufacturer's of a pressure gradient available to cope with pipe friction,
details should preferably always be as in the DIN 1988 calculations.
used here (Table 23).
Circulation nominal diameters must be chosen on the
∆pTH Pressure drop across a fully open
basis of the hydraulics in such a way that the flow
thermostatically controlled circula-
velocities in the circulation circuit - towards the circu-
tion regulating valve (Fig 60)
lation pump - increase continuously. In sections near
∆pD Throttling pressure drop across cir- the pump the velocity can be up to vmax = 1.0 m/s
culation regulating valve (Fig 41).
∆pAP Pressure drop across any item of
equipment, eg a heat exchanger in In larger water supply systems in particular, sizing all
the circulation circuit circulation pipes in the vicinity of the maximum
55
Circulation systems
permissible velocity leads to an extremely high pump

pressure differential that results in uneconomic pipe
operation.
Fig 41 Desired velocity profile in the circulation pipes
The pressure drop calculation for the worst circula-

tion circuit defines the required pump pressure diffe-
rential ∆pP.
Fig 42 Schematic diagram of a circulation system with names of important working parts
By contrast with the provisions in Part 3 of DIN 1988, the

next larger size of circulation pump must always be
chosen.
This means that the intersection of pump and pipe net-
work characteristics (actual operating point) must always
lie above the calculated operating point (Fig 43).
56
Circulation systems
Fig 43 Pipe network and pump characteristics
3.2.3 Sizing circulation liners in hot water 3.2.3.2 Determining circulation flow rates
risers
The aim in developing a method of designing liner circu-
3.2.3.1 Special features lation systems15 was to adopt as many of the elements of
the design rules for conventional systems from DVGW
When liners are used for circulation only the annular gap Code of Practice W 553 introduced in the meantime as
between the outer pipe and the liner remains available for possible. This also applies particularly to the method of
carrying the water to the load. The pressure drop calcula- calculating the required circulation flow rates. This is
tions needed to size the outside pipe must therefore take based on the heat lost via the surface of the insulated
account of the liner used rather than just being based on pipes. To allow for the absence of the heat losses from the
the inside diameter as though the full cross section were external circulation pipe in the riser section, by analogy
available. Using the otherwise identical design method of with the method according to DVGW Code of Practice
DIN 1988-3, the liner generally leads to the outside pipe W 553, only half the heat losses from the hot water riser
having to be one size larger than in conventional systems. are taken into account. Designing the liner system with a
The pressure drop calculations for the liner system are temperature drop of ∆ϑ W = 2 K in the hot water pipes
based on the ideal assumption of the liner being central in therefore leads to a temperature profile in the basement
the outside pipe. distribution manifolds that, as expected, is not critical
(Fig 45). By comparison with the results from conventional
systems it is striking that the circulation flow rates become
extremely low in the risers near the pump and very high in
the riser furthest away from the pump.
Fig 44 Terminology for riser with circulation liner
15. Rickmann, Bernd "Circulation system with liners in hot water risers",
TGA Fachplaner 6/24
57
Circulation systems
Fig 45 Temperature profile in the basement distribution manifolds and flow rates in the risers calculated according to DVGW Code of Practice W 553
Equation 27
Equation 28
Key:
Spalt = gap
Hüllrohr = outside pipe
Luft = air
Inliner = liner
An effective method of designing liner circulation systems

Fig 46 Notation for a liner circulation system
cannot merely consider the inlet and outlet temperature of
Unlike in a conventional circulation system, the tempera- the riser system. It also has to check the temperature
ture in liner circulation systems no longer drops conti- profile in the riser. The temperature profile in the "heat
nuously in the direction of flow in the riser section16 . exchanger" to be considered can only be calculated step
Instead of the temperature of the outlet (ϑ Aus ) from the by step. The smaller the chosen increment the more
riser system as would be expected, the lowest tempera- accurate the result will be17 . If the temperature profile in
ture in the riser system is the head temperature (ϑ Kopf) at risers 1 to 12 of the example is calculated with an incre-
the reversal in direction from the toroidal gap into the ment of ∆l = 10 cm, it becomes clear that with the
circulation liner (Fig 46). circulation flow rates calculated according to W 553 the
This temperature profile is caused by the fact that the flow desired design temperature of 56 ºC cannot be main-
in the toroidal gap loses heat both via the surface of the tained in the risers near the pump (Fig 47). Direct appli-
lagged pipe to the surrounding air and to the reverse cir- cation of the W 553 design basis to liner circulation
culation flow in the liner. The heat absorbed by the liner system is not permitted.18
leads to an increase in temperature that reaches its maxi-
mum with the outlet temperature.
17. Meissner, Dorian / Wiebe, Jakob "Development of Algorithms for
Designing Circulation Systems with Liners in Hot Water Risers",
Degree dissertation, Fachhochschule Münster, 2003
16. Anneken, Christoph / Knobloch, Sven "Design and Installation of a 18. Rudat, Klaus "Analytical Examination of Hot Water Distribution
Test Facility for Examining the Problem of Internal Circulation Pipes", Systems with Runs with Internal Circulation Pipes", HLH, Vol 51,
Degree dissertation, Fachhochschule Münster, 2002 1999
58
Circulation systems
3.2.3.3 Minimum flow rate in riser
The method described initially of calculating the tempera-

ture profile in the riser is in any case so involved that it can Equation 29
only be incorporated in existing computer programs for
designing water supply systems with considerable effort. VVZ Minimum circulation flow rate in riser
It therefore seems sensible in the introductory phase of ϑE Inlet temperature in hot water (TWW) riser in °C
this technology to look for a simpler approach that ensu- l Length of riser
res sufficiently high temperatures at the head of the riser.
From the results of numerous detailed calculations it is
possible to develop a simple numerical equation enabling Range of validity of equation
calculation with the accuracy claimed for "simplified"
calculations of a minimum flow rate for 35 x 11.5 or Inlet temperature in riser: 57 - 60 °C
28 x 1.4 outside pipes with 12 x 1.0 liners that leads to Outside pipe = 35 x 1.5
"head temperatures" > 56 ºC. Only the length of the riser Lagging in accordance with German Heating Regulations
and the inlet temperature ϑ E in the toroidal gap have to be or EnEV
known in order to apply this equation. Duct temperature 25 °C
Fig 47 Temperature profile in risers calculated according to DVGW Code of Practice W 553
59
Circulation systems
Fig 48 Minimum flow rate for 28 x 1.5 / 12 x 1.0 and 35 x 1.5 / 12 x 1.0 liner risers as a function of inlet temperature in toroidal gap ϑ E and length, at an
ambient temperature of 25 °C and with lagging to EnEV
In most cases the circulation flow rates via the risers resul- The differentials ∆pD remaining in the pressure drop
ting from calculation to DVGW Code of Practice W 553 calculations between the available pump pressure
are inadequate, and therefore have to be raised to the ∆pP and the pressure drops calculated in the circula-
minimum flow rate (Fig 48) in the risers involved. tion circuits must be reduced with circulation regula-
ting valves (Equation 30).
3.2.4 Regulation
The pump pressure differential calculated for the worst Equation 30

circulation circuit is available in all other circulation circuits
to overcome pressure drops. If "hydraulic balancing" is not performed, the design flow
A "hydraulic balance" is only achieved when pump rates cannot be established in the installed system. The
pressure and pressure drops are in equilibrium in each circulation flow rate must, however, be able to transport
circulation circuit. the quantity of heat lost via the surface of the pipe system.
The primary objective in sizing the circulation pipes must This means that a specified water temperature can only
be set the "available" pressure differential of the pump be achieved if the equilibrium described above is ensured
against the pressure drops in pipes. A lower limit is set on at every point of the circulation system. Hydraulic balan-
the choice of suitable diameters for the circulation pipes cing of a circulation system is therefore the basic pre-
to be sized by the available inside diameter of the chosen requisite for reliable operation as defined in DVGW Code
pipe series, and by the requirement in the design rules to of Practice W 551.
observe minimum inside diameters (DN 10) and maxi- The Codes of Practice for Drinking Water Installations -
mum velocities (vmax = 1.0 m/s). In each circuit this resul- TRWI (1988) already require the installation of throttle
ts in differences between the pump pressure and the valves for balancing circulation systems. However, in this
pressure drops with the design flow rate distribution in the respect the regulation measures stipulated in DIN 1988-3
pipe system. These deviations from the ideal situation of only aim to keep the circulation flow rates the same in all
"hydraulic balance" are particularly large in the sections risers. This is intended to limit the temperature drop bet-
near the pump. Despite involved pipe system design ween the water heater (TWE) outlet and return inlet via the
calculations they lead to a completely different flow rate circulation system to about 7 to 10 K (Fig 21). As already
distribution being established in the pipe system that that mentioned in Chapter 3, these measures are no longer
planned (see 3.5). sufficient to meet the current requirements.
For this reason the pressure differential still lacking to
achieve "hydraulic balance" must be set up at selected
points with regulating valves.
60
Circulation systems
Fig 49 Condition for hydraulic balance in circulation systems
As a result of the design rules for circulation systems even in the initial development stage20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 .
having been made more precise in DVGW Code of Prac- The bar chart of the calculated throttling settings (circula-
tice W 553, pipe system design gives settings (kV-values) tion flow rate VVZ and pressure drop ∆pD across the valve)
that could not be achieved with the throttle valves availa- for the circulation regulating valves (Fig 50) reveals that in
ble on the market at that time it was introduced19 . As the the circulation circuits near the pump relatively large
example calculations show, this applies particularly to the pressure differentials have to be built up at low circulation
valves near the pump in larger circulation systems, as flow rates, whereas in the risers further away from the
relatively large pressure differentials have to be esta-
blished here at low flow rates (Fig 50). 20. B. Gertdenken "Designing Circulation Pipes to Part 3 of DIN 1988 -
Sources of Error and Suggestions for Improvement", Degree disser-
To meet the new requirements, in conjunction with the tation 1991, Fachhochschule Münster, unpublished (available in Ger-
Plumbing and Sanitation Laboratory of the Fachhoch- man only)
21. S. Rinsche "Designing a Water Supply System with Hygiene in Mind",
schule Münster, valve manufacturer Gebr. Kemper based Degree dissertation 1991, Fachhochschule Münster, unpublished
in Olpe has continued to develop its valve designs and (available in German only)
22. C. Batke, A. Tebroke "Designing a Circulation System for a Care
extend its range of valves. The first step was to define on Home According to the Rules of DVGW Code of Practice W 551,
the basis of numerous example calculations for medium Using the Computer Programs AutoCad 12 and Dendrit 7.02",
Degree dissertation 1991, Fachhochschule Münster, unpublished
and large water supply systems the minimum boundary (available in German only)
23. M. Geesen "Computer Aided Design of a Water Supply System in a
conditions a circulation regulating valve has to cover Care Home Using Dendrit 7.0", Degree dissertation 1995, Fachhoch-
against the backdrop of the requirements of DVGW Code schule Münster, unpublished (available in German only)
24. G. Glasmeier, W. Hagemann, Ch. Teepe "Decontaminating Water
of Practice W 551. From these findings a reference Systems in a Meat Processing Facility", Degree dissertation 1995,
system for residential buildings was then defined. This Fachhochschule Münster, unpublished (available in German only)
25. B. von Höfen, R. Lünse "Designing a Water Supply System for a Care
system consists of twelve risers, each serving four upper Home Using AutoCad 12 / Pit-Cup and Dendrit 7.0", Degree disser-
floors, ie a total of 48 flats with standard plumbing. On the tation 1995, Fachhochschule Münster, unpublished (available in Ger-
man only)
basis of the results of the calculations for the reference 26. F. Schrapper "Hydraulic Characteristics of Thermally Controlled
Regulating Valves - Design and Installation of a Test Stand", Degree
system, a laboratory test stand was set up in which the dissertation 1995, Fachhochschule Münster, unpublished (available
hydraulic and thermal conditions for any two risers in this in German only)
27. A. Kleine-Hartlage "Enhancement of a Thermally Controlled Throttle
system could be simulated. The valve prototypes installed Valve for Water Supply Circulation Systems", Degree dissertation
on the stand could be tested under realistic conditions 1995, Fachhochschule Münster, unpublished (available in German
only)
28. J. Straube "Designing a Pilot Circulation System with Thermally Con-
trol Regulating Valves Using Windows Dendrit 2.5 - Preliminary Inve-
19. Ch. Saunus "Are Water Supply Systems Dying of Legionella?", Sani- stigation of Measurement Aspects", Degree dissertation 1996,
tär und Heizungstechnik, 4/5, 1993 (available in German only) Fachhochschule Münster, unpublished (available in German only)
61
Circulation systems
pump relatively large flow rates are necessary to keep the

temperature above 55 °C. These high flow rates also lead
to circulation pipes of larger diameter, which generally
result in a circulation regulating valve with corresponding
diameter (example in appendix).
Fig 50 Required circulation flow rate via the riser and pressure differential across the regulating valves to ensure hydraulic balance
Fig 51 kV-values and temperature settings for regulating valves in riser system (Table 20)
Irrespective of whether "static" or "dynamic" regulation of • Temperature setting on valve in hydraulically balanced
a water circulation system is planned, the following valve state
data should be known for all regulating valves in the
system through pipe system design: Basically, it has to be said that the larger and more
branched the circulation system the more important
• Flow rate VVZ in the section (or through the valve)
an accurate knowledge of these valve settings
• Pressure differential across the circulation regulating
becomes.
valve ∆pD
• kV-value, calculated from VVZ and ∆pD (Equation 31)
62
Circulation systems
3.2.4.1 kV-range required for circulation regu- 3.3 Available regulation technology
lating valves
3.3.1 Static circulation regulating valves
Circulation regulating valves are generally sized and pre-
set on the basis of what is termed the kV-value. This is 3.3.1.1 Multi-Fix riser regulating valve
defined as the flow rate in m3/h through the valve with a
pressure drop of 1000 mbar. The kV-range of a regulating If static circulation regulating valves are used, they are
valve has to be determined by measurement and speci- sized by means of the kV-value or the required valve data
fied by the manufacturer of the valve in its technical docu- VVZ and ∆pD. With these data the required setting for a
mentation. The kV-value required for the circulation valve of a particular nominal diameter can be read off a
regulating valves can be calculated from the system diagram (Fig 42) or table (Table 9).
values: circulation flow rate VVZ in l/h and pressure drop
across the valve ∆pD in mbar with Equation 31 (example Example:
calculation in Table 20). For a kV-value of 0.087m3/h Table 9 gives a valve setting
of 1.7. The same value can be determined from Fig 52
using the circulation flow rate VVZ = 30 l/h and the pressure
differential ∆pD = 117 mbar.
Equation 31
Valve setting kV-value
The numerical value obtained must be in the kV-range of
m3/h
the chosen circulation regulating valve to enable the
pressure differentials required for hydraulic balancing to 0.5 0.05
be built up.
1.0 0.08
Example:
Hydraulic design of a circulation system (Fig 122) gives 2.0 0.09
the following valve data for a circulation circuit via the riser
(ST 1 from Table 20): 2.5 0.09
Circulation flow rate VVZ = 30 l/h 3.0 0.12

Pressure differential across valve ∆pD = 117 mbar
3.5 0.24
These values give a kV-value of: 4.0 0.36
4.5 0.48
5.0 0.65
5.5 1.13
Table 9 Valve settings and kV-values for a circulation regulating valve

(Multi-Fix, DN 15, Fig 150)
63
Circulation systems
Fig 52 Valve settings for static circulation regulating valve (runs 1 to 12)
3.3.1.2 Presettable isolating valve
No characteristics are specified for presettable isolating

valves. These valves should be positioned centrally, on
circulation collection manifolds or in the delivery connec-
tion of the circulation pump (Fig 1), to make it possible to
eliminate any pressure differentials still present between
larger subsystems. Throttling can be carried out effective-
ly on the basis of the temperature of the circulation return
flow from the system. If, in an otherwise regulated circula-
tion system, the temperature here is higher than the
calculated design temperature (for example > 55 °C), the
flow rate via the last risers is larger than needed to main-
tain the temperature of the circulation collection manifold.
Fig 53 Presettable KEMPER isolating valve with Mapress press connec- Such a valve can be preset to throttle the flow in order to
tion, Fig 178 21
influence the pressure relationships (see 3.5.1).
Fig 54 Applications of presettable isolating valve
Key:
TWZ = Circulation
64
Circulation systems
3.3.2 Thermostatic circulation regulating ProPlanner from Geberit (Fig 56)) specified temperature
valves settings are known for the valves30 . Positioning the valves
at a different point in the system may (slightly) alter the
Static regulation of a larger circulation system requires optimum temperature setting. Examples are to be found
accurate pipe system design calculations that also yield in the schematic diagrams in 3.1.
the settings for the regulating valves. Any deviations of the If a storage vessel outlet temperature of 60 ºC cannot be
installed circulation system from the original design have ensured during operation, the temperature setting on the
to be laboriously eliminated by manually readjusting the circulation regulating valve must be 3 K lower and the
valves. As such deviations are routinely encountered on possible vessel outlet temperature.
building sites in Germany, the obvious solution was to A thermostatically controlled circulation regulating valve is
develop regulating valves that could eliminate such sized like the static valves using a throttling chart. In this
differences, which are likely to be slight, "automatically". case it also has to be checked whether the throttling
In a manner similar to calculation of the required pressure positions required by the calculations lie within the
drop across the circulation regulating valve for hydraulic characteristic of the chosen valve (Figs 59 or 60). If they
balancing, the associated valve temperature can also be do, fine operational regulation of the circulation system by
determined when carrying out the pipe system design the installed thermostatic valves depending on the tempe-
calculations. The valve temperature in the hydraulically rature setting is carried out automatically. With otherwise
balanced state (temperature setting) depends on the balanced basic hydraulic conditions, deviations of the
system and differs for each regulating valve. In all systems actual service from the design conditions can be automa-
to be operated with a storage vessel temperature of 60 °C tically eliminated in this way without further manual inter-
and a permissible temperature differential of 5 K, they lie vention. However, more serious weaknesses in the
within a tight range between about 56 and 58 ºC (Fig 51). hydraulics of the pipe system (4.3.2.2.4) can no longer be
More than a decade ago these facts prompted valve eliminated by thermostatic circulation regulating valves,
manufacturer Gebr. Kemper of Olpe in conjunction with as these valves can only adopt throttling positions within
the Fachhochschule Münster to develop thermostatically tightly defined ranges and are not designed to be able to
controlled circulation regulating valves that could auto- produce either reheating or pump pressure differentials!
matically adopt suitable throttling positions depending
In designing thermostatic valves it must be ensured
on the valve temperature. These valves adopt a maximum
that the kV-value calculated as required does not
throttling position when the temperature setting is
exceed the actual kV-value of the chosen valve at
reached. However, in this position they are still not com-
55 °C (Fig 58 and 4.3.2.2.5). The next larger valve may
pletely closed (5.3 of DVGW Code of Practice W 553). As
have to be chosen.
a result, the circulation flow rate needed in the pipe
section involved is continuously available without the Skilled use of thermostatic circulation regulating valves
circulation flow being disrupted (Fig 57). considerable reduces the complexity of both design and
The kV,min-value of the thermostatic valve used must cor- regulation of the installed system. As the free flow cross
respond to the results of pipe system design calculations section in the valve must become very small at the maxi-
in accordance with DVGW Code of Practice W 553. Only mum throttling positions, with static valves there is a
in this case will the corresponding regulation or required danger of suspended matter being able to settle in the
temperature maintenance be achieved with minimal use control cross section. With thermostatically controlled
of materials and energy. Because of the fundamental im- valves a resultant malfunction is rather unlikely, as reduc-
portance for proper circulation the DVGW has drawn up tion of the valve cross section during operation - and the
the requirements to be met for a test certificate to be associated drop in temperature - causes the valve to reo-
issued for such valves.29 pen automatically.
3.3.2.1 Multi-Therm riser regulating valve However, all circulation regulating valves should be
positioned in the system for ease of inspection and
Calculation and measurement has shown that it is maintenance.
generally sufficient for the DVGW-certified Multi-Therm
regulating valves in the riser system to be set on an aver- By analogy with heating problems, in the circulation
age temperature of 57 ºC. For this reason these valves are systems of water supply systems the effect of the thermo-
supplied with this setting as standard. This default should static valves on the flow rate in the pipe system depends
only be changed in larger systems if appropriately calcu- on the ratio of the pump pressure to the pressure drop in
lated (for instance with a computer program such as the control section (valve authority). System components
29. DVGW VP 554 - Provisional test guidelines "Thermostatic Circulation 30. Mass, Tobias "Comparison of Technical Design Programs Based on
Regulating Valves for Hydraulic Balancing in Hot Water Supply ZVSHK Certification Procedure", Degree dissertation, Fachhoch-
Systems" schule Münster, 2004
65
Circulation systems
that can impair the valve authorities, such as check

valves, etc, must therefore be avoided through suitable
design of the pipe systems (3.1.2).
Fig 56 Geberit ProPlanner kV-values and temperature settings for circula-

Fig 55 KEMPER isolating valve with Geberit Mepla connection, Fig 190 tion regulating valves in reference example, calculated for Mepla
41, and KEMPER Multi-Therm circulation regulating valve with Ge- series of pipes
berit Mepla connection, Fig 143 40
Fig 57 Relationship between flow rate, pressure differential and temperature Multi-Therm circulation regulating valve, DN 15, temperature setting 57 ºC
66
Circulation systems
Fig 58 Multi-Therm circulation regulating valve, DN 15 (temperature setting 57 °C) kV-values as a function of valve temperature
The valves can be chosen using charts (Figs 59 and 60)

or automatically with a computer program (Fig 56).
As the flow rates become higher a valve with larger
nominal diameter must be used (Fig 60). This change in
diameter is particularly important for proper circulation, as
a high circulation flow rate - as for example in runs 11 and
12 - would produce substantial pressure drops ∆pTH
across the DN 15 valve (Fig 59).
Incorrect valve design or positioning can lead to

serious malfunctions in the circulation system
(4.3.2.2.5).
Fig 59 Regulation range of the DN 15 Multi-Therm circulation regulating valve (temperature setting 57 ºC). The plotted points result from the settings calcu-
lated for the circulation regulating valves in runs 1 to 12 from Fig 122 and Table 20.
67
Circulation systems
Fig 60 Regulation range of the DN 20 Multi-Therm circulation regulating valve (temperature setting 57 ºC). The plotted points result from the settings calcu-
lated for the circulation regulating valves in runs 11 and 12 from Fig 122 and Table 20.
3.3.2.2 Eta-Therm floor regulating valve
As the aim in high-risk systems is increasingly to ensure

circulation to the points of use, a thermostatic circulation
regulating valve has been developed that meets the
hydraulic and design requirements for use in floor systems
of limited extent (3.5.6).
Fig 61 KEMPER Eta-Therm floor regulating valve, Fig 545 02 (concealed

with Mapress press connection) and Fig 131 40 (installed exposed
with Geberit Mepla),with kV,min = 0.05, for regulating circulation
systems of floor systems, with temperature setting between 56
and 58 °C
68
Circulation systems
Fig 62 Eta-Therm circulation regulating valve, DN 15 (temperature setting 57 °C), kV-values as a function of valve temperature
3.4 Commissioning a circulation system maintenance it is advisable to permanently note the valve
data and temperature setting in the maintenance instruc-
When a water supply system is commissioned measure- tions and on the as-built drawings and associated valve
ments must be taken to check the temperatures in the cir- name plates.
culation system. The results should be recorded and VDI Guidelines 602331 stipulate that:
incorporated in the operating and maintenance documen-
tation. "Water supply pipes, particularly hot water and circulation
The temperature measurements must be taken under pipes, must be balanced as a complete system or in sec-
service conditions corresponding to the design assumptions. Hydraulic regulation must be recorded."
tions, ie static conditions. Such conditions are charac-
terised by the fact that the temperatures in the system 3.5 Verifying regulation through numerical
may no longer change with time. They are only esta- simulation
blished in the water supply circulation system after several
hours without any water being drawn off. If the storage The following section elucidates by means of numerical
vessel temperature is regulated by means of a two-level simulation the hydraulic and thermal relationships in unre-
controller, the switching differential of the vessel's gulated and hydraulically balanced systems based on dif-
thermostat must be taken into account when checking ferent distribution principles (see 3.1).
the temperatures. In "large systems" regulation of the All of the comments relate to a "reference example" with
storage vessel temperature is basically continuous and twelve risers and 48 flats. The hot water pipes (TWW) are
not by means of a two-level controller (DVGW Code of sized on the basis of
Practice W 551, 6.1). With a storage vessel outlet tempe- DIN 1988-3 and the circulation pipes on that of DVGW
rature of 60 °C, temperatures approximating to the calcu- Code of Practice W 553. As the layout remains un-
lated values must be established in the circulation system changed in these calculations, the examples give a quick
automatically. overview of the effects of the circulation principle on circu-
Comparison of the actual temperature with the calcula- lation pipe diameters, circulation flow rate and circulation
ted temperature setting on the regulating valve yields not pump pressure differential, and of the effect of the regula-
only simple conditions for checking during commissioning tion technology on the temperature level in the circulation
of a newly installed system, but also simplifies the neces- circuits.
sary operational maintenance, checking and inspection.
For this reason the Multi-Fix and Multi-Therm circulation
regulating valves are provided with sensor (dial thermo-
meter, "instantaneous" thermometer or remote monito- 31. VDI 6023 "Hygienic Aspects of the Planning, Design, Installation,
Operation and Maintenance of Drinking Water Supply Systems", VDI-
ring sensor) connection points. To simplify monitoring and Gesellschaft Technische Gebäudeausrüstung.
69
Circulation systems
The numerical simulation carried out takes account of the

following factors:
• changed storage vessel outlet temperatures,
• temperature drop in the pipe system due to heat
losses calculated using detailed method for all hot wa-
ter (TWW) and circulation (TWZ) pipes,
• changed pressure drops in the thermostatically con-
trolled circulation regulating valves due to varying
valve temperatures and
• resultant changes in flow rate in the circulation system
with new network resistance and
• the new operating point on the pump characteristic
3.5.1 Bottom distribution system, side feed
Fig 63 Flow rates via risers, with temperature profile in basement distribution manifolds, unregulated, circulation pump (2)
Fig 64 Flow rates via risers, with temperature profile in basement distribution manifolds, regulated with Multi-Therm circulation valve, DN 15 (temperature
setting 57 ºC)
70
Circulation systems
Fig 65 Flow rates via risers, with temperature profile in basement distribution manifolds, regulated with Multi-Therm circulation regulating valve, DN 15 (tem-
perature setting 57 ºC), and centrally reregulated with a static valve
Fig 66 Pipe network and pump characteristic with operating points for various service conditions plotted
71
Circulation systems
3.5.2 Top distribution system, central feed
Fig 67 Flow rates via risers, with temperature profile in the basement distribution manifolds, unregulated, circulation pump (1)
setting 57 ºC)
72
Circulation systems
3.5.3 Tichelmann distribution system
73
Circulation systems
Fig 71 Flow rates via risers, with temperature profile in basement distribution manifolds, regulated with Multi-Therm circulation regulating valve, DN 15
(temperature setting 57 ºC)
74
Circulation systems
3.5.4 Top circulation collection manifold

Circulation systems with a top circulation collection mani-
fold are particularly sensitive to hydraulic short circuits
(Fig 73). In this case as well regulation must aim to
produce a high flow rate in the worst riser. The ratio of the
flow rate necessary to maintain the temperature in the first
and second riser is particularly pronounced with this
distribution principle.
Fig 74 Flow rates via risers, with temperature profile in the basement distribution manifolds, regulated with Multi-Therm circulation regulating valve, DN 15
(temperature setting 57 ºC)
75
Circulation systems
3.5.5 Liner circulation in hot water risers
When the aim is to regulate on the basis of temperature

using thermostatically controlled valves, with liner circula-
tion systems the circulation regulating valves must ideally
be positioned at the points of lowest temperature, i.e. at
the head of the riser. As for structural reasons valve sy-
stems generally cannot be installed here, in circulation sy-
stems with liners the regulating valves must be positioned
in the region of the basement distribution manifolds.
76
Circulation systems
setting 57 ºC)
With a suitably designed and sized pipe system (3.2.3) cir-

culation systems with liners in the hot water risers can be
regulated with Multi-Therm circulation regulating valves,
as the regulation characteristic of the valve can ensure
that the temperatures at the head of the risers do not fall
below the minimum design temperature (for example,
56 ºC) (Fig 79).
77
Circulation systems
Fig 79 Temperature profile in the risers after regulation with DN 15 Multi-Therm circulation valves
3.5.6 Circulation to points of use
Circulation to the points of use significantly enlarges the

surface of the pipe system losing heat. To ensure in such
a case that temperatures can be kept above 55 ºC
throughout the circulation system, much higher circula-
tion flow rates must be possible than in conventional
systems.
Fig 80 Flow rates via floor systems, with temperature profile in the basement distribution manifolds, unregulated, circulation pump (3)
78
Circulation systems
Fig 81 Flow rates via floor systems, with temperature profile in basement distribution manifolds, regulated with Multi-Therm circulation regulating valves,
DN 15 (temperature setting 57 ºC)
Comparing the circulation flow rates of the reference

system with "top distribution system, side feed"
(VVZ ≈ 700 l/h) with those of the system with "circulation to
the points of use" (with optimum regulation with Eta-
Therm circulation regulating valves) (VVZ ≈ 1400 l/h)
makes the proportions clear.
With full circulation to the points of use it has to be
assumed that even with the best possible regulation the
necessary circulation flow rate has to be at least twice that
in conventional circulation systems.
If the floor systems are regulated with Multi-Therm circu-
lation regulating valves the necessary circulation flow rate
is even higher (Fig 84). This is because the minimal kV-
value of this valve has been tailored to the regulation
requirements of the riser system. As a result, even at the
temperature setting with maximum throttling position the
flow rates via the floor systems are still unnecessarily high
(Fig 81). The fact that such conditions lead to uneconomic
operation of larger systems for hospitals, care homes, etc,
led to the development of the Eta-Therm valve.
With this valve, even with circulation to the points of use
the design principle of DVGW Code of Practice W 553 of
keeping the temperature above 55 ºC with minimum
energy can be maintained.
79
Circulation systems
Fig 82 Flow rates via risers, with temperature profile in basement distribution manifolds, regulated with Eta-Therm circulation regulating valves, DN 15 (tem-
perature setting 57 ºC)
Fig 83 Flow rates via risers, with temperature profile in basement distribution manifolds, regulated with Eta-Therm circulation regulating valves, DN 15 (tem-
perature setting 57 ºC), centrally reregulated
80
Circulation systems
81
4 System decontamination
4System decontamination
Decontamination has operational, reconfiguration and

procedural aspects. In addition to the elimination of pipes
with stagnant water, increasing the temperature in the hot
water system is particularly important.
To determine whether the hot water temperatures can be
increased it is necessary to check the performance of the
hot water heating system and existing circulation pump(s).
The second important step is systematic use of regulation
appropriate to the chosen hot water distribution principle.
Basically regulating valves can only be effective in the pipe
system where there are "hydraulic short circuits". The lack
of flow resistance allows too much water to flow through
these. Such circulation circuits are always found in the
risers near the pump. They are characterised by high tem-
peratures at the connected point-of-use fittings and a very
small temperature differential between hot water pipe and
associated circulation pipe.
4.1 Eliminating pipes with stagnant water

Fig 86 Drain pipes in vicinity of distribution or collection manifolds
Redundant pipes must be disconnected at the tee
forming the branch. It must also be checked whether 4.2 Disinfection
rarely used - centrally supplied - points of use can be iso-
lated and supplied by individual or group water heating As already mentioned in 1.6, the operator of a water
(TWE) systems. supply system must immediately conduct tests and take
Isolating valves in drain pipes must be connected directly remedial measures in the event of microbiological impair-
to the main pipe (Figs 85 and 86). Connection pipes for ment of the drinking water. "In particular, systems that do
ventilation valves for general protection must be removed. not meet the requirements of DVGW Code of Practice
Individually protected point-of-use fittings must then be W 551 are deemed to be potentially contaminated." If
fitted (Fig 29). microbiological testing of a water supply system reveals
contamination with legionellae, coordinated decontami-
nation and/or disinfection measures become necessary.
A relatively simple and quick possible way of disinfecting
hot water supply systems is thermal disinfection with wa-
ter temperatures in excess of 70 ºC. Legionellae are killed
after even brief exposure to such temperatures. For these
reasons a North Rhine-Westphalia Ministerial Gazette re-
lating to environmentally friendly design and installation of
water and sewage systems in property within the state32
states:
32. North Rhine-Westphalia Ministerial Gazette of 14 March 1997:

Fig 85 Drain pipes in vicinity of riser isolation valves with stagnant water "Environmentally Friendly Design and Installation of Water and
Sewage Systems in the State of North Rhine-Westphalia"
82
„It has to be assumed that water supply systems are are incapable of maintaining the temperatures in the pipe
always subject to contamination with legionellae. Periodic system above 55 ºC. This is always the case if circulation
heating must be made possible for thermal disinfection of systems have not been regulated. If an attempt is made
a system“. to produce disinfecting temperatures in an unregulated
system, the hydraulic short circuits still present will lead to
The categorical nature of these statements means the the temperatures in the storage vessel adopting valves in
option of thermal disinfection must be available in all excess of 70 ºC, but the temperatures in the sections
systems - even those not covered by the gazette cited. further from the pump still remaining in the critical ranges
Disinfection must cover the entire hot water system inclu- (Fig 87).
ding the point-of-use fittings. Thermal disinfection is Drawing off water from successive points to disinfect the
initiated by heating the water heater up to temperatures in connection pipes in accordance with 8.2.1 of DVGW
excess of 70 ºC. During the disinfection the circulation Code of Practice W 551 also only increases the tempera-
pump must run continuously and water must not be tures in the hot water pipes involved to values in excess of
drawn off. 70 ºC. In this case as well it generally remains unnoticed
that the associated circulation pipes cannot be brought
4.2.1 Unregulated system up to disinfecting temperatures (Fig. 88). In the regions of
the pipework where as a result of weak or non-existent
With a temperature ≥ 70°C, measured at the circulation circulation the temperature is not successfully increased,
inlet of the storage vessel, it is generally assumed that the an effective concentration of disinfecting chemicals
entire circulation system is also achieving disinfecting cannot be achieved even with chemical disinfection.
temperatures. However, the situation is deceptive, as This explains why experience shows that „Thermal or che-
shown by the following consideration: mical disinfection is generally not effective, as it cannot eli-
Thermal disinfection is primarily necessary if circulations minate the cause of the colonisation“ (1.4).
Fig 87 Disinfection: flow rates via risers with temperature profile in basement distribution manifolds, unregulated, circulation pump (2)
83
System decontamination
Fig 88 Disinfection with water being drawn off until it runs hot: flow rates via risers with temperature profile in basement distribution manifolds, unregulated,
circulation pump (2)
4.2.2 System regulated with thermostatic

circulation regulating valves
A temperature in excess of 70 ºC, measured at the circu-
lation connection of the storage vessel, does not neces-
sarily ensure that disinfecting temperatures are actually
present throughout the circulating water system. In this
case as well the necessary basis for successful disinfec-
tion is a circulation system that has been brought into hy-
draulic equilibrium by means of systematic regulation.
This applies equally to new and old systems.
For functional reasons circulation systems are now prefe-
rably (automatically) regulated by thermostatically con-
trolled circulation regulating valves as a function of
temperature. Regulating valves that close completely
when the temperature setting of approximately 56 - 58 °C
is reached, thereby interrupting the circulation (Fig 89), are
no longer accepted practice (DVGW Code of Practice W
553, 5.3). In addition to having other important functional
disadvantages, they make thermal disinfection virtually
impossible, as the circulation pump has to work against
closed valves during disinfection. This makes it impossible
for disinfecting temperatures to be achieved in the circu-
lation circuit! Even drawing off water can only improve the
temperature conditions marginally, as the circulation
pipes in particular cannot be heated beyond the tempera-
ture setting of the valves.
84
Fig 89 Control characteristic of a valve that closes at the temperature setting and is therefore unsuitable for thermal disinfection
To overcome this deficiency the Multi-Therm circulation 4.2.3 Verification of disinfection temperatures
regulating valve was designed so that in addition to provi-
ding ideal regulation it always allows thermal disinfection For the reference system numerical simulation exemplifies
of the circulation system without manual intervention. the fact that provided the design rules described in 3.1 are
A record of measurements taken on a valve test stand observed disinfecting temperatures above 70 ºC are
demonstrates the principle of operation (Fig 57). The valve established throughout the circulating system (Fig 90).
is completely open up to a valve temperature of approxi- The time it takes the water to flow out of the storage
mately 50 ºC. Between 50 ºC and the temperature setting vessel outlet and re-enter it via the circulation system
(for example, 57 ºC) the throttling positions are a function depends on the supply system. Calculating this time for
of temperature. When the temperature setting is reached the reference system shows that it takes about 15 to 20
the valve is in its maximum possible throttling position. minutes for the riser with the worst hydraulic conditions to
However, even in this position there is a small continuous reach disinfecting temperatures. It must be noted that
circulation flow. If disinfection is initiated by heating the during disinfection the increased temperature differential
storage vessel to temperatures above 70 ºC, after a between water and surrounding air causes approximately
certain delay this also increases the valve temperature, 30% higher heat losses. To prevent the temperature drop
with the maximum throttling position being maintained. exceeding 5 K even in this case, a correspondingly higher
From about 63 ºC the valve reopens and remains in a circulation flow rate must be possible in the circulation
constant throttling position at a temperature of 70 ºC (Fig system.
57). The kV-values of these throttling positions are desi- The circulation pump must have sufficient reserves for
gned as a function of the nominal diameter so that even in disinfection.
larger systems disinfection temperatures can be esta- In this situation these reserves must be called upon by
blished throughout the circulating system. increasing the pump speed or suspending the throttling
setting of a regulating valve downstream of the circulation
pump. When disinfection is complete the original state of
regulation must be restored. In larger systems circulation
pumps with flat characteristics and temperature-depen-
dent speed control are to be preferred.
85
Fig 90 Disinfection: flow rates via the risers with temperature profile in the basement distribution manifolds, regulated with Multi-Therm circulation regulating
valve, circulation pump (2)
Fig 91 Operating point of circulation pump during disinfection, after suspension of central throttling of circulation pump
86
"It must be endeavoured to achieve circulation pipes with

connections to the point of use that are as short as
possible"34
Logically configured circulation to the connections for the

points of use avoids the need for laborious draw-off
procedures in the event of thermal and/or disinfection
becoming necessary.
4.3 Increasing temperature in existing hot

water supply systems
The DVGW codes of practice stipulate that, as in new
systems, each operational and reconfiguration measure
involved in decontamination must lead to the water
temperature throughout the circulating system not falling
Fig 92 Storage vessel and pump operation during disinfection
below 55 ºC. Account must also be taken of the EnEV
requirements here.
The experience accumulated with decontamination
measures aimed at increasing the temperature in existing
hot water supply systems will now be summarised.
4.3.1 System survey

Prior to reconfiguration measures a comprehensive
system survey of the hot water system requiring deconta-
mination must always be carried out. The DVGW codes
stipulate that documentation should be based on any
available as-built drawings, the system description,
system data and maintenance and operating manuals.
If this information is not available, drawings of the water
Fig 93 Thermal disinfection of the floor system achieved by drawing off
water at 70 ºC for at least three minutes supply system in conjunction with the layouts and
sections through the building(s) must be prepared.
When the storage vessel and circulating water are at dis-
infection temperature, the pipe sections not linked into the These drawings must contain at least the following infor-
circulation system, such as floor and spur pipes, must be mation:
thermally disinfected step by step. DVGW Code of
• Water heating system
Practice W 551 stipulates that all points of use must be
- Heat exchanger
disinfected for at least three minutes - at least 70 ºC. It is
- Storage vessel
essential to achieve this temperature for the specified
- Dimensions
time.
- Performance data
• Pipe system
4.2.4 Configuration supporting thermal - Pipe routing
disinfection - Pipe materials
- Nominal diameters
As drawing off water from a point-of-use fitting for even - Lagging material
three minutes longer requires 15 to 40 litres of very hot - Lagging thickness
water, it has to be assumed that such disinfection opera- - Isolating valves, safety valves and regulating valves
tions are very costly in terms of water and energy con- - Point-of-use fittings
sumption. The obvious solution from viewpoint of both - Measuring equipment
operation and hygiene is therefore to stipulate circulation - Control systems and switchgear
to the connections for the point-of-use fittings. The • Water treatment systems
relevant codes, standards and specifications therefore
contain the following principles:
33. North Rhine-Westphalia Ministerial Gazette of 14 March 1997: "Envi-
ronmentally Friendly Design and Installation of Water and Sewage
"The circulation pipe must be routed as close as possible Systems in the State of North Rhine-Westphalia“
to the item connection"33 34. "Guidelines for Recognising, Preventing and Combating Hospital-
acquired Infections", appendix to 4.4.6 and 6.7
87
The system survey must include measurement and docu-

mentation of the temperatures in the cold water, hot water
and circulation systems. Flow meters must be fitted at
suitable points to monitor the water consumption and
determine the circulation flow rate. Existing pipe sections
for monitoring purposes must be checked for deposits
and signs of corrosion.
4.3.1.1 Temperature measurements

Temperature measurements at the storage vessel and on Fig 94 Preferred temperature measuring points
the surface of the freely accessible valves in the circulation
pipes are generally sufficient to describe the temperature
distribution in the circulation system without having to
remove the lagging. In particular, temperature measure-
ments at the riser isolation valves of the circulation system
are sufficient to enable reliable reporting of the functional
weaknesses of the system to be decontaminated (Figs 94
and 96). They can be taken with simple instruments with
a digital display suitable for measuring surface tempera-
tures. Heat conductive paste must normally be used to
ensure quality results and rule out the possibility of mis-
measurement. As the measurements generally cannot be
taken under ideal steady state conditions, the results
must not be overinterpreted.
Fig 95 Digital temperature measuring instrument with surface probe
Fig 96 Results of temperature measurement on circulation isolating valves

in riser region35
35. Bothe, Torsten and Thesseling, Andreas "Decontamination of a Water

Supply Circulation System in a Hospital in Accordance with DVGW
Codes of Practice W 551 - W 553, Surveying current condition, devi-
sing decontamination measures and checking success", Degree dis-
sertation, Fachhochschule Münster, 2002
88
4.3.1.2 Flow rate measurements 4.3.1.3 Pressure differential measurements
Older systems generally do not have any meters for The pressure differential available in a circulation pipe
measuring the circulation flow rate. At best any water system requiring decontamination can be measured with
meters present in the cold water pipe to the water heater a differential gauge. In the simplest case the pressure
can be used to check the performance of the hot water take-off hose connections can be connected to existing
heating system. However, they will not provide any infor- drain valves. The pressure must be taken off the delivery
mation enabling evaluation the circulation system. and inlet side of the circulation pump. If the differential
Flow rate measurements in the circulating system are between the outgoing and incoming pipe is measured at
always expensive, as sensors have to be fitted in the pipe a manifold bar, the pressure drop across the water heater
system. Ultrasonic flow rate measurement equipment is is not included, only the pressure differential actually
portable and avoids the need for built-in sensors. It can available to overcome network resistances is determined.
therefore be used without having to interfere with the pipe The available pressure differential always has to be
system, but is very expensive to buy and unsuitable for measured if several pumps are connected in series and/
continuous operational monitoring. or in parallel and it is therefore impossible to draw reliable
To avoid impairing the circulation, sensors permanently conclusions about the operating point from a knowledge
installed in the circulation circuit must not cause any signi- of the known characteristic of an individual pump. Particu-
ficant pressure drop. This rules out simple methods of larly in old water supply systems, for example in hospitals,
measuring flow rates that rely on orifices, nozzles or such system configurations tend to be the norm. When
impellers. For this reason Kemper has developed an inno- measuring account should also be taken of pressure fluc-
vative, low-pressure-drop method of measuring flow tuations that indicate the switching on and off of pumps.
rates, which although necessitating opening up the pipe Ideally the measurement data should be recorded on a
system to install the sensors, overall represents an inex- data logger to ensure availability for further evaluation and
pensive and effective alternative to other methods, as documentation (Fig 100).
installation can be done in combination with isolation and
regulation systems, with measurement being displayed
digitally on a small mobile computer for the purpose
(Fig 98).
Fig 99 Measurement of the pressure differential available for the circula-

tion circuit and of the circulation flow rate
Fig 97 Ultrasonic meter in use
Fig 100 Measuring pressure differential between hot water distribution ma-
nifold and circulation collection manifold with pressure sensor con-
nected to existing drain valves
Fig 98 KEMPER Control flow meter (Fig 138) with mobile measuring com-
puter in combination with Multi-Fix (Fig 150)
89
4.3.2 Diagnostics The measured data occasionally show that the storage
vessel outlet temperatures are subject to noticeable
Increasing the temperatures in a circulation system fluctuations whose amplitude depends on the draw-off
requiring decontamination to more than 55 ºC assumes rate (Fig 102).
the water heating system is capable of providing conti- Such results are particularly surprising when there is
nuous temperatures of 60 ºC at the outlet from the evidently plenty of storage capacity. The cause is often an
storage vessel. Experience shows that such temperature excessively powerful heating pump, which prevents the
stability is not necessarily achieved, particularly in old demand being met at times of peak draw-off via the
water heating systems, since heat exchangers may be storage vessel. If the heat exchanger is no longer capable
scaled up and/or the hydraulic conditions necessary for of heating the water drawn off directly as it flows through,
heating up the water in the vessel degraded over the the water temperatures drop below 60 ºC. In such cases
course of years of operation. throttling the flow with a valve directly upstream or down-
stream of the pump can activate the storage vessel to
Before decontamination the water heating system cover the peak draw-off rate. If it proves possible to
must be fully checked to verify that it is working appreciably reduce the consumption-dependent tempe-
properly. rature fluctuations in this way, the heating pump must be
replaced with a less powerful one, or a regulating valve
4.3.2.1 Water heating system fitted (Fig 100) that can be set to a reproducible and per-
manent throttling position.
The functionality and performance of the water heating If decontamination is required, the first step must be to
system can be evaluated most effectively by measuring adopt "operational" and/or "reconfiguration" measures to
and recording the storage vessel outlet temperatures and ensure a constant storage vessel outlet temperature of
the cold water flow rate over an extended period (at least 60 ºC (Fig 103).
one day) (Fig 101).
Fig 101 Measuring points for evaluating operation and effectiveness of a

water heating system
Fig 102 Plots of measurements of cold water flow rate and hot water outlet temperature from a (storage vessel) water heating system with marked temperature
fluctuations
90
Fig 103 Storage vessel system with constant outlet temperature
4.3.2.1.1 Switching off circulation pump
Circulation pumps may be switched off for up to 8 hours

under perfect hygiene conditions only (DVGW W 551,
6.4). If decontamination is necessary the circulation
pumps must run continuously.
Fig 104 Temperature drop in a circulation system caused by switching off circulation pump overnight
91
4.3.2.1.2 Backflows, circulation failure
The flow rate and temperature measurements over an ex-

tended period as described above provide important in-
formation for effective decontamination of the hot water
supply system. Figure 105, for example, reveals back-
flows via the storage vessel into the connecting pipe of the
hot water heating system caused by a faulty check valve
and an incorrectly installed circulation pump on the
circulation collection manifold.
Fig 105 Plots of measurements of cold water flow rate and hot water outlet temperature from a (storage vessel) water heating system, with backflows from
storage vessel into connecting pipe of heating system
4.3.2.2 Inadequate circulation flow rate
Regulation will only be successful if the circulation

pump(s) is (are) capable of achieving an adequate
circulation flow rate against the network resistance.
If in an unregulated circulation system with a constant

storage vessel outlet temperature of 60 ºC the return
circulation temperature from the system is not above the
required 55 ºC, the circulation flow rate is inadequate
(Fig 107).
Fig 106 Measuring points for circulation flow rate and temperature of
circulation on re-entry into water heating system
92
Fig 107 Circulation flow rate and circulation temperature

Before other measures can be taken the reason the cause
of the inadequate circulation flow rate must be determi-
ned and eliminated.
4.3.2.2.1 Circulation pumps

In checking the available pump capacity account must be
taken of the fact that with circulation pumps of different
sizes connected in series the smaller pumps often just act
as flow resistances and therefore cannot help increase
the circulation flow rate. Experience shows that deconta-
mination based on increasing the temperature is more
likely to succeed if more or less uncoordinated series and
parallel pumps are removed and just one powerful circu-
lation pump at a central point in the system remains
operational (Fig 108).
Fig 108 Arrangement of circulation pumps

Key:
TWZ = circulation
A rough estimate of the necessary pressure differential
and flow rate can be made in order to determine the size
of a suitable circulation pump. In a circulation system
without serious scaling the pressure drop in the pipes and
minor losses of the longest circulation circuit can be
estimated with sufficient accuracy with
Rm ≈ 1.5 - 2 mbar/m. Control sections of pipe, which
should be present in the system to meet the DVGW requi-
rements, provide information about heavier scaling. A hig-
her pressure drop per metre of pipe may have to be
assumed and taken into account.
93
If the "system survey" does not provide the data necessa-

ry for detailed calculation, or the data is not of the required
Equation 32
quality, a rough estimate must be made in order to
continue. To develop this initial idea of the magnitude of
∆pp Estimated pump pressure differential in
the heat losses at least the length of all of the pipes
mbar
involved in the circulation system and an average heat
Rm Average pressure gradient due to pipe loss per metre of pipe must also be known.
friction mbar/m An estimate of the average heat loss qqW,m of between
lges Length of the worst (longest) circulation 10 and 15 W/m takes account of the worse case of
circuit in m lagging that does not meet EnEV requirements. If the
∆PRV Pressure drop across check valves in mbar necessary information is available, the above equation
∆pAp Pressure drop across heat exchangers or can now be used to calculate the flow rate needed to co-
other items of equipment in mbar ver the total heat loss of the circulation system.
The order or magnitude of all of the pump data needed for
In addition to the pressure differential the necessary circu- successful decontamination (pressure differential/pump
lation flow rate of the pump must be estimated. flow rate) is then known. In the case of simple systems
with just one pump the characteristic of the installed
circulation pump is sufficient for evaluation purposes.
If the calculated operating point is below the pump
characteristic, the existing pump can continue to be used.
Equation 33 Otherwise a larger pump must be used. A multistage
circulation pump must then be used, which can be
Σ [lges,Z ⋅ q
q W] Sum of the heat losses over the matched to the actual pipe system conditions, and still
surface of all pipes involved in circu- has reserve capacity for thermal disinfection (4.2). In more
lation (hot water and circulation) in W complex systems with several pumps in series the
ρ Density of water (ρ ≈ 1 kg/l) calculated operating point must be compared with the
results of measurements to determine the actual
c Specific heat capacity of water
operating point as described above.
(c ≈ 1.2 Wh/(kg ⋅ K))
∆ϑ W Permitted temperature drop
between leaving and re-entering
water heater ∆ϑ W,max = 5 K
In order to work out the total heat loss from an existing

system, as well as the pipe length the lagging material and
its thickness have to be known. The "local survey"
requirements of the DVGW codes of practice mean the
data needed for the calculation must be known. As older
systems generally do not meet EnEV requirements, the
heat losses have to be calculated using the detailed
method and the values for the particular system
(Diagrams 1 to 3).
36. Dunker, Stefan "Decontamination of a Hospital Water Supply System

Contaminated with Legionellae", Degree dissertation, Fachhoch-
Fig 109 Existing lagging on a system needing decontamination36
schule Münster, 2004
94
Fig 110 Checking pump capacity necessary for decontamination, with an estimate of the required operating point
Example: 4.3.2.2.2 Check valves

Length of worst (longest) circulation circuit lges = 250 m
Total length of all of the sections involved in circulation If there is evidently sufficient pump capacity available,
lges,Z = 600 m extraordinary flow resistances in the circulation system
After inspecting the system the average pressure gradient must be limiting the circulation flow rate37. Such
due to pipe friction Rm is estimated as being 1.5 mbar/m resistances can be caused by check valves in particular.
and the average heat loss per metre of pipe as 15 W/m. Old spring-loaded check valves must be removed, as
This gives the following circulation pump operating point they always cause excessive pressure drops. If check
for successful decontamination: valves are essential to the functioning of the system, they
∆pP = 250 ⋅ 1.5 = 375 mbar must be replaced with models with a low opening
pressure (3.1.2). The existing isolating valves must be
checked. These can also cause impermissible pressure
drops arise through as a result of getting stuck, their discs
coming loose, seats getting scaled, etc. Fig 111 shows
that just removing superfluous check valves enabled the
circulation flow rate in a system needing decontamination
to be increased by a factor of 538.
37. Peters, Raimund and Pennekamp, Rainer "Decontamination of a

Hospital Circulation System", Degree dissertation, Fachhochschule
Münster, 2003
38. Peters, Raimund and Pennekamp, Rainer "Decontamination of a
Hospital Circulation System", Degree dissertation, Fachhochschule
Münster, 2003
95
Fig 111 Increasing circulation flow rate by removing several check valves connected in series
4.3.2.2.3 Heat exchangers
If the flow rate in circulation systems is too low, heat

exchangers served by the circulation pump must be
considered as a potential cause39. Measuring the
pressure differential between heat exchanger inlet and
outlet sheds light on whether the undersizing or scaling of
the heat exchanger is causing it to develop an excessive
pressure drop (Fig 112). It may have to be cleaned or
replaced with a larger model.

96
Fig 112 Measuring pressure differential across a heat exchanger (circulation)
Fig 113 Doubling of circulation flow rate after installation of a larger heat
exchanger with lower pressure drop40

97
4.3.2.2.4 Undersized pipes
Older circulation systems can generally be decontamina-

ted without major modifications to the pipe system. Old
systems designed with the rule of thumb commonly used
at the time: "Circulation pipe 1 or 2 sizes smaller than dia-
meter of associated hot water pipe" are even less proble-
matic to evaluate than circulation systems designed to
DIN 1988-3 (3).
Larger circulation systems are occasionally still designed
without proper hydraulic calculations, just using the stipu-
lations of DIN 1988-3, Table 10 "Guide Values for Nominal
Diameters of Circulation Collection Manifolds". Even when
adopting conventional distribution principles, this
approach is extraordinarily risky, and with "circulation to
the points of use" it leads to catastrophic malfunctions. In
such incorrectly designed circulation systems the circula-
tion flow rates necessary to maintain the temperature
(3.5.6) can only still be achieved by completely modifying
the existing pipe system (for example Fig 114).
Fig 114 Improving the hydraulic conditions by laying a circulation collection manifold in parallel
4.3.2.2.5 Regulating valves the different distribution principles (3.1 and 3.5). They can
be avoided through careful design of the system!
The purpose of thermostatic circulation regulating valves Diagnostics must include critical examination of the
is to establish pressure drops that depend on tempera- regulation technology already being used.
ture. The available valve stroke is only a few millimetres.
This small stroke means that when the valves are fully The circulation flow rates must be expected to be im-
open (for example, measured with a deviation of 7 K), and paired if
the circulation flow rate is higher, they can produce a • Thermostatic valves of too small a nominal diameter
considerable pressure drop. As already repeatedly have been arranged in circulation circuits with poor
emphasised, the temperature can only be maintained in hydraulic conditions
the circulation circuit if relatively high flow rates are • Several thermostatic valves are connected in series in
possible in the risers further away from the pump. An in- the circulation circuits
correctly positioned or sized thermostatic valve in this • One thermostatic valve has been positioned centrally,
area can lead to serious malfunctions! To make it possible for example on the circulation collection manifold
to reliably avoid such errors, in larger circulation
systems the circulation circuits with the worst hydraulic In such cases the critical flow resistance can be tempora-
conditions must be equipped with regulating valves with rily eliminated by removing the thermostatic head from the
minimum nominal diameters of DN 20. The installation lo- circulation regulating valve (Fig 115).
cations that can be expected to be critical are marked for
98
Fig 115 Multi-Therm circulation regulating valve with thermostatic head

removed
If this noticeably improves the temperature conditions, the

valve must be removed and replaced with an isolating
valve or possibly a static circulation regulating valve.
4.3.2.3 Excessive circulation flow rate

Increasing the temperature by simply using oversized
circulation pumps without examining the regulation tech-
nology always has serious disadvantages. This approach
can ensure a temporary increase of the required magni-
tude in certain sections (Fig 116).
Fig 116 After fitting a larger pump

However, the excess flow rate in one section leads to in-
sufficient flow elsewhere, or at the very least to uneco-
nomic operation. DVGW Code of Practice W 551, 8.3.2,
therefore also assumes that where decontamination is
required the necessary temperatures can generally only
be achieved by fitting regulating valves for hydraulic
balancing.
Not only the various calculations for the reference system
but also measurements in existing circulation systems
show that provided specialised regulation technology is
used effective temperature maintenance is possible with
approximately half the circulation flow rate of an un-
balanced system (Fig 117).
99
Fig 117 After regulation with Multi-Therm circulation regulating valves
4.4 Follow-up tests Sampling on 26 September 2001 (after installation of

pump):
If a contaminated water supply system is successfully Maximum 8 CFU/ml; average : 0.8 CFU/ml
optimised, particularly by increasing the hot water tempe- 75 % of the samples were Legionella-positive in 100 ml
ratures to values in excess of 55 ºC, colonisation with
legionellae can also be significantly reduced and in many Sampling on 28 November 2001 (after installation of
cases actually eliminated (1.4). valves)
Maximum 2 CFU/ml; average : 0.215 CFU/ml
Final report on follow-up tests41 50 % of the samples were Legionella-positive in 100 ml
10 peripheral (station) points were continuously sampled
and tested for legionellae. Sampling on 11 January 2002:
Maximum 1 CFU/ml; average : 0.1 CFU/ml
Sample volume: Only 1 of 10 samples was Legionella-positive
100 ml; reported in colony forming units (CFU)
For clarity the results were converted to 1 ml, hence Sampling on 20 March 2002:
values < 1 can arise, for example, 0.1 CFU/ml = 10 CFU/ No legionellae were detected in 100 ml of water.
100 ml
Sampling on 10 May 2002:
Test method: No legionellae were detected in 100 ml of water.
Detection of Legionellae in Drinking and Bathing Water,
Assessment:
Federal Health Gazette 11-2000: 911-915; ISO 11731,
"The system could only to be described as heavily conta-
05-1998: Water Quality - Detection and Enumeration of
minated prior to decontamination. Installation of a new
Legionella
pump, and particularly the circulation regulating valves,
Test results (maximum and averages) substantially reduced the level of legionellae. After 4
months of operation legionellae were no longer detected,
2000 to June 2001 (before decontamination): i.e. a resounding success!“
Maximum: 80 CFU/ml; average : 12 CFU/ml
All of the sampling points were Legionella-positive in
100 ml
41. Institute of Hygiene of the Universitätklinikum Münster
100
Fig 118 Results of the microbiological tests as a function of decontamina-

tion measures and time42
42. Bothe, Torsten and Thesseling, Andreas "Decontamination of a Water

Supply Circulation System in a Hospital in Accordance with DVGW
Codes of Practice W 551 - W 553, Surveying current condition, devi-
sing decontamination measures and checking success", Degree dis-
sertation, Fachhochschule Münster, 2002
101
5 Design example
5Design example
5.1 Hot water supply pipes
5.1.1 Floor pressure drop
Fig 119 System for individual floor
Number Point-of-use fitting Minimum Design flow rate Total flow rate in floor pipe
flow pressure
pminFl Cold water Hot water Mixed wa- Cold water Hot water
ter
VVR VVR VVR ΣVVR ΣVVR
mbar l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s
1 WC 500 0.13 – – 0.13 –
1 Kitchen sink 1000 0.07 0.07 – 0.07 0.07
1 Dishwasher 1000 0.15 – – 0.15 –
1 Washbasin 1000 0.07 0.07 – 0.07 0.07
1 Bath 1000 0.15 0.15 – 0.15 0.15
Total flow rate for floor 0.57 0.29
Table 10 Calculating total flow rate on floor
102
Minor loss DN Loss Number of components and sum of related minor losses
constant Σζ for sections
– ζ 1 2 3 4
Elbow, 90º 0.7 3 2.1 3 2.1
Tee, counterflow from branch into line 1.5 1 1.5
Reducer 0.4 1 0.4
Tee, mainly through flow 0.3 1 0.3
Concealed valve (make: Gebr. Kemper) 15 4.5 1 4.5
Σζ in sections TS 1 - 3 (Fig 119) 8.1 0.4 2.4
Table 11 Determining loss constants in sections TS 1 - 3 (Fig 119)
TS Length ΣVVR VVS DN R v I⋅ R Σζ Z (I ⋅ R + Z)
– m l/s l/s – mbar/m m/s mbar – mbar mbar
1 1.2 0.29 0.25 15 17.5 1.44 21.0 8.1 84.0 105.0
2 1.5 0.22 0.21 15 9.9 1.04 14.9 0.4 2.2 17.0
3 2.4 0.15 0.15 12 14.8 1.3 35.5 2.4 20.3 55.8
Σ (I ⋅ R + Z) ≈ 180
Table 12 Floor pressure drop (hot water) calculated using detailed method, see Fig 119 for section designations
103
Design example
Total flow rate in building service pipe

Type of water heating central For each flat in the example a total flow rate of
ΣVVR,WOE = 0.86 l/s is worked out (Fig 119). From the total
Largest point-of-use fitting < 0.5 l/s of 48 flats this results in the following value for the building
installed service pipe ΣVVR = 48 ⋅ 0.86 = 41.28 l/s. Using Equation
A the resultant peak flow rate can be calculated as
Type of pipe stainless steel VVS = 3.02 l/s or read off Table 27.
Chosen:
Nominal diameter of floor DN 20 (22 x 1.0)
G 2 B:
pipe
Nominal flow rate VVn = 10.0 m3/h,
Nominal diameter of spur DN 12 (15 x 1.0) VVmax = 20.0 m3/h at ∆pG = 1000 mbar.
pipe
Concealed valve straight seat valve
Length of flow path lges 5.1 m
Floor pressure drop 200 mbar

5.1.3 Filter
Deductible pressure (10.0 - 5.1) * 5 = 25 mbar Chosen: ∆pmax = 200 mbar, at VVmax = 20.0 m3/h
differential
Floor pressure drop 175 mbar
Table 13 Floor pressure drop calculated using simplified method

(Table 6 of DIN 1988-3)
5.1.4 Available pressure differential ∆pverf
Comparing floor pressure drops calculated using the calculated using simplified method
simplified and the detailed method makes it clear that with
an approximately identical drop the detailed method gives The available pressure differential for sizing the pipes must
smaller nominal diameters in each section (cf Chapter be worked out on the basis of Equation 2. The mixer for
2.7). the bath on the 4th floor - riser 12 (Fig 12) has been
determined to be the worst point-of-use fitting in the flow
5.1.2 Floor water meter paths of the hot water system.
A G 1/2 B water meter for a flat with the following data

was chosen from Table 4:
Nominal flow rate VVn = 1.0 m3/h and maximum flow rate
of VVmax = 2.0 m3/h with a pressure drop of
∆pG = 1000 mbar. The total flow rate in the floor connec-
tion pipe read off from Table 10 is ΣVVR = 0.29 l/s, and the
peak flow rate from Table 26 is VVS = 0.25 l/s. Using
Equation 6 gives a pressure drop across the floor water
meter calculated using the detailed method of:
Pressure drop across water company meter

In order to work out the pressure drop across the water
meter the peak flow rate in the building service pipe must
first be known.
104
Design example
No Name Symbol Units
1 Minimum supply pressure or outlet pressure after pressure pminV mbar 4000
reducing valve or pressure booster
2 Pressure drop due to difference in geodetic head ∆pgeo mbar 1080
3 Pressure drop across items of equipment, for example:

a) Water meter ∆pWZ mbar 296
b) Filter ∆pFIL mbar 59
c) Softening system ∆pEH mbar
d) Metering system ∆pDOS mbar
e) Group water heater ∆pTE mbar
f) Other items of equipment ∆pAp mbar 203
4 Minimum flow pressure pminFl mbar 1000
5 Pressure drop of floor and spur pipes ∆pSt mbar 180
6 Sum of the pressure drops from Nos 2 to 5 Σ∆p mbar 2818
7 Available for pressure drop from pipe friction and minor ∆pverf mbar 1182
losses, values from No 1 minus value from No 6
8 Contribution estimated for minor losses ...% 40 mbar
9 Available for pressure drops from pipe friction, value from – mbar 709
No 7 minus value from No 8
10 Pipe length Iges m 138.9
11 Pressure gradient available to cope with pipe friction, Rverf mbar/m 5.1
value from No 9 divided by value from No 10
Table 14 Determination of the pressure gradient available to cope with pipe friction Rverf
105
Design example
5.1.5 Determining pipe diameter and

calculating pressure drop
TS Length ΣVVR VVS DN R v I⋅ R
– m l/s l/s – mbar/m m/s mbar
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 10.0 41.28 3.01 50 4.2 1.5 42.0
2 8.0 41.28 3.01 50 4.3 1.5 34.6
3 8.0 13.92 2.09 50 2.3 1.0 18.4
4 15.0 13.92 2.09 50 2.3 1.0 34.5
5 8.0 12.76 2.00 50 2.1 1.0 16.8
6 8.0 11.60 1.91 40 6.9 1.6 55.2
7 8.0 10.44 1.82 40 6.3 1.5 50.4
8 8.0 9.28 1.72 40 5.7 1.4 45.6
9 8.0 8.12 1.61 40 5.1 1.3 40.8
10 8.0 6.96 1.49 40 4.5 1.3 36.0
11 8.0 5.8 1.36 40 3.8 1.1 30.4
12 8.0 4.64 1.22 32 8.1 1.5 64.8
13 8.0 3.48 1.06 32 6.3 1.3 50.4
14 8.0 2.32 0.86 32 4.4 1.1 35.2
15 9.5 1.16 0.59 25 6.5 1.2 61.8
16 2.8 0.87 0.50 25 4.9 1.0 13.7
17 2.8 0.58 0.39 20 3.1 0.8 8.7
18 2.8 0.29 0.25 15 17.5 1.5 49.0
Iges = 138.9 Σ(I ⋅ R) = 688.3
Table 15 Calculation of pressure drop for worst flow path in hot water system
The difference between the available pressure drop from

Table 14, line 9 of 709 mbar and that of 688.3 mbar
calculated along the flow path (Table 15) is small, so does
not have to be checked again.
106
Design example
Fig 120 Design diagram of pipe runs for a four-storey block of 48 flats showing dimensions for determining the section lengths, section designations and no-
minal diameters from the hydraulic calculations (Table 15)
5.2 Circulation system
5.2.1 Design assumptions
Pipe diagram: see Fig 122
Type of pipe: stainless steel
Point-of-use fittings: individually protected
The hot and cold water supply pipes are designed accor-
ding to DIN 1988 Part 3; see Table 15 and Fig 120 for
nominal diameter, length and position of the hot water
pipes.
The following ambient temperatures are taken into

account in the design example:
Zone 1 (laid exposed in basement) ϑL = 10 °C
(qqW = 11 W/m from Fig 35)
Zone 2 (laid in duct) ϑL = 25 °C (qqW = 7 W/m from Fig 36)
The heat flow for the various sections of the hot water
pipes should be tabulated, giving the section number,
section length, nominal diameter and temperature diffe-
rential (Fig 122 and Table 16).
107
Design example
TS Length Nominal Temperature differential qqW l⋅ q

q W Σ[I ⋅ q
q W] QQ
diameter
– m – K K W/m W W W
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 15.00 DN 50 50 11.0 165.0 1133 1923
5 8.00 DN 50 50 11.0 88.0 968 1692
6 8.00 DN 40 50 11.0 88.0 880 1538
7 8.00 DN 40 50 11.0 88.0 792 1384
8 8.00 DN 40 50 11.0 88.0 704 1230
9 8.00 DN 40 50 11.0 88.0 616 1077
10 8.00 DN 40 50 11.0 88.0 528 923
11 8.00 DN 40 50 11.0 88.0 440 769
12 8.00 DN 32 50 11.0 88.0 352 615
13 8.00 DN 32 50 11.0 88.0 264 461
14 8.00 DN 32 50 11.0 88.0 176 308
15 8.00 DN 25 50 11.0 88.0 88 154
15a 2.00 DN 25 35 7.0 14.0 65.8
16 2.80 DN 25 35 7.0 19.6 51.8
17 2.80 DN 20 35 7.0 19.6 32.2
18 1.80 DN 15 35 7.0 12.6 12.6
Table 16 Calculating the heat lost by the hot water pipes (TWW)
Explanatory notes: 5.2.2 Calculating circulation flow rates

Column 1: Section (TS) number, see Fig 120 The pump flow rate is calculated on the basis of Equation
Column 2: Section length, see Fig 120 20, from the sum of the heat losses of the hot water pipes
Column 3: Nominal diameters of hot water pipes (Table 16, column 9), with a temperature drop in the hot
calculated according to DIN 1988-3, see water pipes (TWW) of 2 K.
Table 15
Column 7 and Riser heat losses: TS 15a to
Column 8: TS 18 ≈ 65.8 W
Column 9: Heat flow in the section involved
Calculating component flow rates
The flow rate for the branching (subscript: a) and line (sub-
script: d) sections is calculated on the basis of Equations
21 and 22, and should be documented as shown in
Table 17.
Example:
Calculating flow rates for the branching (subscript: a) and
line (subscript: d) section from section TS 4 (Figs 39 and
122).
VVd = VV - VVa = 801 - 30 = 771 l/h
108
Design example
TS QQa QQd QQa + QQd VV VVa VVd
W W W l/h l/h l/h
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 65.8 1692 1758 801 30 771
5 65.8 1538 1604 771 32 739
6 65.8 1384 1450 739 34 706
7 65.8 1230 1296 706 36 670
8 65.8 1077 1142 670 39 631
9 65.8 923 989 631 42 589
10 65.8 769 835 589 46 543
11 65.8 615 681 543 52 491
12 65.8 461 527 491 61 429
13 65.8 308 373 429 76 354
14 65.8 154 220 354 106 248
Table 17 Calculating circulation flow rates
Explanatory notes: 5.2.3 Calculating diameters of circulation

Column 1: Section to branch, see Fig 122 for section
pipes
numbers
The diameters of the circulation pipes are calculated using
Column 2: Heat flow in branch, see Table 16 and Fig the simplified method of DVGW Code of Practice W 533.
122 The percentage contribution of the minor losses should
Column 3: Heat flow in line, see Table 16 and Fig 122 taken in account by adding 30% to the losses of the
Column 6: In the example the result in this column straight pipe (l ⋅ R) (Table 19).
corresponds to the circulation flow rate
that has to flow in risers ST 1 to ST 12 5.2.4 Circulation pump delivery pressure
(Table 20, Column 3)
The minimum circulation pump pressure differential
necessary ∆pP is calculated on the basis of Equation 25.
Σ(I ⋅ R + Z)TWW + TWZ = 165.2 mbar See Table 19, Column 11
∆pRV = 10.0 mbar Check valve

KEMPER, Fig 158
∆pTH = 0.0 mbar No regulating valve should be fitted in the worst circulation circuit!
∆pP = 175.2 mbar See Equation 25
VVp = 801.0 l/h See Equation 20
≈ 0.8 m3/h Chosen pump: Wilo Z 25
Table 18 Calculation of the necessary pump pressure differential
109
Design example
The pipe network characteristic can be calculated from

the data for the calculated operating point with
Equation 34.
Equation 34
Fig 121 Pipe network characteristic calculated from ∆p = k ⋅ VV2 and k = ∆pP/VVP2, with operating point plotted for the circulation pump from Table 18
110
Design example
TS Length VVZ DN R v l⋅ R Z = 0.3 ⋅ l ⋅ R I⋅ R+Z Σ(I ⋅ R + Z)

m l/h – mbar/m m/s mbar mbar mbar mbar mbar
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ST 12 9.9 248 DN 15 1.16 0.34 11.5 3.4 14.9 14.9
Z 12 8.0 248 DN 15 1.16 0.34 9.3 2.8 12.1 27.0
Z 11 8.0 354 DN 15 2.16 0.49 17.3 5.2 22.4 49.4
Z 10 8.0 429 DN 20 1.04 0.40 8.3 2.5 10.8 60.2
Z9 8.0 491 DN 20 1.31 0.45 10.5 3.1 13.6 73.8
Z8 8.0 543 DN 20 1.57 0.50 12.5 3.8 16.3 90.2
Z7 8.0 589 DN 20 1.81 0.54 14.5 4.3 18.8 109.0
Z6 8.0 631 DN 25 0.61 0.34 4.9 1.5 6.3 115.3
Z5 8.0 670 DN 25 0.67 0.36 5.4 1.6 7.0 122.3
Z4 8.0 706 DN 25 0.74 0.38 5.9 1.8 7.7 130.0
Z3 8.0 739 DN 25 0.80 0.40 6.4 1.9 8.3 138.3
Z2 8.0 771 DN 25 0.86 0.42 6.9 2.1 9.0 147.2
Z1 15.0 801 DN 25 0.92 0.43 13.8 4.1 18.0 165.2
Table 19 Calculating pipe diameters for the circulation pipes - simplified calculation of pressure drops for the worst circulation circuit (Fig 122)
Explanatory notes:
Column 1: Section numbers, see Fig 122
Column 2: Section length, see Fig 120
Column 3: Circulation flow rate (from Table 17,
Columns 5 and 6)
Column 4: Nominal diameters of hot water pipes
(TWW) calculated according to
DIN 1988-3, Table 15
Column 5: Pressure gradient due to pipe friction for
stainless steel pipe from the pressure drop
chart or Table 31
Column 10: Sum of the pressure drops in the flow
direction
111
Design example
5.2.5 Designing circulation regulating valves
Balance condition: ∆pP = Σ(I ⋅ R + Z)TWZ + Σ∆pRV + ∆pD
TS Length VVZ DN R v I ⋅ R Z = 0.3 ⋅ l ⋅ R I ⋅ R + Z ∆pTS Σ(I ⋅ R + Z) ∆pRV ϑ Ventil kV ∆pD ∆pP

m l/h mbar/m m/s mbar mbar mbar mbar mbar mbar °C m3/h mbar mbar
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
ST 12 9.9 248 15 1.16 0.34 11.5 3.4 14.9 150.3 165.2 10.0 57.8 No regulating 175
valve
ST 11 9.9 106 15 0.27 0.15 2.7 0.8 3.5 138.2 141.6 10.0 57.5 0.69 23.5 175
ST 10 9.9 76 12 0.41 0.16 4.1 1.2 5.3 115.8 121.0 10.0 57.3 0.36 44.1 175
ST 9 9.9 61 12 0.29 0.13 2.8 0.8 3.7 105.0 108.6 10.0 57.1 0.26 56.5 175
ST 8 9.9 52 12 0.22 0.11 22 0.7 2.8 91.3 94.2 10.0 57.0 0.20 71.0 175
ST 7 9.9 46 12 0.18 0.10 1.8 0.5 2.3 75.0 77.3 10.0 56.8 0.16 87.8 175
ST 6 9.9 42 12 0.15 0.09 1.5 0.4 1.9 56.2 58.1 10.0 56.7 0.13 107.0 175
ST 5 9.9 39 12 0.08 0.08 0.8 0.2 1.0 49.9 50.9 10.0 56.6 0.11 114.3 175
ST 4 9.9 36 12 0.07 0.07 0.7 0.2 0.9 42.9 43.8 10.0 56.5 0.10 121.4 175
ST 3 9.9 34 12 0.07 0.07 0.7 0.2 0.9 35.2 36.1 10.0 56.4 0.09 129.1 175
ST 2 9.9 32 12 0.06 0.07 0.6 0.2 0.8 26.9 27.7 10.0 56.3 0.09 137.5 175
ST 1 9.9 30 12 0.06 0.06 0.6 0.2 0.8 18.0 18.7 10.0 56.2 0.08 146.5 175
Table 20 Calculating diameters for the circulation pipes - simplified calculation of pressure drops for the worst circulation circuit (Fig 122)
Explanatory notes:
Column 3: Circulation flow rate from Table 17,
Column 6
Column 10: Circulation circuit pressure drops al-
ready calculated (see also Table 19,
Column 10)
Column 12: Pressure drop across check valve
downstream of pump (Kemper, Fig
158)
Column 13: Calculated valve temperature settings
(Fig 123)
Column 14: kV-value of regulating valve, calcula-
ted with Equation 31
Column 15: Pressure differential necessary across
regulating valve (Equation 30)
Column 16: Available pump pressure differential
(Fig 121 and Table 18)
112
Design example
Fig 122 Pipe design diagram for four-storey block of 48 flats with nominal diameters, heat losses and settings for circulation regulating valves marked
Fig 123 Pipe design diagram for four-storey block of 48 flats with calculated temperatures at end of each section (Table 21)
113
Design example
5.2.6 Temperature drop in circulation circuit
The temperature drop in the circulation circuit is calcula-

ted on the basis of Equation 23 or 24.
TS VVZ I⋅ q
q W ∆ϑ TS Σ∆ϑ TS ϑ TWW/Z
l/h W K K °C
1 2 3 4 5 6
60.00
4 801 165.0 0.17 0.17 59.83
5 771 88.0 0.10 0.27 59.73
6 739 88.0 0.10 0.37 59.63
7 706 88.0 0.10 0.47 59.53
8 670 88.0 0.11 0.58 59.42
9 631 88.0 0.12 0.70 59.30
10 589 88.0 0.12 0.82 59.18
11 543 88.0 0.14 0.95 59.05
12 491 88.0 0.15 1.10 58.90
13 429 88.0 0.17 1.28 58.72
14 354 88.0 0.21 1.48 58.52
15 248 88.0 0.30 1.78 58.22
15a 248 14.0 0.05 1.83 58.17
16 248 19.6 0.07 1.89 58.11
17 248 19.6 0.07 1.96 58.04
18 248 12.6 0.04 2.00 58.00
ST 12 248 65.8 0.22 2.22 57.78
Z 11 248 88.0 0.30 2.52 57.48
Z 11 354 88.0 0.21 2.72 57.28
Z 10 429 88.0 0.17 2.90 57.10
Z9 491 88.0 0.15 3.05 56.95
Z8 543 88.0 0.14 3.18 56.82
Z7 589 88.0 0.12 3.30 56.70
Z6 631 88.0 0.12 3.42 56.58
Z5 670 88.0 0.11 3.53 56.47
Z4 706 88.0 0.10 3.63 56.37
Z3 739 88.0 0.10 3.73 56.27
Z2 771 88.0 0.10 3.83 56.17
Z1 801 165.0 0.17 4.00 56.00
Table 21 Calculating the temperature drop in the worst circulation circuit (Fig 123). Note that the theoretical valve temperature is calculated as 57.8 ºC at
the end of section ST 12.
114
Design example
115
6 Tables, charts and forms
Tables, charts and forms
Chart 1 Heat losses from stainless steel pipes fully lagged to EnEV (λ D = 0.035 W/(m ⋅ K)), as a function of temperature differential ∆ϑ = ϑ W - ϑ L
Key:
Luft = air
116
DN 12 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
da in mm 15 18 22 28 35 42 54 76.1 88.9 108
s in mm 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
Lagging thickness 20 20 20 30 30 40 50 65 80 100
to EnEV in mm
D in mm 55 58 62 88 95 122 154 206.1 248.9 308
ϑ W - ϑ L in K Heat loss from a pipe lagged to EnEV in W/m
65 10.0 11.1 12.4 11.7 13.3 12.7 13.1 13.9 13.5 13.4
64 9.9 10.9 12.2 11.5 13.1 12.5 12.9 13.7 13.3 13.1
63 9.7 10.7 12.1 11.3 12.9 12.3 12.7 13.4 13.1 12.9
62 9.6 10.6 11.9 11.1 12.7 12.1 12.5 13.2 12.9 12.7
61 9.4 10.4 11.7 11.0 12.5 11.9 12.3 13.0 12.7 12.5
60 9.2 10.2 11.5 10.8 12.3 11.7 12.1 12.8 12.5 12.3
59 9.1 10.1 11.3 10.6 12.1 11.5 11.9 12.6 12.3 12.1
58 8.9 9.9 11.1 10.4 11.9 11.4 11.7 12.4 12.1 11.9
57 8.8 9.7 10.9 10.2 11.7 11.2 11.5 12.2 11.9 11.7
56 8.6 9.5 10.7 10.1 11.5 11.0 11.3 12.0 11.6 11.5
55 8.5 9.4 10.5 9.9 11.3 10.8 11.1 11.7 11.4 11.3
54 8.3 9.2 10.3 9.7 11.1 10.6 10.9 11.5 11.2 11,1
53 8.2 9.0 10.1 9.5 10.9 10.4 10.7 11.3 11.0 10.9
52 8.0 8.9 10.0 9.3 10.7 10.2 10.5 11.1 10.8 10.7
51 7.9 8.7 9.8 9.2 10.5 10.0 10.3 10.9 10.6 10.5
50 7.7 8.5 9.6 9.0 10.3 9.8 10.1 10.7 10.4 10.3
49 7.6 8.3 9.4 8.8 10.0 9.6 9.9 10.5 10.2 10.1
48 7.4 8.2 9.2 8.6 9.8 9.4 9.7 10.2 10.0 9.9
47 7.2 8.0 9.0 8.4 9.6 9.2 9.5 10.0 9.8 9.7
46 7.1 7.8 8.8 8.3 9.4 9.0 9.3 9.8 9.6 9.4
45 6.9 7.7 8.6 8.1 9.2 8.8 9.1 9.6 9.4 9.2
44 6.8 7.5 8.4 7.9 9.0 8.6 8.8 9.4 9.1 9.0
43 6.6 7.3 8.2 7.7 8.8 8.4 8.6 9.2 8.9 8.8
42 6.5 7.2 8.0 7.5 8.6 8.2 8.4 9.0 8.7 8.6
41 6.3 7.0 7.8 7.4 8.4 8.0 8.2 8.8 8.5 8.4
40 6.2 6.8 7.7 7.2 8.2 7.8 8.0 8.5 8.3 8.2
39 6.0 6.6 7.5 7.0 8.0 7.6 7.8 8.3 8.1 8.0
38 5.9 6.5 7.3 6.8 7.8 7.4 7.6 8.1 7.9 7.8
37 5.7 6.3 7.1 6.6 7.6 7.2 7.4 7.9 7.7 7.6
36 5.5 6.1 6.9 6.5 7.4 7.0 7.2 7.7 7.5 7.4
35 5.4 6.0 6.7 6.3 7.2 6.8 7.0 7.5 7.3 7.2
34 5.2 5.8 6.5 6.1 7.0 6.7 6.8 7.3 7.1 7.0
33 5.1 5.6 6.3 5.9 6.8 6.5 6.6 7.0 6.9 6.8
32 4.9 5.5 6.1 5.7 6.6 6.3 6.4 6.8 6.7 6.6
31 4.8 5.3 5.9 5.6 6.4 6.1 6.2 6.6 6.4 6.4
30 4.6 5.1 5.7 5.4 6.2 5.9 6.0 6.4 6.2 6.2
Table 22 Heat loss from stainless steel pipes fully lagged to EnEV (ϑ D = 0.035 W/(m ⋅ K)), as a function of temperature differential ∆ϑ = ϑ W - ϑ L,
calculated with Equation 18
117
Chart 2 Heat losses q in W/m from lagged pipes as a function of temperature differential between ambient air and water. Lagging thickness D = 30 mm,
λ = 0.040 W/(m2 ⋅ K))
118
Chart 3 Equivalent thicknesses in mm for lagging materials whose thermal conductivities differ from the minimum requirement of EnEV
(λ = 0.035 W/(m ⋅ K))
Key:
HeizAnlV = German Heating Regulations
119
No Minor loss Diagram Loss constant to Loss constant Opening
DIN 1988 (Kemper) pressure
(measured value)
ζ ζ mbar
1 Tee, 1.3
main flow from line into branch
2 Tee, 0.9
main flow from branch into line
3 Tee, 0.3
mainly through flow, some line into
branch
4 Tee, 3.0
counterflow from line into branch
5 Tee, 1.5
counterflow from branch into line
6 Tee, 0.9
swept, main flow from line into branch
7 Tee, 0.4
swept, main flow from branch into line
8 Tee, 0.3
swept, mainly through flow, some line into
branch
9 Tee, 0.2
swept, mainly through flow, some branch
into line
10 Distribution manifold outlet 0.5
11 Outlet from tank, 0.5

storage vessel
to DIN 30 600
Reg No 631
12 Collection manifold inlet 1.0
13 Tank inlet 1.0
to DIN 30 600
Reg No 631
14 Change in direction 0.7
produced by elbow or bend
120
(measured value)
ζ ζ mbar
15 Reducer 0.4
to DIN 30 600
Reg No 580
16 U-shaped expansion compensator 1.0
17 Compensator 2.0
to DIN 2425
Part 1
18 Straight seat valve DN 15 10.0
DN 20 8.5
DN 25 7.0
DN 32 6.0
DN 40 5.0
DN 50 Figs: 180, 183, 5.0
184
Concealed valve DN 15 10.0 4.5
DN 18 4.5
DN 20 8.5 2.7
DN 25 7.0 7.5
DN 32 6.0 4.1
Figs: 500 00,
500 02, 502 00,
502 02, 505 00,
505 02, 507 00,
507 02
Concealed-plus valve DN 15 10.0 4.8
DN 20 8.5 2.8
DN 25 7.0 7.9
DN 32 6.0 4.3
Figs: 520, 522,

523, 524, 525,
527, 560
Angle seat valve DN 15 3.5 1.3
DN 20 2.5 1.3
DN 25 2.0 1.1
DN 32 2.0 1.1
DN 40 2.0 1.2
DN 50 Figs: 073, 171, 2.0 1.0
172, 173, 174,
175, 176, 177,
178, 179, 190,
191
Flanged angle seat DN 15 3.5 1.4
valve DN 20 2.5 0.6
DN 25 2.0 0.9
DN 32 2.0 1.2
DN 40 2.0 0.9
DN 50 2.0 0.6
DN 65 0.7 1.2
DN 80 0.9
121
(measured value)
ζ ζ mbar
19 Gate valve DN 10 - DN 15 1.0
and piston valve DN 20 - DN 25 0.5
Ball valve DN 32 - DN 150 0.3
Figs: 200, 201,

202
20 Diaphragm valve DN 15 10.0 2.9
DN 20 8.5 2.1
DN 25 7.0 1.5
DN 32 6.0 1.2
DN 40 5.0 2.1
DN 50 5.0 1.7
DN 65 Fig: 123 5.0 2.4
DN 80 5.0 2.7
DN 100 5.0 2.8
DN 125 2.9
DN 150 3.0
21 Angle valves DN 10 7.0
DN 15 4.0
DN 20 2.0
Figs: 140, 147,

149
22 Check valves DN 15 - DN 20 7.7 3.0 120
DN 25 - DN 40 4.3 2.6 100
DN 50 3.8 1.7 90
DN 65 - DN 100 2.5 1.2 120
Figs: 162, 163,

164, 195, 196
122
(measured value)
ζ ζ mbar
23 Globe check valve DN 15 7.7 0.6 10
DN 20 7.7 0.4 10
DN 25 4.3 0.5 10
DN 32 4.3 0.5 10
Figs: 158, 159
DN 40 4.3 0.1 10
DN 50 3.8 0.3 10
Combined check DN 15 3.4 120
valve with angle seat DN 20 6.0 3.0 110
DN 25 5.0 2.4 130
DN 32 5.0 2.6 80
DN 40 5.0 2.2 80
DN 50 5.0 1.7 70
DN 65 Figs: 060, 160, 1.2 120
DN 80 161, 167, 168, 1.2 140
169, 170, 193
Combined check DN 15 6.0 1.9 10
valve with cartridge DN 20 5.0 1.7 10
DN 25 5.0 1.6 10
DN 32 5.0 1.6 10
DN 40 5.0 1.3 10
DN 50 5.0 1.4 10
Figs: 145, 146
24 Valve tapping clamp DN 25 - DN 80 5.0
25 Pressure reducing valve 30.0

fully open
to DIN 30 600
Reg No 594
Trap DN 6 36.0
with double filter DN 8 19.3
DN 10 7.3
DN 15 4.9
DN 20 5.4
DN 25 Fig 602 7.5
DN 32 6.0
DN 40 6.0
DN 50 5.5
Table 23 Minor loss constants
123
Building use Individual fitting Equation
V R < 0.5
V B
Residential
VVR ≥ 0.5 A
V R < 0.5
V B
Office / administration
VVR ≥ 0.5 A
V R < 0.5
V E
Hotel
VVR ≥ 0.5 D
V R < 0.5
V E
Department store
VVR ≥ 0.5 D
V R < 0.5
V E
Hospital wards
VVR ≥ 0.5 D
School I
Table 24 Choice of equation for calculating peak flow rate to DIN 1988-3
for ΣVVR ≤ 20.0 l/s
Building use Equation
Residential A
Office / C
administration
Hotel F
Department store G
Hospital H
wards
School K
Table 25 Choice of equation for calculating peak flow to DIN 1988-3 for
ΣVVR > 20.0 l/s
124
A B C E I A B C E I
ΣVVR VVS V VS VVS VVS VVS ΣVVR VVS V VS VVS VVS VVS
l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s
0.20 0.19 0.19 0.20 1.20 1.07 0.60 1.07 0.64 1.20
0.22 0.21 0.21 0.22 1.25 1.08 0.61 1.09 0.66 1.25
0.24 0.22 0.22 0.24 1.30 1.10 0.63 1.10 0.68 1.30
0.26 0.23 0.24 0.26 1.35 1.11 0.64 1.12 0.69 1.35
0.28 0.24 0.25 0.28 1.40 1.12 0.65 1.13 0.71 1.40
0.30 0.26 0.26 0.30 1.45 1.14 0.67 1.15 0.72 1.45
0.32 0.27 0.27 0.32 1.50 1.15 0.68 1.16 0.73 1.50
0.34 0.28 0.29 0.34 1.55 1.16 0.69 1.17 0.75 1.54
0.36 0.29 0.30 0.36 1.60 1.18 0.70 1.19 0.76 1.59
0.38 0.30 0.31 0.38 1.65 1.19 0.71 1.20 0.78 1.63
0.40 0.31 0.32 0.40 1.70 1.20 0.73 1.21 0.79 1.67
0.42 0.32 0.33 0.42 1.75 1.21 0.74 1.23 0.80 1.71
0.44 0.33 0.34 0.44 1.80 1.22 0.75 1.24 0.82 1.75
0.46 0.34 0.35 0.46 1.85 1.23 0.76 1.25 0.83 1.79
0.48 0.35 0.36 0.48 1.90 1.25 0.77 1.26 0.84 1.82
0.50 0.50 0.36 0.50 0.37 0.50 1.95 1.26 0.78 1.28 0.85 1.86
0.52 0.52 0.37 0.52 0.38 0.52 2.00 1.27 0.79 1.29 0.87 1.90
0.54 0.54 0.38 0.54 0.39 0.54 2.10 1.29 0.81 1.31 0.89 1.97
0.56 0.56 0.39 0.56 0.40 0.56 2.20 1.31 0.83 1.33 0.92 2.03
0.58 0.58 0.39 0.58 0.41 0.58 2.30 1.32 0.85 1.36 0.94 2.10
0.60 0.60 0.40 0.60 0.42 0.60 2.40 1.34 0.87 1.38 0.96 2.16
0.62 0.62 0.41 0.62 0.43 0.62 2.50 1.36 0.89 1.40 0.98 2.23
0.64 0.64 0.42 0.64 0.44 0.64 2.60 1.38 0.91 1.42 1.01 2.29
0.66 0.66 0.43 0.66 0.45 0.66 2.70 1.39 0.93 1.44 1.03 2.34
0.68 0.68 0.43 0.68 0.46 0.68 2.80 1.41 0.94 1.46 1.05 2.40
0.70 0.70 0.44 0.70 0.46 0.70 2.90 1.43 0.96 1.48 1.07 2.46
0.72 0.72 0.45 0.72 0.47 0.72 3.00 1.44 0.98 1.49 1.09 2.51
0.74 0.74 0.46 0.74 0.48 0.74 3.10 1.46 0.99 1.51 1.11 2.56
0.76 0.76 0.46 0.76 0.49 0.76 3.20 1.47 1.01 1.53 1.13 2.61
0.78 0.78 0.47 0.78 0.50 0.78 3.30 1.48 1.03 1.55 1.15 2.66
0.80 0.80 0.48 0.80 0.50 0.80 3.40 1.50 1.04 1.57 1.17 2.71
0.82 0.82 0.48 0.82 0.51 0.82 3.50 1.51 1.06 1.58 1.19 2.76
0.84 0.84 0.49 0.84 0.52 0.84 3.60 1.52 1.07 1.60 1.20 2.81
0.86 0.86 0.50 0.86 0.53 0.86 3.70 1.54 1.09 1.61 1.22 2.85
0.88 0.88 0.50 0.88 0.53 0.88 3.80 1.55 1.10 1.63 1.24 2.90
0.90 0.90 0.51 0.90 0.54 0.90 3.90 1.56 1.12 1.65 1.26 2.94
0.92 0.92 0.52 0.92 0.55 0.92 4.00 1.57 1.13 1.66 1.28 2.99
0.94 0.94 0.52 0.94 0.56 0.94 4.10 1.59 1.15 1.68 1.29 3.03
0.96 0.96 0.53 0.96 0.56 0.96 4.20 1.60 1.16 1.69 1.31 3.07
0.98 0.98 0.54 0.98 0.57 0.98 4.30 1.61 1.17 1.71 1.33 3.11
1.00 1.00 0.54 1.00 0.58 1.00 4.40 1.62 1.19 1.72 1.34 3.15
1.05 1.02 0.56 1.02 0.60 1.05 4.50 1.63 1.20 1.73 1.36 3.19
1.10 1.03 0.57 1.04 0.61 1.10 4.60 1.64 1.22 1.75 1.38 3.23
1.15 1.05 0.59 1.05 0.63 1.15 4.70 1.65 1.23 1.76 1.39 3.27
125
A B C E I A B C E I
Σ V VR VVS VVS V VS VVS VVS Σ V VR VVS VVS V VS VVS VVS
4.80 1.66 1.24 1.78 1.41 3.31 9.20 2.01 1.71 2.25 2.00 4.60
4.90 1.67 1.25 1.79 1.43 3.35 9.30 2.02 1.72 2.26 2.01 4.62
5.00 1.68 1.27 1.80 1.44 3.38 9.40 2.02 1.73 2.27 2.02 4.65
5.10 1.69 1.28 1.82 1.46 3.42 9.50 2.03 1.74 2.28 2.03 4.67
5.20 1.70 1.29 1.83 1.47 3.46 9.60 2.03 1.75 2.29 2.04 4.69
5.30 1.71 1.30 1.84 1.49 3.49 9.70 2.04 1.76 2.30 2.05 4.72
5.40 1.72 1.32 1.85 1.50 3.53 9.80 2.05 1.76 2.31 2.07 4.74
5.50 1.73 1.33 1.87 1.52 3.56 9.90 2.05 1.77 2.31 2.08 4.76
5.60 1.74 1.34 1.88 1.53 3.60 10.00 2.06 1.78 2.32 2.09 4.78
5.70 1.75 1.35 1.89 1.55 3.63 10.10 2.06 1.79 2.33 2.10 4.81
5.80 1.76 1.36 1.90 1.56 3.66 10.20 2.07 1.80 2.34 2.11 4.83
5.90 1.77 1.38 1.91 1.58 3.70 10.30 2.07 1.81 2.35 2.12 4.85
6.00 1.78 1.39 1.93 1.59 3.73 10.40 2.08 1.82 2.36 2.13 4.87
6.10 1.79 1.40 1.94 1.60 3.76 10.50 2.09 1.82 2.36 2.14 4.89
6.20 1.79 1.41 1.95 1.62 3.79 10.60 2.09 1.83 2.37 2.15 4.91
6.30 1.80 1.42 1.96 1.63 3.82 10.70 2.10 1.84 2.38 2.16 4.93
6.40 1.81 1.43 1.97 1.65 3.85 10.80 2.10 1.85 2.39 2.17 4.96
6.50 1.82 1.44 1.98 1.66 3.88 10.90 2.11 1.86 2.40 2.18 4.98
6.60 1.83 1.45 2.00 1.67 3.91 11.00 2.11 1.87 2.41 2.20 5.00
6.70 1.83 1.47 2.01 1.69 3.94 11.10 2.12 1.87 2.41 2.21 5.02
6.80 1.84 1.48 2.02 1.70 3.97 11.20 2.12 1.88 2.42 2.22 5.04
6.90 1.85 1.49 2.03 1.71 4.00 11.30 2.13 1.89 2.43 2.23 5.06
7.00 1.86 1.50 2.04 1.73 4.03 11.40 2.13 1.90 2.44 2.24 5.08
7.10 1.87 1.51 2.05 1.74 4.06 11.50 2.14 1.91 2.44 2.25 5.10
7.20 1.87 1.52 2.06 1.75 4.09 11.60 2.14 1.91 2.45 2.26 5.12
7.30 1.88 1.53 2.07 1.77 4.12 11.70 2.15 1.92 2.46 2.27 5.14
7.40 1.89 1.54 2.08 1.78 4.14 11.80 2.15 1.93 2.47 2.28 5.16
7.50 1.90 1.55 2.09 1.79 4.17 11.90 2.16 1.94 2.48 2.29 5.18
7.60 1.90 1.56 2.10 1.80 4.20 12.00 2.16 1.95 2.48 2.30 5.20
7.70 1.91 1.57 2.11 1.82 4.22 12.10 2.17 1.95 2.49 2.31 5.22
7.80 1.92 1.58 2.12 1.83 4.25 12.20 2.17 1.96 2.50 2.32 5.24
7.90 1.92 1.59 2.13 1.84 4.28 12.30 2.18 1.97 2.51 2.33 5.25
8.00 1.93 1.60 2.14 1.85 4.30 12.40 2.18 1.98 2.51 2.34 5.27
8.10 1.94 1.61 2.15 1.87 4.33 12.50 2.19 1.99 2.52 2.35 5.29
8.20 1.94 1.62 2.16 1.88 4.36 12.60 2.19 1.99 2.53 2.36 5.31
8.30 1.95 1.63 2.17 1.89 4.38 12.70 2.20 2.00 2.54 2.37 5.33
8.40 1.96 1.64 2.18 1.90 4.41 12.80 2.20 2.01 2.54 2.38 5.35
8.50 1.96 1.65 2.19 1.92 4.43 12.90 2.21 2.02 2.55 2.39 5.37
8.60 1.97 1.66 2.20 1.93 4.46 13.00 2.21 2.02 2.56 2.40 5.38
8.70 1.98 1.67 2.21 1.94 4.48 13.10 2.22 2.03 2.56 2.41 5.40
8.80 1.98 1.67 2.22 1.95 4.51 13.20 2.22 2.04 2.57 2.42 5.42
8.90 1.99 1.68 2.23 1.96 4.53 13.30 2.23 2.05 2.58 2.43 5.44
9.00 2.00 1.69 2.23 1.97 4.55 13.40 2.23 2.05 2.59 2.44 5.46
9.10 2.00 1.70 2.24 1.99 4.58 13.50 2.24 2.06 2.59 2.44 5.47
126
A B C E I A B C E I
ΣVVR VVS V VS VVS VVS VVS ΣVVR VVS V VS VVS VVS VVS
13.60 2.24 2.07 2.60 2.45 5.49 18.00 2.42 2.36 2.88 2.84 6.19
13.70 2.25 2.07 2.61 2.46 5.51 18.10 2.42 2.37 2.89 2.85 6.21
13.80 2.25 2.08 2.61 2.47 5.53 18.20 2.43 2.38 2.89 2.86 6.22
13.90 2.25 2.09 2.62 2.48 5.55 18.30 2.43 2.38 2.90 2.87 6.24
14.00 2.26 2.10 2.63 2.49 5.56 18.40 2.43 2.39 2.90 2.87 6.25
14.10 2.26 2.10 2.63 2.50 5.58 18.50 2.44 2.40 2.91 2.88 6.26
14.20 2.27 2.11 2.64 2.51 5.60 18.60 2.44 2.40 2.92 2.89 6.28
14.30 2.27 2.12 2.65 2.52 5.61 18.70 2.44 2.41 2.92 2.90 6.29
14.40 2.28 2.12 2.65 2.53 5.63 18.80 2.45 2.41 2.93 2.91 6.31
14.50 2.28 2.13 2.66 2.54 5.65 18.90 2.45 2.42 2.93 2.91 6.32
14.60 2.29 2.14 2.67 2.55 5.66 19.00 2.45 2.43 2.94 2.92 6.33
14.70 2.29 2.15 2.67 2.56 5.68 19.10 2.46 2.43 2.94 2.93 6.35
14.80 2.29 2.15 2.68 2.57 5.70 19.20 2.46 2.44 2.95 2.94 6.36
14.90 2.30 2.16 2.69 2.57 5.71 19.30 2.47 2.44 2.95 2.95 6.37
15.00 2.30 2.17 2.69 2.58 5.73 19.40 2.47 2.45 2.96 2.95 6.39
15.10 2.31 2.17 2.70 2.59 5.75 19.50 2.47 2.46 2.97 2.96 6.40
15.20 2.31 2.18 2.71 2.60 5.76 19.60 2.48 2.46 2.97 2.97 6.42
15.30 2.31 2.19 2.71 2.61 5.78 19.70 2.48 2.47 2.98 2.98 6.43
15.40 2.32 2.19 2.72 2.62 5.80 19.80 2.48 2.47 2.98 2.99 6.44
15.50 2.32 2.20 2.73 2.63 5.81 19.90 2.49 2.48 2.99 2.99 6.46
15.60 2.33 2.21 2.73 2.64 5.83 20.00 2.49 2.49 2.99 3.00 6.47
15.70 2.33 2.21 2.74 2.65 5.84
Table 26 Calculating peak flow to DIN 1988-3 for ΣVVR ≤ 20.0 l/s
15.80 2.34 2.22 2.75 2.65 5.86
15.90 2.34 2.23 2.75 2.66 5.88
16.00 2.34 2.23 2.76 2.67 5.89
16.10 2.35 2.24 2.77 2.68 5.91
16.20 2.35 2.25 2.77 2.69 5.92
16.30 2.35 2.25 2.78 2.70 5.94
16.40 2.36 2.26 2.78 2.71 5.95
16.50 2.36 2.27 2.79 2.72 5.97
16.60 2.37 2.27 2.80 2.72 5.98
16.70 2.37 2.28 2.80 2.73 6.00
16.80 2.37 2.29 2.81 2.74 6.02
16.90 2.38 2.29 2.81 2.75 6.03
17.00 2.38 2.30 2.82 2.76 6.05
17.10 2.39 2.31 2.83 2.77 6.06
17.20 2.39 2.31 2.83 2.77 6.08
17.30 2.39 2.32 2.84 2.78 6.09
17.40 2.40 2.33 2.84 2.79 6.10
17.50 2.40 2.33 2.85 2.80 6.12
17.60 2.40 2.34 2.86 2.81 6.13
17.70 2.41 2.35 2.86 2.82 6.15
17.80 2.41 2.35 2.87 2.82 6.16
17.90 2.42 2.36 2.87 2.83 6.18
127
A C F G H K A C F G H K
ΣVVR V VS VVS VVS VVS VVS V VS ΣVVR V VS V VS VVS VVS VVS V VS
l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s
20.0 2.49 2.50 3.00 3.00 3.00 6.47 42.0 3.03 3.49 5.17 5.15 4.09 8.03
20.5 2.51 2.52 3.06 3.07 3.03 6.53 42.5 3.04 3.51 5.21 5.18 4.11 8.05
21.0 2.52 2.55 3.12 3.13 3.06 6.59 43.0 3.05 3.53 5.25 5.22 4.13 8.07
21.5 2.54 2.58 3.18 3.20 3.09 6.65 43.5 3.05 3.55 5.29 5.26 4.15 8.09
22.0 2.55 2.60 3.24 3.26 3.11 6.70 44.0 3.06 3.57 5.33 5.30 4.18 8.11
22.5 2.57 2.63 3.29 3.32 3.14 6.76 44.5 3.07 3.59 5.37 5.33 4.20 8.13
23.0 2.58 2.65 3.35 3.38 3.17 6.81 45.0 3.08 3.60 5.41 5.37 4.22 8.15
23.5 2.60 2.68 3.41 3.43 3.20 6.86 45.5 3.09 3.62 5.45 5.40 4.24 8.16
24.0 2.61 2.71 3.46 3.49 3.22 6.91 46.0 3.10 3.64 5.49 5.44 4.26 8.18
24.5 2.63 2.73 3.52 3.55 3.25 6.95 46.5 3.11 3.66 5.53 5.47 4.28 8.20
25.0 2.64 2.75 3.57 3.60 3.28 7.00 47.0 3.12 3.68 5.57 5.51 4.30 8.22
25.5 2.66 2.78 3.62 3.66 3.30 7.04 47.5 3.12 3.70 5.61 5.54 4.32 8.24
26.0 2.67 2.80 3.68 3.71 3.33 7.09 48.0 3.13 3.72 5.65 5.58 4.35 8.25
26.5 2.68 2.83 3.73 3.77 3.35 7.13 48.5 3.14 3.73 5.69 5.61 4.37 8.27
27.0 2.70 2.85 3.78 3.82 3.38 7.17 49.0 3.15 3.75 5.73 5.65 4.39 8.29
27.5 2.71 2.87 3.83 3.87 3.41 7.21 49.5 3.16 3.77 5.77 5.68 4.41 8.30
28.0 2.72 2.90 3.88 3.92 3.43 7.25 50.0 3.17 3.79 5.81 5.71 4.43 8.32
28.5 2.74 2.92 3.94 3.97 3.46 7.29 51.0 3.18 3.82 5.88 5.78 4.47 8.35
29.0 2.75 2.94 3.99 4.02 3.48 7.32 52.0 3.20 3.86 5.96 5.85 4.51 8.38
29.5 2.76 2.97 4.04 4.07 3.51 7.36 53.0 3.21 3.89 6.03 5.91 4.55 8.41
30.0 2.77 2.99 4.09 4.12 3.53 7.39 54.0 3.23 3.93 6.11 5.97 4.59 8.44
30.5 2.78 3.01 4.13 4.17 3.56 7.43 55.0 3.24 3.96 6.18 6.04 4.63 8.47
31.0 2.80 3.04 4.18 4.22 3.58 7.46 56.0 3.26 4.00 6.25 6.10 4.67 8.49
31.5 2.81 3.06 4.23 4.26 3.60 7.49 57.0 3.27 4.03 6.32 6.16 4.71 8.52
32.0 2.82 3.08 4.28 4.31 3.63 7.52 58.0 3.29 4.06 6.40 6.22 4.75 8.55
32.5 2.83 3.10 4.33 4.36 3.65 7.55 59.0 3.30 4.10 6.47 6.28 4.79 8.57
33.0 2.84 3.12 4.37 4.40 3.68 7.58 60.0 3.32 4.13 6.54 6.34 4.83 8.60
33.5 2.85 3.14 4.42 4.45 3.70 7.61 61.0 3.33 4.16 6.61 6.40 4.87 8.62
34.0 2.86 3.17 4.47 4.49 3.72 7.64 62.0 3.34 4.19 6.67 6.45 4.91 8.64
34.5 2.88 3.19 4.51 4.54 3.75 7.67 63.0 3.36 4.23 6.74 6.51 4.94 8.67
35.0 2.89 3.21 4.56 4.58 3.77 7.70 64.0 3.37 4.26 6.81 6.57 4.98 8.69
35.5 2.90 3.23 4.60 4.62 3.79 7.72 65.0 3.38 4.29 6.88 6.62 5.02 8.71
36.0 2.91 3.25 4.65 4.67 3.82 7.75 66.0 3.40 4.32 6.94 6.68 5.06 8.73
36.5 2.92 3.27 4.69 4.71 3.84 7.78 67.0 3.41 4.35 7.01 6.73 5.09 8.75
37.0 2.93 3.29 4.74 4.75 3.86 7.80 68.0 3.42 4.38 7.08 6.79 5.13 8.77
37.5 2.94 3.31 4.78 4.79 3.89 7.83 69.0 3.44 4.42 7.14 6.84 5.17 8.79
38.0 2.95 3.33 4.83 4.83 3.91 7.85 70.0 3.45 4.45 7.21 6.89 5.21 8.81
38.5 2.96 3.35 4.87 4.87 3.93 7.87 71.0 3.46 4.48 7.27 6.94 5.24 8.83
39.0 2.97 3.37 4.91 4.91 3.95 7.90 72.0 3.47 4.51 7.33 6.99 5.28 8.85
39.5 2.98 3.39 4.96 4.95 3.98 7.92 73.0 3.49 4.54 7.40 7.05 5.32 8.87
40.0 2.99 3.41 5.00 4.99 4.00 7.94 74.0 3.50 4.57 7.46 7.10 5.35 8.88
40.5 3.00 3.43 5.04 5.03 4.02 7.96 75.0 3.51 4.60 7.52 7.15 5.39 8.90
41.0 3.01 3.45 5.09 5.07 4.04 7.99 76.0 3.52 4.63 7.59 7.19 5.42 8.92
41.5 3.02 3.47 5.13 5.11 4.07 8.01 77.0 3.53 4.66 7.65 7.24 5.46 8.94
128
ΣVVR VVS V VS V VS VVS VVS VVS ΣVVR VVS V VS V VS VVS VVS VVS
78.0 3.54 4.69 7.71 7.29 5.49 8.95 144 4.13 6.34 11.13 9.80 7.57 9.63
79.0 3.56 4.71 7.77 7.34 5.53 8.97 146 4.14 6.38 11.22 9.86 7.63 9.64
80.0 3.57 4.74 7.83 7.39 5.56 8.98 148 4.16 6.42 11.31 9.92 7.69 9.65
81.0 3.58 4.77 7.89 7.44 5.60 9.00 150 4.17 6.47 11.40 9.98 7.74 9.66
82.0 3.59 4.80 7.95 7.48 5.63 9.02 152 4.18 6.51 11.49 10.04 7.80 9.68
83.0 3.60 4.83 8.01 7.53 5.67 9.03 154 4.20 6.55 11.57 10.10 7.85 9.69
84.0 3.61 4.86 8.07 7.57 5.70 9.05 156 4.21 6.59 11.66 10.16 7.91 9.70
85.0 3.62 4.89 8.13 7.62 5.74 9.06 158 4.22 6.64 11.75 10.22 7.97 9.71
86.0 3.63 4.91 8.19 7.66 5.77 9.07 160 4.24 6.68 11.83 10.28 8.02 9.72
87.0 3.64 4.94 8.24 7.71 5.81 9.09 162 4.25 6.72 11.92 10.33 8.08 9.73
88.0 3.65 4.97 8.30 7.75 5.84 9.10 164 4.26 6.76 12.00 10.39 8.13 9.74
89.0 3.66 5.00 8.36 7.80 5.87 9.12 166 4.27 6.80 12.08 10.45 8.18 9.75
90.0 3.67 5.02 8.42 7.84 5.91 9.13 168 4.29 6.84 12.17 10.50 8.24 9.76
91.0 3.68 5.05 8.47 7.88 5.94 9.14 170 4.30 6.88 12.25 10.56 8.29 9.77
92.0 3.69 5.08 8.53 7.93 5.98 9.15 172 4.31 6.93 12.33 10.61 8.35 9.78
93.0 3.70 5.10 8.59 7.97 6.01 9.17 174 4.32 6.97 12.42 10.66 8.40 9.79
94.0 3.71 5.13 8.64 8.01 6.04 9.18 176 4.34 7.01 12.50 10.72 8.45 9.80
95.0 3.72 5.16 8.70 8.05 6.07 9.19 178 4.35 7.05 12.58 10.77 8.51 9.81
96.0 3.73 5.18 8.75 8.10 6.11 9.20 180 4.36 7.09 12.66 10.82 8.56 9.82
97.0 3.74 5.21 8.81 8.14 6.14 9.22 182 4.37 7.13 12.74 10.88 8.61 9.83
98.0 3.75 5.24 8.86 8.18 6.17 9.23 184 4.38 7.16 12.82 10.93 8.66 9.84
99.0 3.76 5.26 8.92 8.22 6.21 9.24 186 4.39 7.20 12.90 10.98 8.72 9.85
100.0 3.77 5.29 8.97 8.26 6.24 9.25 188 4.41 7.24 12.98 11.03 8.77 9.86
102.0 3.79 5.34 9.08 8.34 6.30 9.27 190 4.42 7.28 13.06 11.08 8.82 9.87
104.0 3.81 5.39 9.18 8.42 6.37 9.29 192 4.43 7.32 13.13 11.13 8.87 9.88
106.0 3.83 5.44 9.29 8.50 6.43 9.31 194 4.44 7.36 13.21 11.18 8.92 9.88
108.0 3.84 5.49 9.39 8.57 6.49 9.33 196 4.45 7.40 13.29 11.23 8.98 9.89
110.0 3.86 5.54 9.50 8.65 6.56 9.35 198 4.46 7.43 13.37 11.28 9.03 9.90
112.0 3.88 5.59 9.60 8.72 6.62 9.37 200 4.47 7.47 13.44 11.33 9.08 9.91
114.0 3.90 5.64 9.70 8.80 6.68 9.39 205 4.50 7.57 13.63 11.45 9.20 9.93
116.0 3.91 5.69 9.80 8.87 6.74 9.41 210 4.53 7.66 13.82 11.57 9.33 9.95
118.0 3.93 5.74 9.90 8.94 6.80 9.43 215 4.55 7.75 14.01 11.68 9.45 9.97
120.0 3.95 5.79 10.00 9.01 6.87 9.45 220 4.58 7.84 14.19 11.80 9.58 9.98
122.0 3.96 5.83 10.10 9.08 6.93 9.46 225 4.60 7.93 14.37 11.91 9.70 10.00
124.0 3.98 5.88 10.20 9.15 6.99 9.48 230 4.63 8.02 14.55 12.02 9.82 10.02
126.0 3.99 5.93 10.29 9.22 7.05 9.50 235 4.65 8.11 14.73 12.13 9.94 10.03
128.0 4.01 5.97 10.39 9.29 7.11 9.51 240 4.67 8.20 14.90 12.24 10.06 10.05
130.0 4.02 6.02 10.48 9.35 7.17 9.53 245 4.70 8.28 15.07 12.34 10.18 10.06
132 4.04 6.07 10.58 9.42 7.22 9.54 250 4.72 8.37 15.25 12.44 10.30 10.08
134 4.05 6.11 10.67 9.49 7.28 9.56 255 4.74 8.45 15.42 12.55 10.42 10.09
136 4.07 6.16 10.76 9.55 7.34 9.57 260 4.77 8.54 15.58 12.65 10.53 10.10
138 4.08 6.20 10.86 9.61 7.40 9.58 265 4.79 8.62 15.75 12.75 10.65 10.12
140 4.10 6.25 10.95 9.68 7.46 9.60 270 4.81 8.70 15.92 12.85 10.76 10.13
142 4.11 6.29 11.04 9.74 7.52 9.61 275 4.83 8.78 16.08 12.94 10.88 10.14
129
ΣVVR V VS VVS VVS VVS VVS V VS ΣVVR V VS V VS VVS VVS VVS V VS
280 4.85 8.87 16.24 13.04 10.99 10.16 500 5.57 11.95 22.32 16.37 15.45 10.49
285 4.87 8.95 16.40 13.13 11.10 10.17 510 5.60 12.07 22.56 16.50 15.63 10.50
290 4.89 9.03 16.56 13.23 11.22 10.18 520 5.62 12.19 22.80 16.62 15.82 10.51
295 4.91 9.11 16.72 13.32 11.33 10.19 530 5.65 12.32 23.03 16.74 16.00 10.52
300 4.93 9.18 16.88 13.41 11.44 10.20 540 5.67 12.44 23.27 16.86 16.18 10.53
305 4.95 9.26 17.03 13.50 11.55 10.21 550 5.70 12.55 23.50 16.97 16.36 10.54
310 4.97 9.34 17.19 13.59 11.66 10.22 560 5.72 12.67 23.73 17.09 16.53 10.55
315 4.99 9.42 17.34 13.67 11.77 10.23 570 5.74 12.79 23.95 17.20 16.71 10.56
320 5.01 9.49 17.49 13.76 11.87 10.24 580 5.77 12.91 24.18 17.32 16.89 10.57
325 5.03 9.57 17.64 13.85 11.98 10.25 590 5.79 13.02 24.40 17.43 17.06 10.57
330 5.05 9.64 17.79 13.93 12.09 10.26 600 5.81 13.13 24.62 17.54 17.24 10.58
335 5.06 9.72 17.94 14.01 12.20 10.27 610 5.84 13.25 24.84 17.64 17.41 10.59
340 5.08 9.79 18.08 14.10 12.30 10.28 620 5.86 13.36 25.06 17.75 17.58 10.60
345 5.10 9.87 18.23 14.18 12.41 10.29 630 5.88 13.47 25.28 17.86 17.75 10.60
350 5.12 9.94 18.37 14.26 12.51 10.30 640 5.90 13.58 25.49 17.96 17.92 10.61
355 5.13 10.01 18.52 14.34 12.62 10.31 650 5.92 13.69 25.70 18.06 18.09 10.62
360 5.15 10.08 18.66 14.42 12.72 10.31 660 5.95 13.80 25.92 18.17 18.26 10.62
365 5.17 10.16 18.80 14.50 12.82 10.32 670 5.97 13.91 26.13 18.27 18.42 10.63
370 5.19 10.23 18.94 14.58 12.93 10.33 680 5.99 14.02 26.33 18.37 18.59 10.64
375 5.20 10.30 19.08 14.65 13.03 10.34 690 6.01 14.13 26.54 18.47 18.76 10.64
380 5.22 10.37 19.22 14.73 13.13 10.35 700 6.03 14.23 26.74 18.56 18.92 10.65
385 5.23 10.44 19.36 14.81 13.23 10.35 710 6.05 14.34 26.95 18.66 19.08 10.66
390 5.25 10.51 19.50 14.88 13.33 10.36 720 6.07 14.44 27.15 18.76 19.25 10.66
395 5.27 10.58 19.63 14.95 13.43 10.37 730 6.09 14.55 27.35 18.85 19.41 10.67
400 5.28 10.65 19.77 15.03 13.53 10.38 740 6.11 14.65 27.55 18.95 19.57 10.67
405 5.30 10.71 19.90 15.10 13.63 10.38 750 6.13 14.76 27.75 19.04 19.73 10.68
410 5.31 10.78 20.04 15.17 13.73 10.39 760 6.15 14.86 27.94 19.13 19.89 10.68
415 5.33 10.85 20.17 15.24 13.83 10.40 770 6.16 14.96 28.14 19.22 20.05 10.69
420 5.34 10.92 20.30 15.32 13.93 10.40 780 6.18 15.06 28.33 19.31 20.21 10.69
425 5.36 10.98 20.43 15.39 14.03 10.41 790 6.20 15.16 28.53 19.40 20.37 10.70
430 5.37 11.05 20.57 15.46 14.12 10.41 800 6.22 15.26 28.72 19.49 20.52 10.70
435 5.39 11.12 20.70 15.52 14.22 10.42 810 6.24 15.36 28.91 19.58 20.68 10.71
440 5.40 11.18 20.82 15.59 14.32 10.43 820 6.26 15.46 29.10 19.66 20.83 10.71
445 5.42 11.25 20.95 15.66 14.41 10.43 830 6.27 15.56 29.28 19.75 20.99 10.72
450 5.43 11.31 21.08 15.73 14.51 10.44 840 6.29 15.66 29.47 19.84 21.14 10.72
455 5.45 11.38 21.21 15.80 14.61 10.45 850 6.31 15.75 29.66 19.92 21.30 10.73
460 5.46 11.44 21.33 15.86 14.70 10.45
Table 27 Calculating peak flow to DIN 1988-3 for ΣVVR > 20.0 l/s
465 5.47 11.51 21.46 15.93 14.80 10.46
470 5.49 11.57 21.58 15.99 14.89 10.46
475 5.50 11.64 21.71 16.06 14.98 10.47
480 5.52 11.70 21.83 16.12 15.08 10.47
485 5.53 11.76 21.95 16.19 15.17 10.48
490 5.54 11.82 22.08 16.25 15.26 10.48
495 5.56 11.89 22.20 16.31 15.36 10.49
130
Fig 124 Pressure drop chart for Mepla pipes at 10 °C, k = 0.00035 mm
131
DN 12 DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32
VV 16 x 2.25 20 x 2.5 26 x 3.0 32 x 3.0 40 x 3.5
R v R v R v R v R v
l/s mbar/m m/s mbar/m m/s mbar/m m/s mbar/m m/s mbar/m m/s
0.07 7.0 0.67 2.0 0.40 0.5 0.22 0.2 0.13
0.08 8.9 0.77 2.5 0.45 0.7 0.25 0.2 0.15
0.09 10.9 0.87 3.1 0.51 0.8 0.29 0.2 0.17
0.10 13.0 0.96 3.7 0.57 1.0 0.32 0.3 0.19
0.11 15.4 1.06 4.4 0.62 1.1 0.35 0.3 0.21
0.12 17.9 1.16 5.1 0.68 1.3 0.38 0.4 0.23
0.13 20.5 1.25 5.8 0.74 1.5 0.41 0.4 0.24
0.14 23.4 1.35 6.6 0.79 1.7 0.45 0.5 0.26
0.15 26.4 1.44 7.5 0.85 1.9 0.48 0.6 0.28
0.16 29.5 1.54 8.4 0.91 2.1 0.51 0.6 0.30
0.17 32.8 1.64 9.3 0.96 2.4 0.54 0.7 0.32
0.18 36.2 1.73 10.3 1.02 2.6 0.57 0.8 0.34
0.19 39.8 1.83 11.3 1.08 2.9 0.60 0.8 0.36
0.20 43.6 1.93 12.3 1.13 3.2 0.64 0.9 0.38
0.21 47.5 2.02 13.4 1.19 3.4 0.67 1.0 0.40
0.22 51.5 2.12 14.6 1.24 3.7 0.70 1.1 0.41
0.23 55.7 2.21 15.7 1.30 4.0 0.73 1.2 0.43
0.24 60.0 2.31 17.0 1.36 4.3 0.76 1.2 0.45
0.25 64.5 2.41 18.2 1.41 4.6 0.80 1.3 0.47
0.26 69.1 2.50 19.5 1.47 5.0 0.83 1.4 0.49 0.5 0.30
0.27 73.8 2.60 20.8 1.53 5.3 0.86 1.5 0.51 0.5 0.32
0.28 78.7 2.70 22.2 1.58 5.7 0.89 1.6 0.53 0.5 0.33
0.29 83.7 2.79 23.6 1.64 6.0 0.92 1.7 0.55 0.6 0.34
0.30 88.9 2.89 25.1 1.70 6.4 0.95 1.8 0.57 0.6 0.35
0.31 94.2 2.98 26.6 1.75 6.8 0.99 1.9 0.58 0.6 0.36
0.32 99.6 3.08 28.1 1.81 7.2 1.02 2.1 0.60 0.7 0.37
0.33 105.2 3.18 29.7 1.87 7.5 1.05 2.2 0.62 0.7 0.39
0.34 110.9 3.27 31.2 1.92 8.0 1.08 2.3 0.64 0.7 0.40
0.35 116.7 3.37 32.9 1.98 8.4 1.11 2.4 0.66 0.8 0.41
0.36 122.6 3.47 34.6 2.04 8.8 1.15 2.5 0.68 0.8 0.42
0.37 128.7 3.56 36.3 2.09 9.2 1.18 2.7 0.70 0.9 0.43
0.38 135.0 3.66 38.0 2.15 9.7 1.21 2.8 0.72 0.9 0.44
0.39 141.3 3.75 39.8 2.21 10.1 1.24 2.9 0.73 0.9 0.46
0.40 147.8 3.85 41.6 2.26 10.6 1.27 3.0 0.75 1.0 0.47
0.41 154.4 3.95 43.5 2.32 11.0 1.31 3.2 0.77 1.0 0.48
0.42 161.1 4.04 45.3 2.38 11.5 1.34 3.3 0.79 1.1 0.49
0.43 168.0 4.14 47.3 2.43 12.0 1.37 3.4 0.81 1.1 0.50
0.44 175.0 4.24 49.2 2.49 12.5 1.40 3.6 0.83 1.2 0.51
0.45 182.1 4.33 51.2 2.55 13.0 1.43 3.7 0.85 1.2 0.53
0.46 189.3 4.43 53.2 2.60 13.5 1.46 3.9 0.87 1.3 0.54
0.47 196.7 4.52 55.3 2.66 14.0 1.50 4.0 0.89 1.3 0.55
0.48 204.2 4.62 57.4 2.72 14.6 1.53 4.2 0.90 1.3 0.56
0.49 211.8 4.72 59.5 2.77 15.1 1.56 4.3 0.92 1.4 0.57
0.50 219.6 4.81 61.7 2.83 15.7 1.59 4.5 0.94 1.4 0.58
0.51 227.4 4.91 63.9 2.89 16.2 1.62 4.7 0.96 1.5 0.60
0.52 235.4 66.1 2.94 16.8 1.66 4.8 0.98 1.5 0.61
0.53 68.4 3.00 17.3 1.69 5.0 1.00 1.6 0.62
0.54 70.7 3.06 17.9 1.72 5.1 1.02 1.7 0.63
0.55 73.0 3.11 18.5 1.75 5.3 1.04 1.7 0.64
0.56 75.4 3.17 19.1 1.78 5.5 1.05 1.8 0.65
0.57 77.8 3.23 19.7 1.81 5.7 1.07 1.8 0.67
0.58 80.3 3.28 20.3 1.85 5.8 1.09 1.9 0.68
0.59 82.7 3.34 21.0 1.88 6.0 1.11 1.9 0.69
0.60 85.2 3.40 21.6 1.91 6.2 1.13 2.0 0.70
0.61 87.8 3.45 22.2 1.94 6.4 1.15 2.0 0.71
Table 28.1 Pressure drop tables for Mepla pipes at 10 °C, k = 0.00035 mm
132
DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32 DN 40
VV 20 x 2.5 26 x 3.0 32 x 3.0 40 x 3.5 50 x 4.0
R v R v R v R v R v
0.62 90.3 3.51 22.9 1.97 6.6 1.17 2.1 0.72 0.7 0.45
0.63 92.9 3.57 23.5 2.01 6.7 1.19 2.2 0.74 0.7 0.45
0.64 95.6 3.62 24.2 2.04 6.9 1.21 2.2 0.75 0.7 0.46
0.65 98.2 3.68 24.9 2.07 7.1 1.22 2.3 0.76 0.7 0.47
0.66 100.9 3.73 25.6 2.10 7.3 1.24 2.4 0.77 0.7 0.48
0.67 103.7 3.79 26.2 2.13 7.5 1.26 2.4 0.78 0.8 0.48
0.68 106.4 3.85 26.9 2.16 7.7 1.28 2.5 0.80 0.8 0.49
0.69 109.2 3.90 27.6 2.20 7.9 1.30 2.5 0.81 0.8 0.50
0.70 112.1 3.96 28.4 2.23 8.1 1.32 2.6 0.82 0.8 0.51
0.71 114.9 4.02 29.1 2.26 8.3 1.34 2.7 0.83 0.8 0.51
0.72 117.8 4.07 29.8 2.29 8.5 1.36 2.7 0.84 0.9 0.52
0.73 120.8 4.13 30.5 2.32 8.7 1.37 2.8 0.85 0.9 0.53
0.74 123.7 4.19 31.3 2.36 9.0 1.39 2.9 0.87 0.9 0.53
0.75 126.7 4.24 32.0 2.39 9.2 1.41 2.9 0.88 0.9 0.54
0.76 129.7 4.30 32.8 2.42 9.4 1.43 3.0 0.89 1.0 0.55
0.77 132.8 4.36 33.6 2.45 9.6 1.45 3.1 0.90 1.0 0.56
0.78 135.9 4.41 34.3 2.48 9.8 1.47 3.2 0.91 1.0 0.56
0.79 139.0 4.47 35.1 2.51 10.0 1.49 3.2 0.92 1.0 0.57
0.80 142.1 4.53 35.9 2.55 10.3 1.51 3.3 0.94 1.0 0.58
0.81 145.3 4.58 36.7 2.58 10.5 1.53 3.4 0.95 1.1 0.58
0.82 148.5 4.64 37.5 2.61 10.7 1.54 3.4 0.96 1.1 0.59
0.83 151.8 4.70 38.4 2.64 11.0 1.56 3.5 0.97 1.1 0.60
0.84 155.0 4.75 39.2 2.67 11.2 1.58 3.6 0.98 1.1 0.61
0.85 158.4 4.81 40.0 2.71 11.4 1.60 3.7 0.99 1.2 0.61
0.86 161.7 4.87 40.8 2.74 11.7 1.62 3.7 1.01 1.2 0.62
0.87 165.1 4.92 41.7 2.77 11.9 1.64 3.8 1.02 1.2 0.63
0.88 168.5 4.98 42.5 2.80 12.2 1.66 3.9 1.03 1.2 0.64
0.89 171.9 5.04 43.4 2.83 12.4 1.68 4.0 1.04 1.3 0.64
0.90 44.3 2.86 12.7 1.70 4.1 1.05 1.3 0.65
0.91 45.2 2.90 12.9 1.71 4.1 1.06 1.3 0.66
0.92 46.0 2.93 13.2 1.73 4.2 1.08 1.3 0.66
0.93 46.9 2.96 13.4 1.75 4.3 1.09 1.4 0.67
0.94 47.8 2.99 13.7 1.77 4.4 1.10 1.4 0.68
0.95 48.7 3.02 13.9 1.79 4.5 1.11 1.4 0.69
0.96 49.7 3.06 14.2 1.81 4.5 1.12 1.4 0.69
0.97 50.6 3.09 14.4 1.83 4.6 1.13 1.5 0.70
0.98 51.5 3.12 14.7 1.85 4.7 1.15 1.5 0.71
0.99 52.5 3.15 15.0 1.86 4.8 1.16 1.5 0.71
1.00 53.4 3.18 15.2 1.88 4.9 1.17 1.5 0.72
1.01 54.4 3.21 15.5 1.90 5.0 1.18 1.6 0.73
1.02 55.3 3.25 15.8 1.92 5.1 1.19 1.6 0.74
1.03 56.3 3.28 16.1 1.94 5.2 1.20 1.6 0.74
1.04 57.3 3.31 16.3 1.96 5.2 1.22 1.7 0.75
1.05 58.2 3.34 16.6 1.98 5.3 1.23 1.7 0.76
1.06 59.2 3.37 16.9 2.00 5.4 1.24 1.7 0.77
1.07 60.2 3.41 17.2 2.02 5.5 1.25 1.7 0.77
1.08 61.2 3.44 17.5 2.03 5.6 1.26 1.8 0.78
1.09 62.2 3.47 17.8 2.05 5.7 1.27 1.8 0.79
1.10 63.3 3.50 18.1 2.07 5.8 1.29 1.8 0.79
1.11 64.3 3.53 18.3 2.09 5.9 1.30 1.9 0.80
1.12 65.3 3.57 18.6 2.11 6.0 1.31 1.9 0.81
1.13 66.4 3.60 18.9 2.13 6.1 1.32 1.9 0.82
1.14 67.4 3.63 19.2 2.15 6.2 1.33 2.0 0.82
1.15 68.5 3.66 19.5 2.17 6.3 1.34 2.0 0.83
1.20 73.9 3.82 21.1 2.26 6.7 1.40 2.1 0.87
133
DN 25 DN 32 DN 40 DN 50 DN 65
VV 32 x 3.0 40 x 3.5 50 x 4.0 63 x 4.5 75 x 4.65
R v R v R v R v R v
1.25 22.7 2.35 7.3 1.46 2.3 0.90 0.7 0.55 0.3 0.37
1.30 24.3 2.45 7.8 1.52 2.5 0.94 0.7 0.57 0.3 0.38
1.35 26.0 2.54 8.3 1.58 2.6 0.97 0.8 0.59 0.3 0.40
1.40 27.7 2.64 8.9 1.64 2.8 1.01 0.8 0.61 0.3 0.41
1.45 29.5 2.73 9.4 1.70 3.0 1.05 0.9 0.63 0.4 0.43
1.50 31.3 2.83 10.0 1.75 3.2 1.08 1.0 0.65 0.4 0.44
1.55 33.2 2.92 10.6 1.81 3.4 1.12 1.0 0.68 0.4 0.46
1.60 35.2 3.01 11.2 1.87 3.6 1.15 1.1 0.70 0.4 0.47
1.65 37.1 3.11 11.9 1.93 3.8 1.19 1.1 0.72 0.4 0.49
1.70 39.2 3.20 12.5 1.99 4.0 1.23 1.2 0.74 0.5 0.50
1.75 41.2 3.30 13.2 2.05 4.2 1.26 1.3 0.76 0.5 0.52
1.80 43.4 3.39 13.9 2.10 4.4 1.30 1.3 0.79 0.5 0.53
1.85 45.5 3.48 14.6 2.16 4.6 1.34 1.4 0.81 0.5 0.55
1.90 47.8 3.58 15.3 2.22 4.8 1.37 1.5 0.83 0.6 0.56
1.95 50.0 3.67 16.0 2.28 5.0 1.41 1.5 0.85 0.6 0.58
2.00 52.4 3.77 16.7 2.34 5.3 1.44 1.6 0.87 0.6 0.59
2.05 54.7 3.86 17.5 2.40 5.5 1.48 1.7 0.90 0.7 0.60
2.10 57.1 3.96 18.2 2.46 5.8 1.52 1.7 0.92 0.7 0.62
2.15 59.6 4.05 19.0 2.51 6.0 1.55 1.8 0.94 0.7 0.63
2.20 62.1 4.14 19.8 2.57 6.3 1.59 1.9 0.96 0.7 0.65
2.25 64.6 4.24 20.6 2.63 6.5 1.62 2.0 0.98 0.8 0.66
2.30 67.2 4.33 21.5 2.69 6.8 1.66 2.0 1.00 0.8 0.68
2.35 69.9 4.43 22.3 2.75 7.0 1.70 2.1 1.03 0.8 0.69
2.40 72.6 4.52 23.1 2.81 7.3 1.73 2.2 1.05 0.9 0.71
2.45 75.3 4.61 24.0 2.86 7.6 1.77 2.3 1.07 0.9 0.72
2.50 78.1 4.71 24.9 2.92 7.9 1.80 2.4 1.09 0.9 0.74
2.60 83.8 4.90 26.7 3.04 8.4 1.88 2.5 1.14 1.0 0.77
2.70 89.6 5.09 28.6 3.16 9.0 1.95 2.7 1.18 1.1 0.80
2.80 30.5 3.27 9.6 2.02 2.9 1.22 1.1 0.83
2.90 32.5 3.39 10.2 2.09 3.1 1.27 1.2 0.86
3.00 34.5 3.51 10.9 2.17 3.3 1.31 1.3 0.88
3.10 36.6 3.62 11.5 2.24 3.5 1.35 1.4 0.91
3.20 38.7 3.74 12.2 2.31 3.7 1.40 1.4 0.94
3.30 40.9 3.86 12.9 2.38 3.9 1.44 1.5 0.97
3.40 43.2 3.98 13.6 2.45 4.1 1.48 1.6 1.00
3.50 45.5 4.09 14.3 2.53 4.3 1.53 1.7 1.03
3.60 47.8 4.21 15.1 2.60 4.5 1.57 1.8 1.06
3.70 50.3 4.33 15.8 2.67 4.7 1.62 1.9 1.09
3.80 52.7 4.44 16.6 2.74 5.0 1.66 1.9 1.12
3.90 55.2 4.56 17.4 2.81 5.2 1.70 2.0 1.15
4.00 57.8 4.68 18.2 2.89 5.5 1.75 2.1 1.18
4.50 71.5 5.26 22.5 3.25 6.7 1.96 2.6 1.33
5.00 27.1 3.61 8.1 2.18 3.2 1.47
5.50 32.2 3.97 9.6 2.40 3.8 1.62
6.00 37.7 4.33 11.3 2.62 4.4 1.77
6.50 43.5 4.69 13.0 2.84 5.1 1.92
7.00 49.7 5.05 14.9 3.06 5.8 2.06
7.50 16.8 3.27 6.6 2.21
8.00 18.9 3.49 7.4 2.36
8.50 21.1 3.71 8.2 2.51
9.00 23.4 3.93 9.1 2.65
9.50 25.8 4.15 10.1 2.80
10.00 28.3 4.37 11.0 2.95
10.50 30.9 4.58 12.1 3.10
11.00 33.6 4.80 13.1 3.24
134
Fig 125 Pressure drop chart for Mepla pipes at 60 ºC, k = 0.00035 mm
135
DN 12 DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32
VV 16 x 2.25 20 x 2.5 26 x 3.0 32 x 3.0 40 x 3.5
R v R v R v R v R v
40 0.2 0.11
50 0.3 0.13
60 0.4 0.16
70 0.6 0.19
80 0.7 0.21
90 0.9 0.24
100 1.1 0.27
110 1.3 0.29
120 1.5 0.32
130 1.7 0.35 0.5 0.20
140 1.9 0.37 0.5 0.22
150 2.1 0.40 0.6 0.24
160 2.4 0.43 0.7 0.25
170 2.7 0.45 0.8 0.27
180 2.9 0.48 0.8 0.28
190 3.2 0.51 0.9 0.30
200 3.5 0.53 1.0 0.31
210 3.8 0.56 1.1 0.33
220 4.2 0.59 1.2 0.35
230 4.5 0.62 1.3 0.36
240 4.9 0.64 1.4 0.38
250 5.2 0.67 1.5 0.39
260 5.6 0.70 1.6 0.41
270 6.0 0.72 1.7 0.42
280 6.4 0.75 1.8 0.44 0.5 0.25
290 6.8 0.78 1.9 0.46 0.5 0.26
300 7.2 0.80 2.0 0.47 0.5 0.27
320 8.0 0.86 2.3 0.50 0.6 0.28
340 8.9 0.91 2.5 0.53 0.6 0.30
360 9.9 0.96 2.8 0.57 0.7 0.32
380 10.9 1.02 3.1 0.60 0.8 0.34
400 11.9 1.07 3.4 0.63 0.9 0.35
420 13.0 1.12 3.7 0.66 0.9 0.37
440 14.1 1.18 4.0 0.69 1.0 0.39
460 15.3 1.23 4.3 0.72 1.1 0.41
480 16.4 1.28 4.6 0.75 1.2 0.42
500 17.7 1.34 5.0 0.79 1.3 0.44
520 18.9 1.39 5.3 0.82 1.4 0.46
540 20.3 1.44 5.7 0.85 1.4 0.48
560 21.6 1.50 6.1 0.88 1.5 0.50
580 6.5 0.91 1.6 0.51 0.5 0.30
600 6.9 0.94 1.7 0.53 0.5 0.31
620 7.3 0.97 1.8 0.55 0.5 0.32
640 7.7 1.01 2.0 0.57 0.6 0.33
660 8.1 1.04 2.1 0.58 0.6 0.35
680 8.6 1.07 2.2 0.60 0.6 0.36
700 9.0 1.10 2.3 0.62 0.7 0.37 0.2 0.23
750 10.2 1.18 2.6 0.66 0.7 0.39 0.2 0.24
800 11.4 1.26 2.9 0.71 0.8 0.42 0.3 0.26
850 12.7 1.34 3.2 0.75 0.9 0.44 0.3 0.28
900 14.1 1.41 3.6 0.80 1.0 0.47 0.3 0.29
950 15.5 1.49 3.9 0.84 1.1 0.50 0.4 0.31
1000 4.3 0.88 1.2 0.52 0.4 0.32
1050 4.7 0.93 1.3 0.55 0.4 0.34
1100 5.1 0.97 1.5 0.58 0.5 0.36
136
DN 25 DN 32 DN 40 DN 50 DN 65
VV 32 x 3.0 40 x 3.5 50 x 4.0 63 x 4.5 75 x 4.65
R v R v R v R v R v
1150 1.6 0.60 0.5 0.37
1200 1.7 0.63 0.5 0.39
1250 1.8 0.65 0.6 0.41
1300 2.0 0.68 0.6 0.42
1350 2.1 0.71 0.7 0.44
1400 2.2 0.73 0.7 0.45
1450 2.4 0.76 0.8 0.47
1500 2.5 0.78 0.8 0.49 0.3 0.30
1600 2.8 0.84 0.9 0.52 0.3 0.32
1700 3.1 0.89 1.0 0.55 0.3 0.34
1800 3.5 0.94 1.1 0.58 0.4 0.36
1900 3.8 0.99 1.2 0.62 0.4 0.38
2000 4.2 1.05 1.3 0.65 0.4 0.40
2100 4.6 1.10 1.5 0.68 0.5 0.42
2200 5.0 1.15 1.6 0.71 0.5 0.44
2300 5.4 1.20 1.7 0.75 0.5 0.46
2400 5.8 1.26 1.9 0.78 0.6 0.48
2500 6.3 1.31 2.0 0.81 0.6 0.50 0.2 0.30
2600 6.7 1.36 2.1 0.84 0.7 0.52 0.2 0.32
2700 7.2 1.41 2.3 0.88 0.7 0.54 0.2 0.33
2800 7.7 1.46 2.4 0.91 0.8 0.56 0.2 0.34
2900 8.2 1.52 2.6 0.94 0.8 0.58 0.2 0.35
3000 2.8 0.97 0.9 0.60 0.3 0.36
3100 2.9 1.01 0.9 0.62 0.3 0.38
3200 3.1 1.04 1.0 0.64 0.3 0.39
3300 3.3 1.07 1.0 0.66 0.3 0.40
3400 3.5 1.10 1.1 0.68 0.3 0.41
3500 3.6 1.14 1.1 0.70 0.3 0.42
3600 3.8 1.17 1.2 0.72 0.4 0.44
3700 4.0 1.20 1.3 0.74 0.4 0.45 0.1 0.30
3800 4.2 1.23 1.3 0.76 0.4 0.46 0.2 0.31
3900 4.4 1.27 1.4 0.78 0.4 0.47 0.2 0.32
4000 4.6 1.30 1.5 0.80 0.4 0.49 0.2 0.33
4200 5.1 1.36 1.6 0.84 0.5 0.51 0.2 0.34
4400 5.5 1.43 1.7 0.88 0.5 0.53 0.2 0.36
4600 5.9 1.49 1.9 0.92 0.6 0.56 0.2 0.38
4800 2.0 0.96 0.6 0.58 0.2 0.39
5000 2.2 1.00 0.7 0.61 0.3 0.41
5200 2.3 1.04 0.7 0.63 0.3 0.43
5400 2.5 1.08 0.7 0.65 0.3 0.44
5600 2.7 1.12 0.8 0.68 0.3 0.46
5800 2.8 1.16 0.8 0.70 0.3 0.48
6000 3.0 1.20 0.9 0.73 0.4 0.49
6500 3.5 1.30 1.0 0.79 0.4 0.53
7000 4.0 1.40 1.2 0.85 0.5 0.57
7500 4.5 1.50 1.3 0.91 0.5 0.61
8000 1.5 0.97 0.6 0.66
8500 1.7 1.03 0.7 0.70
9000 1.9 1.09 0.7 0.74
9500 2.1 1.15 0.8 0.78
10000 2.3 1.21 0.9 0.82
10500 2.5 1.27 1.0 0.86
11000 2.7 1.33 1.0 0.90
11500 2.9 1.39 1.1 0.94
12000 3.1 1.46 1.2 0.98
137
Fig 126 Pressure drop chart for stainless steel pipes at 10 °C
138
DN 10 DN 12 DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32
VV 12 x 1.0 15 x 1.0 18 x 1.0 22 x 1.2 28 x 1.2 35 x 1.5
R v R v R v R v R v R v
0.07 13.7 0.9 4.0 0.5 1.5 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1 – –
0.08 17.2 1.0 5.0 0.6 1.9 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
0.09 21.2 1.2 6.1 0.7 2.3 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.2 – –
0.10 25.4 1.3 7.3 0.8 2.7 0.5 1.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1
0.11 30.0 1.4 8.6 0.8 3.2 0.6 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1
0.12 34.9 1.5 10.0 0.9 3.8 0.6 1.4 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.2
0.13 40.2 1.7 11.5 1.0 4.3 0.7 1.7 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2
0.14 45.7 1.8 13.1 1.1 4.9 0.7 1.9 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2
0.15 51.6 1.9 14.8 1.1 5.5 0.8 2.1 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2
0.16 57.8 2.0 16.6 1.2 6.2 0.8 2.4 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2
0.17 64.3 2.2 18.4 1.3 6.9 0.9 2.6 0.6 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.2
0.18 71.1 2.3 20.4 1.4 7.6 0.9 2.9 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.2
0.19 78.2 2.4 22.4 1.4 8.3 0.9 3.2 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.2
0.20 85.5 2.6 24.5 1.5 9.1 1.0 3.5 0.7 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.3
0.21 93.2 2.7 26.7 1.6 9.9 1.0 3.8 0.7 1.1 0.4 0.4 0.3
0.22 101.2 2.8 28.9 1.7 10.8 1.1 4.1 0.7 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.3
0.23 109.5 2.9 31.3 1.7 11.6 1.1 4.4 0.8 1.3 0.5 0.4 0.3
0.24 118.1 3.1 33.7 1.8 12.5 1.2 4.8 0.8 1.3 0.5 0.5 0.3
0.25 126.9 3.2 36.2 1.9 13.5 1.2 5.1 0.8 1.4 0.5 0.5 0.3
0.26 136.0 3.3 38.8 2.0 14.4 1.3 5.5 0.9 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.3
0.27 145.4 3.4 41.5 2.0 15.4 1.3 5.9 0.9 1.7 0.5 0.6 0.3
0.28 155.1 3.6 44.2 2.1 16.4 1.4 6.3 0.9 1.8 0.5 0.6 0.4
0.29 165.1 3.7 47.1 2.2 17.5 1.4 6.7 1.0 1.9 0.6 0.7 0.4
0.30 175.3 3.8 50.0 2.3 18.6 1.5 7.1 1.0 2.0 0.6 0.7 0.4
0.31 185.9 4.0 53.0 2.3 19.7 1.5 7.5 1.0 2.1 0.6 0.7 0.4
0.32 196.7 4.1 56.0 2.4 20.8 1.6 7.9 1.1 2.2 0.6 0.8 0.4
0.33 207.7 4.2 59.1 2.5 21.9 1.6 8.3 1.1 2.3 0.6 0.8 0.4
0.34 219.1 4.3 62.4 2.6 23.1 1.7 8.8 1.1 2.5 0.7 0.9 0.4
0.35 230.7 4.5 65.6 2.6 24.3 1.7 9.3 1.2 2.6 0.7 0.9 0.4
0.36 242.6 4.6 69.0 2.7 25.6 1.8 9.7 1.2 2.7 0.7 0.9 0.5
0.37 254.7 4.7 72.4 2.8 26.9 1.8 10.2 1.2 2.9 0.7 1.0 0.5
0.38 267.1 4.8 75.9 2.9 28.1 1.9 10.7 1.3 3.0 0.7 1.0 0.5
0.39 279.8 5.0 79.5 2.9 29.5 1.9 11.2 1.3 3.1 0.8 1.1 0.5
0.40 – – 83.2 3.0 30.8 2.0 11.7 1.3 3.3 0.8 1.1 0.5
0.41 – – 86.9 3.1 32.2 2.0 12.2 1.4 3.4 0.8 1.2 0.5
0.42 – – 90.7 3.2 33.6 2.1 12.8 1.4 3.6 0.8 1.2 0.5
0.43 – – 94.6 3.2 35.0 2.1 13.3 1.4 3.7 0.8 1.3 0.5
0.44 – – 98.5 3.3 36.5 2.2 13.8 1.5 3.9 0.9 1.3 0.6
0.45 – – 102.5 3.4 38.0 2.2 14.4 1.5 4.0 0.9 1.4 0.6
0.46 – – 106.6 3.5 39.5 2.3 15.0 1.5 4.2 0.9 1.5 0.6
0.47 – – 110.8 3.5 41.0 2.3 15.5 1.6 4.4 0.9 1.5 0.6
0.48 – – 115.0 3.6 42.5 2.4 16.1 1.6 4.5 0.9 1.6 0.6
0.49 – – 119.3 3.7 44.1 2.4 16.7 1.6 4.7 1.0 1.6 0.6
0.50 – – 123.7 3.8 45.7 2.5 17.3 1.7 4.9 1.0 1.7 0.6
0.51 – – 128.1 3.8 47.4 2.5 18.0 1.7 5.0 1.0 1.7 0.6
0.52 – – 132.6 3.9 49.0 2.6 18.6 1.7 5.2 1.0 1.8 0.7
0.53 – – 137.2 4.0 50.7 2.6 19.2 1.8 5.4 1.0 1.9 0.7
0.54 – – 141.9 4.1 52.4 2.7 19.9 1.8 5.6 1.1 1.9 0.7
0.55 – – 146.6 4.1 54.2 2.7 20.5 1.8 5.7 1.1 2.0 0.7
0.56 – – 151.4 4.2 55.9 2.8 21.2 1.9 5.9 1.1 2.0 0.7
0.57 – – 156.3 4.3 57.7 2.8 21.9 1.9 6.1 1.1 2.1 0.7
0.58 – – 161.2 4.4 59.5 2.9 22.5 1.9 6.3 1.1 2.2 0.7
0.59 – – 166.2 4.5 61.4 2.9 23.2 2.0 6.5 1.2 2.2 0.7
0.60 – – 171.3 4.5 63.2 3.0 23.9 2.0 6.7 1.2 2.3 0.8
0.61 – – 176.4 4.6 65.1 3.0 24.7 2.0 6.9 1.2 2.4 0.8
Table 30.1 Pressure drop tables for stainless steel pipes at 10 °C
139
DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32 DN 40 DN 50
VV 18 x 1.0 22 x 1.2 28 x 1.2 35 x 1.5 42 x 1.5 54 x 1.5
0.62 67.0 3.1 25.4 2.1 7.1 1.2 2.4 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.3
0.64 70.9 3.2 26.8 2.1 7.5 1.2 2.6 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.3
0.66 74.9 3.3 28.4 2.2 7.9 1.3 2.7 0.8 1.1 0.6 0.3 0.3
0.68 79.0 3.4 29.9 2.3 8.3 1.3 2.9 0.9 1.1 0.6 0.3 0.3
0.70 83.2 3.5 31.5 2.3 8.8 1.4 3.0 0.9 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.3
0.72 87.5 3.6 33.1 2.4 9.2 1.4 3.2 0.9 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.4
0.74 91.9 3.7 34.7 2.5 9.7 1.4 3.3 0.9 1.3 0.6 0.4 0.4
0.76 96.4 3.8 36.4 2.5 10.2 1.5 3.5 0.9 1.4 0.6 0.4 0.4
0.78 101.0 3.9 38.1 2.6 10.6 1.5 3.7 1.0 1.4 0.7 0.4 0.4
0.80 105.6 4.0 39.9 2.7 11.1 1.6 3.8 1.0 1.5 0.7 0.4 0.4
0.82 110.4 4.1 41.7 2.7 11.6 1.6 4.0 1.0 1.6 0.7 0.4 0.4
0.84 115.3 4.2 43.5 2.8 12.1 1.6 4.2 1.0 1.6 0.7 0.5 0.4
0.86 120.2 4.3 45.4 2.9 12.6 1.7 4.4 1.1 1.7 0.7 0.5 0.4
0.88 125.3 4.4 47.3 2.9 13.2 1.7 4.5 1.1 1.8 0.7 0.5 0.4
0.90 130.4 4.5 49.2 3.0 13.7 1.8 4.7 1.1 1.8 0.8 0.5 0.4
0.92 135.7 4.6 51.2 3.1 14.2 1.8 4.9 1.1 1.9 0.8 0.5 0.5
0.94 141.0 4.7 53.2 3.1 14.8 1.8 5.1 1.2 2.0 0.8 0.6 0.5
0.96 146.4 4.8 55.2 3.2 15.4 1.9 5.3 1.2 2.1 0.8 0.6 0.5
0.98 151.9 4.9 57.3 3.3 15.9 1.9 5.5 1.2 2.1 0.8 0.6 0.5
1.00 157.6 5.0 59.4 3.3 16.5 1.9 5.7 1.2 2.2 0.8 0.6 0.5
1.02 – – 61.6 3.4 17.1 2.0 5.9 1.3 2.3 0.9 0.6 0.5
1.04 – – 63.7 3.5 17.7 2.0 6.1 1.3 2.4 0.9 0.7 0.5
1.06 – – 65.9 3.5 18.3 2.1 6.3 1.3 2.5 0.9 0.7 0.5
1.08 – – 68.2 3.6 18.9 2.1 6.5 1.3 2.5 0.9 0.7 0.5
1.10 – – 70.4 3.7 19.6 2.1 6.7 1.4 2.6 0.9 0.7 0.5
1.12 – – 72.8 3.7 20.2 2.2 7.0 1.4 2.7 0.9 0.8 0.6
1.14 – – 75.1 3.8 20.9 2.2 7.2 1.4 2.8 1.0 0.8 0.6
1.16 – – 77.5 3.8 21.5 2.3 7.4 1.4 2.9 1.0 0.8 0.6
1.18 – – 79.9 3.9 22.2 2.3 7.6 1.5 3.0 1.0 0.8 0.6
1.20 – – 82.3 4.0 22.9 2.3 7.9 1.5 3.1 1.0 0.8 0.6
1.22 – – 84.8 4.0 23.5 2.4 8.1 1.5 3.1 1.0 0.9 0.6
1.24 – – 87.3 4.1 24.2 2.4 8.3 1.5 3.2 1.0 0.9 0.6
1.26 – – 89.9 4.2 24.9 2.5 8.6 1.6 3.3 1.1 0.9 0.6
1.28 – – 92.4 4.2 25.6 2.5 8.8 1.6 3.4 1.1 1.0 0.6
1.30 – – 95.0 4.3 26.4 2.5 9.1 1.6 3.5 1.1 1.0 0.6
1.35 – – 101.7 4.5 28.2 2.6 9.7 1.7 3.8 1.1 1.0 0.7
1.40 – – 108.6 4.6 30.1 2.7 10.3 1.7 4.0 1.2 1.1 0.7
1.45 – – 115.6 4.8 32.0 2.8 11.0 1.8 4.3 1.2 1.2 0.7
1.50 – – 122.9 5.0 34.0 2.9 11.7 1.9 4.5 1.3 1.3 0.7
1.55 – – – – 36.1 3.0 12.4 1.9 4.8 1.3 1.3 0.8
1.60 – – – – 38.2 3.1 13.1 2.0 5.1 1.3 1.4 0.8
1.65 – – – – 40.4 3.2 13.8 2.1 5.4 1.4 1.5 0.8
1.70 – – – – 42.6 3.3 14.6 2.1 5.7 1.4 1.6 0.8
1.75 – – – – 44.9 3.4 15.4 2.2 6.0 1.5 1.7 0.9
1.80 – – – – 47.2 3.5 16.2 2.2 6.3 1.5 1.7 0.9
1.85 – – – – 49.6 3.6 17.0 2.3 6.6 1.6 1.8 0.9
1.90 – – – – 52.0 3.7 17.8 2.4 6.9 1.6 1.9 0.9
1.95 – – – – 54.5 3.8 18.7 2.4 7.2 1.6 2.0 1.0
2.00 – – – – 57.0 3.9 19.5 2.5 7.6 1.7 2.1 1.0
2.05 – – – – 59.6 4.0 20.4 2.6 7.9 1.7 2.2 1.0
2.10 – – – – 62.2 4.1 21.3 2.6 8.2 1.8 2.3 1.0
2.15 – – – – 64.9 4.2 22.2 2.7 8.6 1.8 2.4 1.1
2.20 – – – – 67.7 4.3 23.1 2.7 9.0 1.8 2.5 1.1
2.25 – – – – 70.5 4.4 24.1 2.8 9.3 1.9 2.6 1.1
2.30 – – – – 73.3 4.5 25.1 2.9 9.7 1.9 2.7 1.1
140
DN 32 DN 40 DN 50 DN 65 DN 80 DN 100
VV 35 x 1.5 42 x 1.5 54 x 1.5 76.1 x 2.0 88.9 x 2.0 108 x 2.0
2.4 27.1 3.0 10.5 2.0 2.9 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.4 – –
2.5 29.1 3.1 11.3 2.1 3.1 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.29
2.6 31.2 3.2 12.1 2.2 3.3 1.3 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.31
2.7 33.4 3.4 12.9 2.3 3.6 1.3 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.32
2.8 35.7 3.5 13.8 2.3 3.8 1.4 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.33
2.9 38.0 3.6 14.7 2.4 4.1 1.4 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.34
3.0 40.4 3.7 15.6 2.5 4.3 1.5 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.35
3.1 42.8 3.9 16.6 2.6 4.6 1.5 0.9 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.36
3.2 45.4 4.0 17.5 2.7 4.8 1.6 0.9 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.38
3.3 48.0 4.1 18.5 2.8 5.1 1.6 1.0 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.39
3.4 50.6 4.2 19.5 2.9 5.4 1.7 1.0 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.40
3.5 53.3 4.4 20.6 2.9 5.7 1.7 1.1 0.9 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.41
3.6 56.1 4.5 21.7 3.0 6.0 1.8 1.1 0.9 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.42
3.7 58.9 4.6 22.7 3.1 6.3 1.8 1.2 0.9 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.44
3.8 61.9 4.7 23.9 3.2 6.6 1.9 1.3 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.2 0.45
3.9 64.8 4.9 25.0 3.3 6.9 1.9 1.3 1.0 0.6 0.7 0.2 0.46
4.0 67.9 5.0 26.2 3.4 7.2 2.0 1.4 1.0 0.6 0.7 0.2 0.47
4.1 – – 27.4 3.4 7.5 2.0 1.4 1.0 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.48
4.2 – – 28.6 3.5 7.9 2.1 1.5 1.0 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.49
4.3 – – 29.8 3.6 8.2 2.1 1.6 1.1 0.7 0.8 0.3 0.51
4.4 – – 31.1 3.7 8.6 2.2 1.6 1.1 0.7 0.8 0.3 0.52
4.5 – – 32.4 3.8 8.9 2.2 1.7 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.53
4.6 – – 33.7 3.9 9.3 2.3 1.8 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.54
4.7 – – 35.0 3.9 9.6 2.3 1.8 1.2 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.55
4.8 – – 36.3 4.0 10.0 2.4 1.9 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.3 0.57
5.0 – – 39.1 4.2 10.8 2.5 2.0 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.4 0.59
5.5 – – 46.5 4.6 12.8 2.7 2.4 1.4 1.1 1.0 0.4 0.65
6.0 – – – – 14.9 2.9 2.8 1.5 1.3 1.1 0.5 0.71
6.5 – – – – 17.3 3.2 3.3 1.6 1.5 1.2 0.6 0.77
7.0 – – – – 19.7 3.4 3.7 1.7 1.7 1.2 0.6 0.82
7.5 – – – – 22.3 3.7 4.2 1.8 1.9 1.3 0.7 0.88
8.0 – – – – 25.1 3.9 4.7 2.0 2.2 1.4 0.8 0.94
8.5 – – – – 28.0 4.2 5.3 2.1 2.4 1.5 0.9 1.00
9.0 – – – – 31.1 4.4 5.9 2.2 2.7 1.6 1.0 1.06
9.5 – – – – 34.3 4.7 6.5 2.3 2.9 1.7 1.1 1.12
10.0 – – – – 37.6 4.9 7.1 2.5 3.2 1.8 1.2 1.18
11.0 – – – – – – 8.4 2.7 3.8 1.9 1.4 1.29
12.0 – – – – – – 9.9 2.9 4.5 2.1 1.7 1.41
13.0 – – – – – – 11.4 3.2 5.2 2.3 2.0 1.53
14.0 – – – – – – 13.0 3.4 5.9 2.5 2.2 1.65
15.0 – – – – – – 14.8 3.7 6.7 2.7 2.5 1.77
16.0 – – – – – – 16.6 3.9 7.5 2.8 2.8 1.88
17.0 – – – – – – 18.5 4.2 8.4 3.0 3.2 2.00
18.0 – – – – – – 20.6 4.4 9.3 3.2 3.5 2.12
19.0 – – – – – – 22.7 4.7 10.3 3.4 3.9 2.24
20.0 – – – – – – 24.9 4.9 11.3 3.5 4.3 2.35
21.0 – – – – – – – – 12.4 3.7 4.6 2.47
22.0 – – – – – – – – 13.4 3.9 5.1 2.59
23.0 – – – – – – – – 14.6 4.1 5.5 2.71
24.0 – – – – – – – – 15.7 4.2 5.9 2.83
26.0 – – – – – – – – 18.2 4.6 6.8 3.06
28.0 – – – – – – – – 20.9 5.0 7.8 3.30
30.0 – – – – – – – – – – 8.9 3.53
32.0 – – – – – – – – – – 10.0 3.77
34.0 – – – – – – – – – – 11.1 4.00
141
Fig 127 Pressure drop chart for stainless steel pipes at 60 °C
142
DN 10 DN 12 DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32
VV 12 x 1.0 15 x 1.0 18 x 1.0 22 x 1.2 28 x 1.2 35 x 1.5
30 0.2 0.1 – – – – – – – – – –
35 0.3 0.1 – – – – – – – – – –
40 0.4 0.1 – – – – – – – – – –
45 0.5 0.2 – – – – – – – – – –
50 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – – – – – –
55 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – – – – – –
60 0.9 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – – – – – –
65 1.0 0.2 0.3 0.1 – – – – – – – –
70 1.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 – – – – – – – –
75 1.3 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – – – – – –
80 1.4 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – – – –
85 1.6 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – – – –
90 1.7 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – – – –
95 1.9 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – – – –
100 2.1 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – – – –
105 2.2 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – – – –
110 2.4 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 – – – –
115 2.6 0.4 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 – – – –
120 2.8 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 – – – –
125 3.0 0.4 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 – – – –
130 3.2 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – – – –
135 3.5 0.5 1.0 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – – – –
140 3.7 0.5 1.1 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – –
145 3.9 0.5 1.1 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – –
150 4.2 0.5 1.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – –
155 4.4 0.5 1.3 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – –
160 4.7 0.6 1.3 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – –
165 4.9 0.6 1.4 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 – – – –
170 5.2 0.6 1.5 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 – – – –
175 5.5 0.6 1.6 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 – – – –
180 5.7 0.6 1.6 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 – – – –
185 6.0 0.7 1.7 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – – – –
190 6.3 0.7 1.8 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.2 – – – –
195 6.6 0.7 1.9 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.2 – – – –
200 6.9 0.7 2.0 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.2 – – – –
205 7.2 0.7 2.1 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.2 – – – –
210 7.5 0.7 2.2 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.2 – – – –
215 7.8 0.8 2.2 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.2 – – – –
220 8.1 0.8 2.3 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.2 – – – –
225 8.5 0.8 2.4 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.2 – – – –
230 8.8 0.8 2.5 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
235 9.1 0.8 2.6 0.5 1.0 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
240 9.5 0.8 2.7 0.5 1.0 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
245 9.8 0.9 2.8 0.5 1.1 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
250 10.2 0.9 2.9 0.5 1.1 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
255 10.6 0.9 3.0 0.5 1.1 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
260 10.9 0.9 3.1 0.5 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
265 11.3 0.9 3.2 0.6 1.2 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
270 11.7 1.0 3.3 0.6 1.2 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
275 12.1 1.0 3.5 0.6 1.3 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 – –
280 12.5 1.0 3.6 0.6 1.3 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.2 – –
285 12.9 1.0 3.7 0.6 1.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.2 – –
290 13.3 1.0 3.8 0.6 1.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
295 13.7 1.0 3.9 0.6 1.5 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
300 14.1 1.1 4.0 0.6 1.5 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
143
DN 12 DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32 DN 40
VV 15 x 1.0 18 x 1.0 22 x 1.2 28 x 1.2 35 x 1.5 42 x 1.5
310 4.3 0.6 1.6 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – – – –
320 4.5 0.7 1.7 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – – – –
330 4.8 0.7 1.8 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2 – – – –
340 5.0 0.7 1.9 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2 – – – –
350 5.3 0.7 2.0 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2 – – – –
360 5.5 0.8 2.1 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.2 – – – –
370 5.8 0.8 2.2 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.2 – – – –
380 6.1 0.8 2.3 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.2 0.2 – – – –
390 6.4 0.8 2.4 0.5 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.2 – – – –
400 6.7 0.8 2.5 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.2 – – – –
410 7.0 0.9 2.6 0.6 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.2 – – – –
420 7.3 0.9 2.7 0.6 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
430 7.6 0.9 2.8 0.6 1.1 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
440 7.9 0.9 2.9 0.6 1.1 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 – –
450 8.2 0.9 3.1 0.6 1.2 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 – –
460 8.6 1.0 3.2 0.6 1.2 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 – –
470 8.9 1.0 3.3 0.6 1.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2 – –
480 9.2 1.0 3.4 0.7 1.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2 – –
490 9.6 1.0 3.5 0.7 1.3 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2 – –
500 9.9 1.0 3.7 0.7 1.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2 – –
510 10.3 1.1 3.8 0.7 1.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2 – –
520 10.6 1.1 3.9 0.7 1.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2 – –
530 11.0 1.1 4.1 0.7 1.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
540 11.4 1.1 4.2 0.7 1.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
550 11.7 1.2 4.3 0.8 1.7 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
560 12.1 1.2 4.5 0.8 1.7 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
570 12.5 1.2 4.6 0.8 1.8 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
580 12.9 1.2 4.8 0.8 1.8 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
590 13.3 1.2 4.9 0.8 1.9 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
600 13.7 1.3 5.1 0.8 1.9 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
610 14.1 1.3 5.2 0.8 2.0 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
620 14.5 1.3 5.4 0.9 2.0 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
630 14.9 1.3 5.5 0.9 2.1 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
640 15.4 1.3 5.7 0.9 2.2 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
650 15.8 1.4 5.8 0.9 2.2 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
660 16.2 1.4 6.0 0.9 2.3 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
670 16.7 1.4 6.2 0.9 2.3 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
680 17.1 1.4 6.3 0.9 2.4 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
690 17.6 1.4 6.5 1.0 2.5 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
700 18.0 1.5 6.7 1.0 2.5 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
720 – – 7.0 1.0 2.7 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2
740 – – 7.4 1.0 2.8 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
760 – – 7.7 1.0 2.9 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
780 – – 8.1 1.1 3.1 0.7 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
800 – – 8.5 1.1 3.2 0.7 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
820 – – 8.8 1.1 3.3 0.8 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
840 – – 9.2 1.2 3.5 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
860 – – 9.6 1.2 3.6 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
880 – – 10.0 1.2 3.8 0.8 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
900 – – 10.4 1.2 3.9 0.8 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
920 – – 10.8 1.3 4.1 0.8 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
940 – – 11.3 1.3 4.3 0.9 1.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
960 – – 11.7 1.3 4.4 0.9 1.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
980 – – 12.1 1.4 4.6 0.9 1.3 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
1000 – – 12.6 1.4 4.8 0.9 1.3 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2
144
DN 20 DN 25 DN 32 DN 40 DN 50 DN 65
VV 22 x 1.2 28 x 1.2 35 x 1.5 42 x 1.5 54 x 1.5 76.1 x 2.0
310 4.3 0.6 1.6 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – – – –
1050 5.2 1.0 1.4 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2 – – – –
1100 5.6 1.0 1.6 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.3 – – – –
1150 6.1 1.1 1.7 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.3 – – – –
1200 6.6 1.1 1.8 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.3 – – – –
1250 7.1 1.2 2.0 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.3 – – – –
1300 7.6 1.2 2.1 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.3 – – – –
1350 8.1 1.2 2.3 0.7 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.3 – – – –
1400 8.7 1.3 2.4 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.3 – – – –
1450 9.2 1.3 2.6 0.8 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.3 – – – –
1500 9.8 1.4 2.7 0.8 0.9 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2 – –
1550 10.4 1.4 2.9 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.2 – –
1600 11.0 1.5 3.1 0.9 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.2 – –
1650 – – 3.2 0.9 1.1 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.2 – –
1700 – – 3.4 0.9 1.2 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.2 – –
1750 – – 3.6 0.9 1.2 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.2 – –
1800 – – 3.8 1.0 1.3 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.2 – –
1850 – – 4.0 1.0 1.4 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.3 – –
1900 – – 4.2 1.0 1.4 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.3 – –
1950 – – 4.4 1.1 1.5 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.3 – –
2000 – – 4.6 1.1 1.6 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.3 – –
2050 – – 4.8 1.1 1.6 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.3 – –
2100 – – 5.0 1.1 1.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.3 – –
2150 – – 5.2 1.2 1.8 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.3 – –
2200 – – 5.4 1.2 1.9 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.3 – –
2250 – – 5.6 1.2 1.9 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.3 – –
2300 – – 5.8 1.2 2.0 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.2 0.3 – –
2350 – – 6.1 1.3 2.1 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.2 0.3 – –
2400 – – 6.3 1.3 2.2 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.2 0.3 – –
2500 – – 6.8 1.3 2.3 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.2 0.3 – –
2600 – – 7.3 1.4 2.5 0.9 1.0 0.6 0.3 0.4 – –
2700 – – 7.8 1.5 2.7 0.9 1.0 0.6 0.3 0.4 – –
2800 – – – – 2.8 1.0 1.1 0.7 0.3 0.4 – –
2900 – – – – 3.0 1.0 1.2 0.7 0.3 0.4 – –
3000 – – – – 3.2 1.0 1.2 0.7 0.3 0.4 – –
3100 – – – – 3.4 1.1 1.3 0.7 0.4 0.4 – –
3200 – – – – 3.6 1.1 1.4 0.7 0.4 0.4 – –
3300 – – – – 3.8 1.1 1.5 0.8 0.4 0.4 – –
3400 – – – – 4.0 1.2 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.5 – –
3500 – – – – 4.3 1.2 1.6 0.8 0.5 0.5 – –
3600 – – – – 4.5 1.2 1.7 0.8 0.5 0.5 – –
3700 – – – – 4.7 1.3 1.8 0.9 0.5 0.5 – –
3800 – – – – 4.9 1.3 1.9 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.3
4000 – – – – 5.4 1.4 2.1 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.1 0.3
4200 – – – – 5.9 1.5 2.3 1.0 0.6 0.6 0.1 0.3
4400 – – – – – – 2.5 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.1 0.3
4600 – – – – – – 2.7 1.1 0.7 0.6 0.1 0.3
4800 – – – – – – 2.9 1.1 0.8 0.7 0.2 0.3
5000 – – – – – – 3.1 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.2 0.3
6000 – – – – – – 4.3 1.4 1.2 0.8 0.2 0.4
7000 – – – – – – – – 1.6 1.0 0.3 0.5
8000 – – – – – – – – 2.0 1.1 0.4 0.5
9000 – – – – – – – – 2.5 1.2 0.5 0.6
10000 – – – – – – – – 3.0 1.4 0.6 0.7
11000 – – – – – – – – 3.6 1.5 0.7 0.7
12000 – – – – – – – – – – 0.8 0.8
145
Fig 128 Pressure drop chart for copper pipes at 10 °C
146
DN 10 DN 12 DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32
VV 12 x 1.0 15 x 1.0 18 x 1.0 22 x 1.2 28 x 1.2 35 x 1.5
0.07 13.7 0.9 4.0 0.5 1.5 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1
0.08 17.2 1.0 5.0 0.6 1.9 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1
0.09 21.2 1.2 6.1 0.7 2.3 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1
0.10 25.4 1.3 7.3 0.8 2.7 0.5 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1
0.11 30.0 1.4 8.6 0.8 3.2 0.6 1.1 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1
0.12 34.9 1.5 10.0 0.9 3.8 0.6 1.3 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.2
0.13 40.2 1.7 11.5 1.0 4.3 0.7 1.5 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2
0.14 45.7 1.8 13.1 1.1 4.9 0.7 1.7 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2
0.15 51.6 1.9 14.8 1.1 5.5 0.8 1.9 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2
0.16 57.8 2.0 16.6 1.2 6.2 0.8 2.1 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2
0.17 64.3 2.2 18.4 1.3 6.9 0.9 2.4 0.5 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.2
0.18 71.1 2.3 20.4 1.4 7.6 0.9 2.6 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.2
0.19 78.2 2.4 22.4 1.4 8.3 0.9 2.9 0.6 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.2
0.20 85.5 2.6 24.5 1.5 9.1 1.0 3.2 0.6 1.1 0.4 0.3 0.3
0.21 93.2 2.7 26.7 1.6 9.9 1.0 3.4 0.7 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.3
0.22 101.2 2.8 28.9 1.7 10.8 1.1 3.7 0.7 1.3 0.5 0.4 0.3
0.23 109.5 2.9 31.3 1.7 11.6 1.1 4.0 0.7 1.4 0.5 0.4 0.3
0.24 118.1 3.1 33.7 1.8 12.5 1.2 4.3 0.8 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.3
0.26 136.0 3.3 38.8 2.0 14.4 1.3 5.0 0.8 1.7 0.5 0.5 0.3
0.28 155.1 3.6 44.2 2.1 16.4 1.4 5.7 0.9 2.0 0.6 0.6 0.4
0.30 175.3 3.8 50.0 2.3 18.6 1.5 6.4 1.0 2.2 0.6 0.7 0.4
0.32 196.7 4.1 56.0 2.4 20.8 1.6 7.2 1.0 2.5 0.7 0.8 0.4
0.34 219.1 4.3 62.4 2.6 23.1 1.7 8.0 1.1 2.8 0.7 0.9 0.4
0.36 242.6 4.6 69.0 2.7 25.6 1.8 8.8 1.2 3.1 0.7 0.9 0.5
0.38 267.1 4.8 75.9 2.9 28.1 1.9 9.7 1.2 3.4 0.8 1.0 0.5
0.40 – – 83.2 3.0 30.8 2.0 10.6 1.3 3.7 0.8 1.1 0.5
0.42 – – 90.7 3.2 33.6 2.1 11.6 1.3 4.0 0.9 1.2 0.5
0.44 – – 98.5 3.3 36.5 2.2 12.6 1.4 4.3 0.9 1.3 0.6
0.46 – – 106.6 3.5 39.5 2.3 13.6 1.5 4.7 0.9 1.5 0.6
0.48 – – 115.0 3.6 42.5 2.4 14.7 1.5 5.1 1.0 1.6 0.6
0.50 – – 123.7 3.8 45.7 2.5 15.7 1.6 5.4 1.0 1.7 0.6
0.52 – – 132.6 3.9 49.0 2.6 16.9 1.7 5.8 1.1 1.8 0.7
0.54 – – 141.9 4.1 52.4 2.7 18.0 1.7 6.2 1.1 1.9 0.7
0.56 – – 151.4 4.2 55.9 2.8 19.2 1.8 6.6 1.1 2.0 0.7
0.58 – – 161.2 4.4 59.5 2.9 20.5 1.9 7.1 1.2 2.2 0.7
0.60 – – 171.3 4.5 63.2 3.0 21.7 1.9 7.5 1.2 2.3 0.8
0.62 – – 181.6 4.7 67.0 3.1 23.0 2.0 7.9 1.3 2.4 0.8
0.64 – – 192.2 4.8 70.9 3.2 24.4 2.0 8.4 1.3 2.6 0.8
0.66 – – 203.1 5.0 74.9 3.3 25.7 2.1 8.9 1.3 2.7 0.8
0.68 – – – – 79.0 3.4 27.1 2.2 9.3 1.4 2.9 0.9
0.70 – – – – 83.2 3.5 28.6 2.2 9.8 1.4 3.0 0.9
0.72 – – – – 87.5 3.6 30.0 2.3 10.3 1.5 3.2 0.9
0.74 – – – – 91.9 3.7 31.5 2.4 10.9 1.5 3.3 0.9
0.76 – – – – 96.4 3.8 33.1 2.4 11.4 1.6 3.5 0.9
0.78 – – – – 101.0 3.9 34.6 2.5 11.9 1.6 3.7 1.0
0.80 – – – – 105.6 4.0 36.2 2.6 12.5 1.6 3.8 1.0
0.82 – – – – 110.4 4.1 37.9 2.6 13.0 1.7 4.0 1.0
0.84 – – – – 115.3 4.2 39.5 2.7 13.6 1.7 4.2 1.0
0.86 – – – – 120.2 4.3 41.2 2.7 14.2 1.8 4.4 1.1
0.88 – – – – 125.3 4.4 42.9 2.8 14.8 1.8 4.5 1.1
0.90 – – – – 130.4 4.5 44.7 2.9 15.4 1.8 4.7 1.1
0.92 – – – – 135.7 4.6 46.5 2.9 16.0 1.9 4.9 1.1
0.94 – – – – 141.0 4.7 48.3 3.0 16.6 1.9 5.1 1.2
0.96 – – – – 146.4 4.8 50.1 3.1 17.2 2.0 5.3 1.2
0.98 – – – – 151.9 4.9 52.0 3.1 17.9 2.0 5.5 1.2
Table 32.1 Pressure drop tables for copper pipes at 10 °C
147
DN 20 DN 25 DN 32 DN 40 DN 50 DN 60
VV 22 x 1.2 28 x 1.2 35 x 1.5 42 x 1.5 54 x 2.0 64 x 2.0
1.00 53.9 3.2 18.5 2.0 5.7 1.2 2.2 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.4
1.05 58.8 3.3 20.2 2.1 6.2 1.3 2.4 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.4
1.10 63.9 3.5 21.9 2.2 6.7 1.4 2.6 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.4
1.15 69.2 3.7 23.7 2.3 7.3 1.4 2.8 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.4 0.4
1.20 74.7 3.8 25.6 2.4 7.9 1.5 3.1 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.4 0.4
1.25 80.4 4.0 27.5 2.6 8.4 1.6 3.3 1.1 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.4
1.30 86.2 4.1 29.5 2.7 9.1 1.6 3.5 1.1 1.1 0.7 0.5 0.5
1.35 92.3 4.3 31.6 2.8 9.7 1.7 3.8 1.1 1.1 0.7 0.5 0.5
1.40 98.5 4.5 33.7 2.9 10.3 1.7 4.0 1.2 1.2 0.7 0.5 0.5
1.45 104.9 4.6 35.9 3.0 11.0 1.8 4.3 1.2 1.3 0.7 0.5 0.5
1.50 111.5 4.8 38.1 3.1 11.7 1.9 4.5 1.3 1.4 0.8 0.6 0.5
1.55 118.3 4.9 40.4 3.2 12.4 1.9 4.8 1.3 1.5 0.8 0.6 0.6
1.60 – – 42.8 3.3 13.1 2.0 5.1 1.3 1.6 0.8 0.7 0.6
1.65 – – 45.2 3.4 13.8 2.1 5.4 1.4 1.6 0.8 0.7 0.6
1.70 – – 47.7 3.5 14.6 2.1 5.7 1.4 1.7 0.9 0.7 0.6
1.75 – – 50.3 3.6 15.4 2.2 6.0 1.5 1.8 0.9 0.8 0.6
1.80 – – 52.9 3.7 16.2 2.2 6.3 1.5 1.9 0.9 0.8 0.6
1.85 – – 55.5 3.8 17.0 2.3 6.6 1.6 2.0 0.9 0.8 0.7
1.90 – – 58.3 3.9 17.8 2.4 6.9 1.6 2.1 1.0 0.9 0.7
1.95 – – 61.1 4.0 18.7 2.4 7.2 1.6 2.2 1.0 0.9 0.7
2.00 – – 63.9 4.1 19.5 2.5 7.6 1.7 2.3 1.0 1.0 0.7
2.10 – – 69.8 4.3 21.3 2.6 8.2 1.8 2.5 1.1 1.1 0.7
2.20 – – 75.8 4.5 23.1 2.7 9.0 1.8 2.7 1.1 1.1 0.8
2.30 – – 82.2 4.7 25.1 2.9 9.7 1.9 3.0 1.2 1.2 0.8
2.40 – – 88.7 4.9 27.1 3.0 10.5 2.0 3.2 1.2 1.3 0.9
2.50 – – – – 29.1 3.1 11.3 2.1 3.4 1.3 1.4 0.9
2.60 – – – – 31.2 3.2 12.1 2.2 3.7 1.3 1.5 0.9
2.70 – – – – 33.4 3.4 12.9 2.3 3.9 1.4 1.6 1.0
2.80 – – – – 35.7 3.5 13.8 2.3 4.2 1.4 1.8 1.0
2.90 – – – – 38.0 3.6 14.7 2.4 4.5 1.5 1.9 1.0
3.00 – – – – 40.4 3.7 15.6 2.5 4.7 1.5 2.0 1.1
3.10 – – – – 42.8 3.9 16.6 2.6 5.0 1.6 2.1 1.1
3.20 – – – – 45.4 4.0 17.5 2.7 5.3 1.6 2.2 1.1
3.30 – – – – 48.0 4.1 18.5 2.8 5.6 1.7 2.3 1.2
3.40 – – – – 50.6 4.2 19.5 2.9 5.9 1.7 2.5 1.2
3.50 – – – – 53.3 4.4 20.6 2.9 6.2 1.8 2.6 1.2
3.60 – – – – 56.1 4.5 21.7 3.0 6.6 1.8 2.7 1.3
3.70 – – – – 58.9 4.6 22.7 3.1 6.9 1.9 2.9 1.3
3.80 – – – – 61.9 4.7 23.9 3.2 7.2 1.9 3.0 1.3
3.90 – – – – 64.8 4.9 25.0 3.3 7.6 2.0 3.2 1.4
4.00 – – – – 67.9 5.0 26.2 3.4 7.9 2.0 3.3 1.4
4.10 – – – – – – 27.4 3.4 8.3 2.1 3.5 1.5
4.20 – – – – – – 28.6 3.5 8.7 2.1 3.6 1.5
4.30 – – – – – – 29.8 3.6 9.0 2.2 3.8 1.5
4.40 – – – – – – 31.1 3.7 9.4 2.2 3.9 1.6
4.50 – – – – – – 32.4 3.8 9.8 2.3 4.1 1.6
4.60 – – – – – – 33.7 3.9 10.2 2.3 4.2 1.6
4.70 – – – – – – 35.0 3.9 10.6 2.4 4.4 1.7
4.80 – – – – – – 36.3 4.0 11.0 2.4 4.6 1.7
4.90 – – – – – – 37.7 4.1 11.4 2.5 4.8 1.7
5.00 – – – – – – 39.1 4.2 11.8 2.6 4.9 1.8
5.10 – – – – – – 40.6 4.3 12.3 2.6 5.1 1.8
5.20 – – – – – – 42.0 4.4 12.7 2.7 5.3 1.8
5.30 – – – – – – 43.5 4.4 13.1 2.7 5.5 1.9
5.40 – – – – – – 45.0 4.5 13.6 2.8 5.7 1.9
148
DN 50 DN 60 DN 65 DN 80 DN 100 DN 125
VV 54 x 2.0 64 x 2.0 76.1 x 2.0 88.9 x 2.0 108 x 2.5 133 x 3.0
5.60 14.5 2.9 6.0 2.0 2.5 1.4 1.1 1.0 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.4
5.80 15.5 3.0 6.4 2.1 2.7 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.5
6.00 16.4 3.1 6.8 2.1 2.8 1.5 1.3 1.1 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.5
6.20 17.4 3.2 7.3 2.2 3.0 1.5 1.4 1.1 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.5
6.40 18.5 3.3 7.7 2.3 3.2 1.6 1.5 1.1 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.5
6.60 19.5 3.4 8.1 2.3 3.4 1.6 1.5 1.2 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.5
6.80 20.6 3.5 8.6 2.4 3.5 1.7 1.6 1.2 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.5
7.00 21.7 3.6 9.0 2.5 3.7 1.7 1.7 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.6
7.20 22.8 3.7 9.5 2.6 3.9 1.8 1.8 1.3 0.7 0.9 0.3 0.6
7.40 24.0 3.8 10.0 2.6 4.1 1.8 1.9 1.3 0.7 0.9 0.3 0.6
7.60 25.2 3.9 10.5 2.7 4.3 1.9 2.0 1.3 0.8 0.9 0.3 0.6
7.80 26.4 4.0 11.0 2.8 4.5 1.9 2.1 1.4 0.8 0.9 0.3 0.6
8.00 27.6 4.1 11.5 2.8 4.7 2.0 2.2 1.4 0.9 1.0 0.3 0.6
8.20 28.9 4.2 12.0 2.9 5.0 2.0 2.3 1.5 0.9 1.0 0.3 0.7
8.40 30.2 4.3 12.5 3.0 5.2 2.1 2.4 1.5 0.9 1.0 0.3 0.7
8.60 31.5 4.4 13.1 3.0 5.4 2.1 2.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.4 0.7
8.80 32.8 4.5 13.6 3.1 5.6 2.2 2.6 1.6 1.0 1.1 0.4 0.7
9.00 34.2 4.6 14.2 3.2 5.9 2.2 2.7 1.6 1.1 1.1 0.4 0.7
9.20 35.6 4.7 14.8 3.3 6.1 2.3 2.8 1.6 1.1 1.1 0.4 0.7
9.40 37.0 4.8 15.4 3.3 6.3 2.3 2.9 1.7 1.1 1.1 0.4 0.7
9.60 38.4 4.9 16.0 3.4 6.6 2.4 3.0 1.7 1.2 1.2 0.4 0.8
9.80 39.9 5.0 16.6 3.5 6.8 2.4 3.1 1.7 1.2 1.2 0.5 0.8
10.00 – – 17.2 3.5 7.1 2.5 3.2 1.8 1.3 1.2 0.5 0.8
10.20 – – 17.8 3.6 7.4 2.5 3.4 1.8 1.3 1.2 0.5 0.8
10.40 – – 18.4 3.7 7.6 2.6 3.5 1.8 1.4 1.3 0.5 0.8
10.60 – – 19.1 3.8 7.9 2.6 3.6 1.9 1.4 1.3 0.5 0.8
10.80 – – 19.7 3.8 8.1 2.7 3.7 1.9 1.5 1.3 0.5 0.9
11.00 – – 20.4 3.9 8.4 2.7 3.8 1.9 1.5 1.3 0.6 0.9
11.20 – – 21.1 4.0 8.7 2.7 4.0 2.0 1.6 1.3 0.6 0.9
11.40 – – 21.8 4.0 9.0 2.8 4.1 2.0 1.6 1.4 0.6 0.9
11.60 – – 22.5 4.1 9.3 2.8 4.2 2.1 1.7 1.4 0.6 0.9
11.80 – – 23.2 4.2 9.6 2.9 4.4 2.1 1.7 1.4 0.6 0.9
12.00 – – 23.9 4.2 9.9 2.9 4.5 2.1 1.8 1.4 0.6 1.0
12.20 – – 24.6 4.3 10.2 3.0 4.6 2.2 1.8 1.5 0.7 1.0
12.40 – – 25.4 4.4 10.5 3.0 4.8 2.2 1.9 1.5 0.7 1.0
12.50 – – 25.7 4.4 10.6 3.1 4.8 2.2 1.9 1.5 0.7 1.0
13.00 – – 27.6 4.6 11.4 3.2 5.2 2.3 2.0 1.6 0.7 1.0
13.50 – – 29.6 4.8 12.2 3.3 5.6 2.4 2.2 1.6 0.8 1.1
14.00 – – 31.6 5.0 13.0 3.4 5.9 2.5 2.3 1.7 0.9 1.1
14.50 – – – – 13.9 3.6 6.3 2.6 2.5 1.7 0.9 1.1
15.00 – – – – 14.8 3.7 6.7 2.7 2.7 1.8 1.0 1.2
15.50 – – – – 15.7 3.8 7.1 2.7 2.8 1.9 1.0 1.2
16.00 – – – – 16.6 3.9 7.5 2.8 3.0 1.9 1.1 1.3
16.50 – – – – 17.5 4.0 8.0 2.9 3.1 2.0 1.1 1.3
17.00 – – – – 18.5 4.2 8.4 3.0 3.3 2.0 1.2 1.3
17.50 – – – – 19.5 4.3 8.9 3.1 3.5 2.1 1.3 1.4
18.00 – – – – 20.6 4.4 9.3 3.2 3.7 2.2 1.3 1.4
18.50 – – – – 21.6 4.5 9.8 3.3 3.9 2.2 1.4 1.5
19.00 – – – – 22.7 4.7 10.3 3.4 4.1 2.3 1.5 1.5
19.50 – – – – 23.8 4.8 10.8 3.4 4.3 2.3 1.6 1.5
20.00 – – – – 24.9 4.9 11.3 3.5 4.5 2.4 1.6 1.6
20.50 – – – – – – 11.8 3.6 4.7 2.5 1.7 1.6
21.00 – – – – – – 12.4 3.7 4.9 2.5 1.8 1.7
21.50 – – – – – – 12.9 3.8 5.1 2.6 1.9 1.7
22.00 – – – – – – 13.4 3.9 5.3 2.6 1.9 1.7
149
DN 80 DN 100 DN 125 DN 150 DN 200 DN 250
VV 88.9 x 2.0 108 x 2.5 133 x 3.0 159 x 3.0 219 x 3.0 267 x 3.0
23.00 14.6 4.1 5.7 2.8 2.1 1.8 0.9 1.3 0.2 0.7 – –
24.00 15.7 4.2 6.2 2.9 2.3 1.9 0.9 1.3 0.2 0.7 – –
25.00 17.0 4.4 6.7 3.0 2.4 2.0 1.0 1.4 0.2 0.7 – –
26.00 18.2 4.6 7.2 3.1 2.6 2.1 1.1 1.4 0.2 0.7 – –
27.00 19.5 4.8 7.7 3.2 2.8 2.1 1.1 1.5 0.2 0.8 – –
28.00 20.9 5.0 8.2 3.4 3.0 2.2 1.2 1.5 0.2 0.8 – –
29.00 – – 8.7 3.5 3.2 2.3 1.3 1.6 0.3 0.8 – –
30.00 – – 9.3 3.6 3.4 2.4 1.4 1.6 0.3 0.8 0.1 0.6
31.00 – – 9.9 3.7 3.6 2.5 1.5 1.7 0.3 0.9 0.1 0.6
32.00 – – 10.5 3.8 3.8 2.5 1.6 1.7 0.3 0.9 0.1 0.6
33.00 – – 11.1 4.0 4.0 2.6 1.6 1.8 0.3 0.9 0.1 0.6
34.00 – – 11.7 4.1 4.2 2.7 1.7 1.9 0.4 1.0 0.1 0.6
35.00 – – 12.3 4.2 4.5 2.8 1.8 1.9 0.4 1.0 0.1 0.7
36.00 – – 13.0 4.3 4.7 2.8 1.9 2.0 0.4 1.0 0.1 0.7
37.00 – – 13.6 4.4 5.0 2.9 2.0 2.0 0.4 1.0 0.2 0.7
38.00 – – 14.3 4.6 5.2 3.0 2.1 2.1 0.4 1.1 0.2 0.7
39.00 – – 15.0 4.7 5.4 3.1 2.2 2.1 0.5 1.1 0.2 0.7
40.00 – – 15.7 4.8 5.7 3.2 2.3 2.2 0.5 1.1 0.2 0.8
41.00 – – 16.4 4.9 6.0 3.2 2.4 2.2 0.5 1.2 0.2 0.8
42.00 – – – – 6.2 3.3 2.5 2.3 0.5 1.2 0.2 0.8
43.00 – – – – 6.5 3.4 2.6 2.3 0.5 1.2 0.2 0.8
44.00 – – – – 6.8 3.5 2.8 2.4 0.6 1.2 0.2 0.8
46.00 – – – – 7.4 3.6 3.0 2.5 0.6 1.3 0.2 0.9
48.00 – – – – 7.9 3.8 3.2 2.6 0.7 1.4 0.2 0.9
50.00 – – – – 8.6 4.0 3.5 2.7 0.7 1.4 0.3 0.9
52.00 – – – – 9.2 4.1 3.7 2.8 0.8 1.5 0.3 1.0
54.00 – – – – 9.9 4.3 4.0 2.9 0.8 1.5 0.3 1.0
56.00 – – – – 10.5 4.4 4.3 3.1 0.9 1.6 0.3 1.1
58.00 – – – – 11.2 4.6 4.6 3.2 0.9 1.6 0.3 1.1
60.00 – – – – 11.9 4.7 4.9 3.3 1.0 1.7 0.4 1.1
62.00 – – – – 12.7 4.9 5.2 3.4 1.0 1.7 0.4 1.2
64.00 – – – – – – 5.5 3.5 1.1 1.8 0.4 1.2
66.00 – – – – – – 5.8 3.6 1.2 1.9 0.4 1.2
68.00 – – – – – – 6.1 3.7 1.2 1.9 0.5 1.3
70.00 – – – – – – 6.4 3.8 1.3 2.0 0.5 1.3
72.00 – – – – – – 6.8 3.9 1.4 2.0 0.5 1.4
74.00 – – – – – – 7.1 4.0 1.4 2.1 0.5 1.4
76.00 – – – – – – 7.5 4.1 1.5 2.1 0.6 1.4
78.00 – – – – – – 7.8 4.2 1.6 2.2 0.6 1.5
80.00 – – – – – – 8.2 4.4 1.7 2.3 0.6 1.5
82.00 – – – – – – 8.6 4.5 1.7 2.3 0.7 1.5
84.00 – – – – – – 9.0 4.6 1.8 2.4 0.7 1.6
86.00 – – – – – – 9.4 4.7 1.9 2.4 0.7 1.6
88.00 – – – – – – 9.8 4.8 2.0 2.5 0.7 1.6
90.00 – – – – – – 10.2 4.9 2.1 2.5 0.8 1.7
100.00 – – – – – – – – 2.5 2.8 0.9 1.9
110.00 – – – – – – – – 3.0 3.1 1.1 2.1
120.00 – – – – – – – – 3.5 3.4 1.3 2.2
130.00 – – – – – – – – 4.0 3.7 1.5 2.4
140.00 – – – – – – – – 4.6 3.9 1.7 2.6
150.00 – – – – – – – – 5.2 4.2 2.0 2.8
160.00 – – – – – – – – 5.9 4.5 2.2 3.0
180.00 – – – – – – – – – – 2.7 3.4
200.00 – – – – – – – – – – 3.3 3.7
150
Fig 129 Pressure drop chart for copper pipes at 60 °C
151
DN 10 DN 12 DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32
VV 12 x 1.0 15 x 1.0 18 x 1.0 22 x 1.0 28 x 1.5 35 x 1.5
15 0.1 0.1 – – – – – – – – – –
20 0.1 0.1 – – – – – – – – – –
25 0.1 0.1 – – – – – – – – – –
30 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 – – – – – – – –
35 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 – – – – – – – –
40 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1 – – – – – – – –
45 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – – – – – –
50 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 – – – – – –
55 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 – – – – – –
60 0.9 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 – – – – – –
65 1.0 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 – – – – – –
70 1.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 – – – – – –
75 1.3 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – – – – – –
80 1.4 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 – – – –
90 1.7 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 – – – –
100 2.1 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 – – – –
110 2.4 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 – – – –
120 2.8 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 – – – –
130 3.2 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – – – –
140 3.7 0.5 1.1 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – – – –
150 4.2 0.5 1.2 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – –
160 4.7 0.6 1.3 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – – –
170 5.2 0.6 1.5 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 – – – –
180 5.7 0.6 1.6 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 – – – –
190 6.3 0.7 1.8 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2 – – – –
200 6.9 0.7 2.0 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.2 – – – –
210 7.5 0.7 2.2 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.2 – – – –
220 8.1 0.8 2.3 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
230 8.8 0.8 2.5 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
240 9.5 0.8 2.7 0.5 1.0 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
250 10.2 0.9 2.9 0.5 1.1 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
260 10.9 0.9 3.1 0.5 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 – –
270 11.7 1.0 3.3 0.6 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.2 – –
280 12.5 1.0 3.6 0.6 1.3 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 – –
290 13.3 1.0 3.8 0.6 1.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
300 14.1 1.1 4.0 0.6 1.5 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
310 14.9 1.1 4.3 0.6 1.6 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
320 15.8 1.1 4.5 0.7 1.7 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
330 16.7 1.2 4.8 0.7 1.8 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
340 17.6 1.2 5.0 0.7 1.9 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
350 18.5 1.2 5.3 0.7 2.0 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
360 19.4 1.3 5.5 0.8 2.1 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
370 20.4 1.3 5.8 0.8 2.2 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.2 – –
380 21.4 1.3 6.1 0.8 2.3 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.2 – –
390 22.4 1.4 6.4 0.8 2.4 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.2 – –
400 23.4 1.4 6.7 0.8 2.5 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.2 – –
410 24.5 1.5 7.0 0.9 2.6 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.2 – –
420 25.6 1.5 7.3 0.9 2.7 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1
430 – – 7.6 0.9 2.8 0.6 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1
440 – – 7.9 0.9 2.9 0.6 1.0 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.2
450 – – 8.2 0.9 3.1 0.6 1.1 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
460 – – 8.6 1.0 3.2 0.6 1.1 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
470 – – 8.9 1.0 3.3 0.6 1.1 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
480 – – 9.2 1.0 3.4 0.7 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
490 – – 9.6 1.0 3.5 0.7 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
152
DN 12 DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32 DN 40
VV 15 x 1.0 18 x 1.0 22 x 1.0 28 x 1.5 35 x 1.5 42 x 1.5
500 9.9 1.0 3.7 0.7 1.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2 – –
510 10.3 1.1 3.8 0.7 1.3 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.2 – –
520 10.6 1.1 3.9 0.7 1.4 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.2 – –
530 11.0 1.1 4.1 0.7 1.4 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
540 11.4 1.1 4.2 0.7 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
550 11.7 1.2 4.3 0.8 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
560 12.1 1.2 4.5 0.8 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
570 12.5 1.2 4.6 0.8 1.6 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
580 12.9 1.2 4.8 0.8 1.6 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
590 13.3 1.2 4.9 0.8 1.7 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
600 13.7 1.3 5.1 0.8 1.7 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
610 14.1 1.3 5.2 0.8 1.8 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 – –
620 14.5 1.3 5.4 0.9 1.9 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
630 14.9 1.3 5.5 0.9 1.9 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
640 15.4 1.3 5.7 0.9 2.0 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
650 15.8 1.4 5.8 0.9 2.0 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
660 16.2 1.4 6.0 0.9 2.1 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
670 16.7 1.4 6.2 0.9 2.1 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
680 17.1 1.4 6.3 0.9 2.2 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
690 17.6 1.4 6.5 1.0 2.2 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
700 18.0 1.5 6.7 1.0 2.3 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
710 18.5 1.5 6.8 1.0 2.4 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.2 – –
720 – – 7.0 1.0 2.4 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2
730 – – 7.2 1.0 2.5 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
740 – – 7.4 1.0 2.5 0.7 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
750 – – 7.5 1.0 2.6 0.7 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
760 – – 7.7 1.0 2.7 0.7 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
770 – – 7.9 1.1 2.7 0.7 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
780 – – 8.1 1.1 2.8 0.7 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
790 – – 8.3 1.1 2.8 0.7 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
800 – – 8.5 1.1 2.9 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
810 – – 8.6 1.1 3.0 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
820 – – 8.8 1.1 3.0 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
830 – – 9.0 1.1 3.1 0.7 1.1 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
840 – – 9.2 1.2 3.2 0.7 1.1 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
850 – – 9.4 1.2 3.2 0.8 1.1 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2
860 – – 9.6 1.2 3.3 0.8 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
870 – – 9.8 1.2 3.4 0.8 1.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
880 – – 10.0 1.2 3.4 0.8 1.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
890 – – 10.2 1.2 3.5 0.8 1.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
900 – – 10.4 1.2 3.6 0.8 1.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
910 – – 10.6 1.3 3.7 0.8 1.3 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
920 – – 10.8 1.3 3.7 0.8 1.3 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
930 – – 11.1 1.3 3.8 0.8 1.3 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
940 – – 11.3 1.3 3.9 0.8 1.3 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
950 – – 11.5 1.3 3.9 0.8 1.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
960 – – 11.7 1.3 4.0 0.8 1.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
970 – – 11.9 1.3 4.1 0.9 1.4 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
980 – – 12.1 1.4 4.2 0.9 1.4 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
990 – – 12.4 1.4 4.2 0.9 1.5 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
1000 – – 12.6 1.4 4.3 0.9 1.5 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2
1010 – – 12.8 1.4 4.4 0.9 1.5 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2
1020 – – 13.0 1.4 4.5 0.9 1.5 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2
1030 – – 13.3 1.4 4.6 0.9 1.6 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2
1040 – – 13.5 1.4 4.6 0.9 1.6 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2
153
Fig 130 Pressure drop chart for HDPE pipes to DIN 19533 at 10 °C
154
DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32 DN 40 DN 50
VV di = 16.0 di = 20.4 di = 26.0 di = 32.6 di = 40.8 di = 51.4
0.1 2.8 0.5 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.2 – – – – – –
0.2 9.3 1.0 2.9 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 – –
0.3 19.0 1.5 5.9 0.9 1.9 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 – –
0.4 31.8 2.0 9.9 1.2 3.1 0.8 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2
0.5 47.5 2.5 14.7 1.5 4.6 0.9 1.6 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2
0.6 66.0 3.0 20.3 1.8 6.3 1.1 2.1 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.2 0.3
0.7 87.2 3.5 26.8 2.1 8.3 1.3 2.8 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.3
0.8 111.2 4.0 34.1 2.4 10.6 1.5 3.6 1.0 1.2 0.6 0.4 0.4
0.9 137.9 4.5 42.2 2.8 13.1 1.7 4.4 1.1 1.5 0.7 0.5 0.4
1.0 167.2 5.0 51.1 3.1 15.8 1.9 5.3 1.2 1.8 0.8 0.6 0.5
1.1 – – 60.7 3.4 18.7 2.1 6.3 1.3 2.1 0.8 0.7 0.5
1.2 – – 71.1 3.7 21.9 2.3 7.3 1.4 2.5 0.9 0.8 0.6
1.3 – – 82.3 4.0 25.3 2.4 8.5 1.6 2.9 1.0 1.0 0.6
1.4 – – 94.3 4.3 28.9 2.6 9.7 1.7 3.3 1.1 1.1 0.7
1.5 – – 107.0 4.6 32.8 2.8 11.0 1.8 3.7 1.1 1.2 0.7
1.6 – – 120.4 4.9 36.9 3.0 12.3 1.9 4.2 1.2 1.4 0.8
1.7 – – – – 41.1 3.2 13.7 2.0 4.7 1.3 1.5 0.8
1.8 – – – – 45.7 3.4 15.2 2.2 5.2 1.4 1.7 0.9
1.9 – – – – 50.4 3.6 16.8 2.3 5.7 1.5 1.9 0.9
2.0 – – – – 55.3 3.8 18.4 2.4 6.2 1.5 2.0 1.0
2.1 – – – – 60.5 4.0 20.1 2.5 6.8 1.6 2.2 1.0
2.2 – – – – 65.9 4.1 21.9 2.6 7.4 1.7 2.4 1.1
2.3 – – – – 71.5 4.3 23.7 2.8 8.0 1.8 2.6 1.1
2.4 – – – – 77.3 4.5 25.6 2.9 8.6 1.8 2.8 1.2
2.5 – – – – 83.3 4.7 27.6 3.0 9.3 1.9 3.1 1.2
2.6 – – – – 89.5 4.9 29.7 3.1 10.0 2.0 3.3 1.3
2.7 – – – – – – 31.8 3.2 10.7 2.1 3.5 1.3
2.8 – – – – – – 33.9 3.4 11.4 2.1 3.7 1.3
2.9 – – – – – – 36.2 3.5 12.2 2.2 4.0 1.4
3.0 – – – – – – 38.5 3.6 12.9 2.3 4.2 1.4
3.1 – – – – – – 40.9 3.7 13.7 2.4 4.5 1.5
3.2 – – – – – – 43.3 3.8 14.5 2.4 4.8 1.5
3.3 – – – – – – 45.8 4.0 15.4 2.5 5.0 1.6
3.4 – – – – – – 48.4 4.1 16.2 2.6 5.3 1.6
3.5 – – – – – – 51.1 4.2 17.1 2.7 5.6 1.7
3.6 – – – – – – 53.8 4.3 18.0 2.8 5.9 1.7
3.7 – – – – – – 56.6 4.4 18.9 2.8 6.2 1.8
3.8 – – – – – – 59.4 4.6 19.9 2.9 6.5 1.8
3.9 – – – – – – 62.3 4.7 20.8 3.0 6.8 1.9
4.0 – – – – – – 65.3 4.8 21.8 3.1 7.1 1.9
4.1 – – – – – – 68.3 4.9 22.8 3.1 7.4 2.0
4.2 – – – – – – – – 23.9 3.2 7.8 2.0
4.3 – – – – – – – – 24.9 3.3 8.1 2.1
4.4 – – – – – – – – 26.0 3.4 8.5 2.1
4.5 – – – – – – – – 27.1 3.4 8.8 2.2
4.6 – – – – – – – – 28.2 3.5 9.2 2.2
4.7 – – – – – – – – 29.3 3.6 9.5 2.3
4.8 – – – – – – – – 30.5 3.7 9.9 2.3
4.9 – – – – – – – – 31.6 3.7 10.3 2.4
5.0 – – – – – – – – 32.8 3.8 10.7 2.4
5.0 – – – – – – – – 32.8 3.8 10.7 2.4
5.2 – – – – – – – – 35.3 4.0 11.5 2.5
5.4 – – – – – – – – 37.8 4.1 12.3 2.6
6.0 – – – – – – – – 45.9 4.6 14.9 2.9
6.5 – – – – – – – – 53.2 5.0 17.2 3.1
Table 34.1 Pressure drop tables for HDPE pipes to DIN 19533 at 10 °C
155
DN 50 DN 65 DN 80 DN 100 DN 125 DN 150
VV di = 51.4 di = 61.2 di = 73.6 di = 102.2 di = 130.8 di = 147.2
7.0 19.7 3.4 8.4 2.4 3.5 1.6 0.7 0.9 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.4
8.0 25.2 3.9 10.8 2.7 4.4 1.9 0.9 1.0 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.5
9.0 31.3 4.3 13.3 3.1 5.4 2.1 1.1 1.1 0.3 0.7 0.2 0.5
10.0 38.0 4.8 16.2 3.4 6.6 2.4 1.3 1.2 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.6
11.0 – – 19.3 3.7 7.8 2.6 1.6 1.3 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.6
12.0 – – 22.6 4.1 9.2 2.8 1.9 1.5 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.7
13.0 – – 26.2 4.4 10.6 3.1 2.2 1.6 0.7 1.0 0.4 0.8
14.0 – – 30.1 4.8 12.2 3.3 2.5 1.7 0.8 1.0 0.4 0.8
15.0 – – – – 13.8 3.5 2.8 1.8 0.9 1.1 0.5 0.9
16.0 – – – – 15.6 3.8 3.2 2.0 1.0 1.2 0.5 0.9
17.0 – – – – 17.4 4.0 3.5 2.1 1.1 1.3 0.6 1.0
18.0 – – – – 19.4 4.2 3.9 2.2 1.2 1.3 0.7 1.1
19.0 – – – – 21.4 4.5 4.3 2.3 1.3 1.4 0.7 1.1
20.0 – – – – 23.5 4.7 4.7 2.4 1.4 1.5 0.8 1.2
21.0 – – – – 25.8 4.9 5.2 2.6 1.6 1.6 0.9 1.2
22.0 – – – – – – 5.6 2.7 1.7 1.6 1.0 1.3
23.0 – – – – – – 6.1 2.8 1.8 1.7 1.0 1.4
24.0 – – – – – – 6.6 2.9 2.0 1.8 1.1 1.4
25.0 – – – – – – 7.1 3.0 2.2 1.9 1.2 1.5
26.0 – – – – – – 7.7 3.2 2.3 1.9 1.3 1.5
27.0 – – – – – – 8.2 3.3 2.5 2.0 1.4 1.6
28.0 – – – – – – 8.8 3.4 2.6 2.1 1.5 1.6
29.0 – – – – – – 9.4 3.5 2.8 2.2 1.6 1.7
30.0 – – – – – – 10.0 3.7 3.0 2.2 1.7 1.8
31.0 – – – – – – 10.6 3.8 3.2 2.3 1.8 1.8
32.0 – – – – – – 11.2 3.9 3.4 2.4 1.9 1.9
33.0 – – – – – – 11.9 4.0 3.6 2.5 2.0 1.9
34.0 – – – – – – 12.6 4.1 3.8 2.5 2.1 2.0
35.0 – – – – – – 13.3 4.3 4.0 2.6 2.2 2.1
36.0 – – – – – – 14.0 4.4 4.2 2.7 2.4 2.1
37.0 – – – – – – 14.7 4.5 4.4 2.8 2.5 2.2
38.0 – – – – – – 15.5 4.6 4.6 2.8 2.6 2.2
39.0 – – – – – – 16.2 4.8 4.9 2.9 2.7 2.3
40.0 – – – – – – 17.0 4.9 5.1 3.0 2.9 2.4
41.0 – – – – – – 17.8 5.0 5.3 3.1 3.0 2.4
42.0 – – – – – – – – 5.6 3.1 3.1 2.5
43.0 – – – – – – – – 5.8 3.2 3.3 2.5
44.0 – – – – – – – – 6.1 3.3 3.4 2.6
45.0 – – – – – – – – 6.3 3.3 3.6 2.6
46.0 – – – – – – – – 6.6 3.4 3.7 2.7
47.0 – – – – – – – – 6.8 3.5 3.8 2.8
48.0 – – – – – – – – 7.1 3.6 4.0 2.8
49.0 – – – – – – – – 7.4 3.6 4.2 2.9
50.0 – – – – – – – – 7.7 3.7 4.3 2.9
51.0 – – – – – – – – 8.0 3.8 4.5 3.0
52.0 – – – – – – – – 8.3 3.9 4.6 3.1
53.0 – – – – – – – – 8.5 3.9 4.8 3.1
54.0 – – – – – – – – 8.8 4.0 5.0 3.2
55.0 – – – – – – – – 9.2 4.1 5.1 3.2
60.0 – – – – – – – – 10.8 4.5 6.0 3.5
65.0 – – – – – – – – 12.5 4.8 7.0 3.8
70.0 – – – – – – – – – – 8.0 4.1
75.0 – – – – – – – – – – 9.1 4.4
80.0 – – – – – – – – – – 10.3 4.7
85.0 – – – – – – – – – – 11.5 5.0
Table 34.2 Pressure drop tables for HDPE pipes to DIN 19533 at 10 °C
156
157
7 Forms
Forms
Form 1 Calculation of peak flow rate from total flow rate
Form 2 Calculation of peak flow rate using simultaneity
Form 3 Calculation of the pressure gradient available to cope with pipe friction
Form 4 Calculation of pipe diameter (hot/cold water) using simplified method
Form 5 Calculation of pipe diameter (hot/cold water) using detailed method
Form 6 Calculation of sum of minor losses
Form 7 Calculation of pipe diameter (circulation) using detailed method
Form 8 Balancing calculations (circulation), determination of kV-values for regulating valves
Form 9 Calculation of heat lost by hot water pipes
Form 10 Calculation of circulation flow rates
Form 11 Calculation of temperature drop in worst circulation circuit
158
Form 1: Calculation of peak flow rate from total flow rate
Building project:
Company: Name: Date: Sheet No
Riser Minimum Design flow rate Total flow rate
(run) , flow pressure,
Point-of-use fitting/ Contribution Floor pipe Riser
Floor Number combination pressure (run)
drop Cold Hot Mixed Cold Hot Cold Hot
. . . . . . .
No pmin FL VR VR VR ΣVR ΣVR ΣVR ΣVR
mbar l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
159
Form 2: Calculation of peak flow rate using simultaneity
Building project:
Riser Minimum Design flow rate Simul- Peak flow rate
(run) flow pressure, Contribution taneity
Floor Number Point-of-use fitting/ pressure drop Cold Hot Mixed Cold Hot Mixed
combination
. . . . . .
No pmin FL VR VR ΣVR ΣVS ΣVS ΣVS
mbar l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s l/s
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
160
Form 3: Calculation of the pressure gradient available to cope with pipe friction
Building project:
Cold water Hot water
System details: a) Service connection b) Central water heater
direct indirect Group water heater
Run
No Name Symbol Units
1 2 3 4 5
1 pmin V mbar
Minimum supply pressure or outlet pressure
after pressure reducing valve or pressure booster
2 Pressure drop due to difference in geodetic head ∆pgeo mbar
3 Pressure drop across items of equipment,

for example:
a) Water meter (see Table 3) ∆pWZ mbar
b) Filter ∆pFIL mbar
c) Softening system ∆pEH mbar
d) Metering system ∆pDOS mbar
e) Group water heater ∆pTE mbar

(see Table 4)
f) Other items of equipment ∆pAp mbar
4 Minimum flow pressure pmin FI mbar
5 Pressure drop of floor and spur pipes ∆pSt mbar
6 Sum of the pressure drops from Nos 2 to 5 Σ∆p mbar
7 Available for the pressure drop from pipe friction ∆pverf mbar
and minor losses, value from No 1 minus value
from No 6
8 Estimated contribution from minor losses - mbar

at …%
9 Available for pressure drop from pipe friction, - mbar

value from No 7 minus value from No 8
10 Pipe length lges m
11 Pressure gradient available to cope with pipe Rverf mbar/m

friction, value from No 9 divided by value from
No 10
161
Form 4: Calculation of pipe diameter (hot/cold water) using simplified method
Building project:
Run No Cold Hot Type of pipe: to DIN
a) Available for pressure drops from pipe friction:______________________________________________ ____ mbar
b) Used in sections (TS): ____ to ____ ______________________________________________________ ____ mbar
c) Available for pressure drops from pipe friction in sections __ to ___ ____________________________
mbar
d) Pipe length sections TS ___ to ___ = ___ m
e) Pressure gradient available to cope with pipe friction for sections TS ___ to ___ [c) divided by d)] = _______:______ mbar
From pipe diagram with provisional pipe diameter with altered pipe diameter Differential
Section Pipe Total Peak Nominal Calculated Pressure Pressure Nominal Calculated Pressure Pressure Pressure
length flow rate flow rate diameter flow gradient drop diameter flow gradient drop drop
velocity from from velocity due to from from
pipe pipe pipe pipe pipe
. . friction friction friction friction friction
TS l ΣVR VS DN v R l.R DN v R l.R ∆(l . R)
m l/s l/s m/s mbar/m mbar m/s mbar/m mbar mbar
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Σl = m Σl . R = mbar
+ differential mbar S= mbar
Σl . R = mbar
162
Form 5:
Run No Cold Hot Type of pipe: to DIN

a) Available for pressure drops from pipe friction and minor losses: __________ mbar
b) Used in sections(TS): ____ to ____ ________________________________________________________________ __________ mbar
c) Available for pressure drops from pipe friction and minor losses in sections TS: ___ to ___ _________________ mbar
d) ____% contribution for drops from pipe friction alone from c) ___________________________________________ __________ mbar
e) Pipe length sections TS ___ to ___ = ___ m
f) Pressure gradient available to cope with friction for sections r TS ___ to ___ [d) ) divided by e)] = mbar
From pipe diagram with provisional pipe diameter with altered pipe diameter Differential
Section Pipe Total Peak Nominal Calculated Pressure Pressure Loss Minor Nominal Calculated Pressure Pressure Loss Minor Pressure Minor
length flow rate flow rate diameter flow gradient drop constant losses diameter flow gradient drop constant losses drop loses
velocity due to from velocity due to from from
pipe pipe pipe pipe pipe
. . friction friction friction friction friction
TS l ΣVR VS DN v R l.R χ Z DN v R l.R Σζ Z ∆(l . r) ∆Z
m l/s l/s m/s mbar/m mbar mbar m/s mbar/m mbar mbar mbar mbar
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Calculation of pipe diameter (hot/cold water) using detailed method
Sl = m Σ(l . R + Z) = + = mbar
± differential mbar S= mbar
Σ(l . R + Z) = mbar
163
Form 6: Calculation of sum of minor losses
Building project:
No Component Nominal Loss Number of components and sum of related
from (minor loss) diameter constant minor losses Σζ for sections
Table
26 DN ζ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Σζ for the sections
164
Building project:
Form 7:
Run No Type of pipe: to DIN

a) Available for pressure drops from pipe friction and minor losses : _______________________________________________ __________ mbar
b) Used in sections (TS) : ____ to ____ ______________________________________________________________________ __________ mbar
__________
c) Available for pressure drops from pipe friction and minor losses in sections (TS) : ___ to ___ __________________________ mbar
d) ____ % contribution for drops from pipe friction ___________________________________________________ _________________________________________ mbar
e) Pipe length sections (TS)___ to ___ = ____ m
.
TS Length VZ DN R v I.R Σζ Z I.R+Z Σ(I . R + Z) Σ(I . R + Z)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
– m l/h - mbar/m m/s mbar - mbar mbar mbar mbar
Calculation of pipe diameter (circulation) using detailed method
165
166
Building project:
Form 8:
Run No Type of pipe: to DIN

a) Available for pressure drops due from pipe friction and minor losses:: _____________________________________________ __________ mbar
b) Used in sections (TS): ____ to ____ ____________________________________________________________________ ________ __________ mbar
____
c) Available for pressure drops from pipe friction and minor loses in sections (TS) : ___ to ___ __________________________ mbar
d) ____ % contribution for drops from pipe friction ______________________________________________________________ __________ mbar
e) Pipe length sections (TS) ___ to ___ = ___ m
f) Pressure gradient available for pipe friction for sections (TS) ___ to ___ Rverf = mbar
.
TS Length VZ DN R v I.R Σζ Z I.R+Z Σ(I . R + Z) in TS ∆pD k v -Wert
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
– m l/h - mbar/m m/s mbar - mbar mbar mbar mbar m3/h
Balancing calculations (circulation), determination of kV-values for regulating valves
Form 9: Calculation of heat lost by hot water pipes
. . . .
TS Length Nominal qW l . qW Σ[l . q W] Q
Temperature differential
diameter
- m - K K W/m W W W
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
167
Form 10: Calculation of circulation flow rates
. . . . . . .
TS Qa Qd Qa + Qd V Va Vd
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
- W W W l/h l/h l/h
168
Form 11: Calculation of temperature drop in worst circulation circuit
. .
TS VZ l . qW ΔϑTS ΣΔϑTS ϑTWW/Z
- l/h W K K °C
1 2 3 4 5 6
169
8 Glossary
8Glossary
Building water supply system The entire system of pipes, fittings, valves and equipment between the
point at which water is drawn off for human consumption and the point
at which water from a municipal or individual water supply system is
transferred to the user.
Legionellae Hot water bacteria with optimum living conditions between 30 to 48ºC;
pathogens of severe pneumonias.
Legionella pneumophila Commonest and most virulent Legionella species, particularly serogroup
1, Pontiac strain.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Ubiquitous aquatic bacterium, which can colonise cold water in particu-
lar; pathogens of severe hospital-acquired infections.
Pseudomonads Ubiquitous, ill-defined group of aquatic bacteria with pathogenic, facul-

tative pathogenic (for example P. aeruginosa) and non-pathogenic spe-
cies, group very widespread in water.
Biofilm Microbially active film on all components wetted with water, conglome-
rate of bacteria, other microorganisms and extracellular material, refuge
for legionellae and P. aeruginosa.
Disinfection Chemical or thermal reduction of pathogens to a level at which they can

no longer cause illness.
Stagnation Condition of water that is not flowing because it is not being drawn off.
It generally favours the growth of biofilms and the number of microorga-
nisms in the water.
Mycobacteria, atypical Hot water bacteria that can cause infections in dialysis patients and
people infected with HIV.
Heterotropic bacteria Widespread group of bacteria dependent on a supply of organic nutri-

ents.
Bacterial count Deprecated term; often – wrongly – used as synonymous with CFU.
Colony forming units (CFU) Number of units capable of reproduction that form visible colonies on
growth media under defined growing conditions. These colonies can be
formed by individual bacteria or agglomerations of individual through to
many bacteria.
Escherichia coli (E. coli) Rod-shaped intestinal bacterium present in all warm-blooded animals;
indicator of faecal contamination.
Enterococci Round intestinal bacteria with higher resistance than E. coli; frequently in
birds.
170
Coliform bacteria Ill-defined group of bacteria from the Enterobacteriaceae family. Defined
in the Drinking Water Regulations (2001) as lactose fermenting, cyto-
chromoxidase-negative gram-negative rod-shaped bacterium; close re-
lative of E. coli.
Hospital-acquired infections Nosocomial infections; infections contracted by a patient during a stay

in a hospital.
Contamination, terminal Colonisation that is only to be found at point-of-use fittings, outlets, etc.
The supply pipework is not microbially contaminated. Decontamination
is easily achieved.
Contamination, systematic Contamination of substantial sections or the entire water supply system;
decontamination sometimes very difficult.
HACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point. Risk assessment instrument from
the food industry. Critical areas and control/check points defined.
Hazard = danger to health
Analysis = investigation of the hazard
Critical = in terms of control
Control = includes monitoring of the conditions
Point = in the process
Multibarrier concept Protection concept involving several successive stages to increase over-
all safety.
Decontamination Lasting improvement in the hygiene of a water supply system; not to be

confused with disinfection.
171

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Drinking Water Hygiene

Water Supply Circulation Systems

Preface to fourth edition

Kemper GmbH + Co. KG Geberit International AG

Ullrich Petzolt Martin Ziegler

Olpe, February 2005

Universitätsklinikum Münster Fachhochschule Münster

Professional development and experience: Professional development and experience:

Member of VDI and other committees

The presence and extent of biofilms have a particularly im-

It is commonly assumed that drinking water poses no risk

1.2.2 Basic design and installation rules

The following list of typical weak points makes no claims

1.3.1 Atypical mycobacteria

Mycobacteria such as M. gordonae, M .kansasii, M.

infections caused by atypical mycobacteria; infection from

One of the last outbreaks of Pontiac fever arose in May

always be checked. The aim must always be to come up

of colonisation with technical guide values is not an effec-

protection from any contact with hot or cold tap water.

Storage vessel Heater

Fig 4 Schematic diagram of a hot water system, showing components

The necessity of sampling is clear, but how should it

Do I have to notify the presence of legionellae in my

What do I do when a water system is contaminated

The following have been mentioned as relevant risk fac-

This means that numerous water hygiene shortcomings

A quick look at the technical codes and regulations shows

Against the backdrop depicted in Section 1, the extensive

Fig 5 Definitions and notation for water supply systems

2.2 Calculating flow rates

Before starting to calculate the pressure drops a

The peak flow rate, minimum supply pressure, pipe

Fig 6 Definition of the design flow rate VVR of a point-of-use fitting

If the design flow rate VVR, minimum flow pressure pminFl

For example the minimum cold water or hot water flow

Type of fitting pmin FI Mixed water Mixed water cold or heated

VVR VVR VVR

mbar l/s l/s l/s

Outlet valves without aerator DN 15 500 0.30

Outlet valves without aerator DN 20 500 0.50

Outlet valves without aerator DN 25 500 1.00

Outlet valves with aerator DN 10 1000 0.15

Outlet valves with aerat DN 15 1000 0.15

WC push button flush system DN 20 1200 1.00

Urinal push button flush system DN 15 1000 0.30

Cistern to DIN 19542 DN 15 500 0.13

Domestic dishwasher 1000 0.15

Domestic washing machine 1000 0.25

Showers 1000 0.15 0.15

Baths 1000 0.15 0.15

Kitchen sinks 1000 0.07 0.07

Countertop basins 1000 0.07 0.07

Bidets 1000 0.07 0.07

Mixer DN 20 1000 0.30 0.30

Electric instant boiler water heater 1000 0.10

7. Th Nyhuis and I Schmidt: "Effect of System for Individual Floor on the

Fig 7 System for individual floor

Ident. Range Equation Unit

A ΣVVR > 1.0 1) VVS = 1.7 ⋅ [ΣVVR]0.21 - 0.7 l/s

B 0.07 < ΣVVR ≤20 VVS = 0.682 ⋅ [ΣVVR]0.45 - 0.14 l/s

C ΣVVR > 20 VVS = 0.4 ⋅ [ΣVVR]0.54 + 0.48 l/s

D 1.0 < ΣVVR ≤ 20 VVS = [ΣVVR]0.336 l/s