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a) the density difference between the phases; as a result the two phases respond
differently to forces such as gravity and centrifugal force;
b) the deformability of the gas–liquid interphase that often results in incessant coa-
lescence and breakup processes; and
c) surface tension forces, which tends to maintain one phase dispersal.
Flow regimes and their ranges of occurrence are thus sensitive to fluid properties,
system configuration/and orientation, size scale of the system, occurrence of phase
change, etc. Nevertheless, for the most widely used configurations and/or relatively
well defined conditions (e.g., steady-state and adiabatic air–water and steam–water
flow in uniform-cross-section long vertical pipes, or large vertical rod bundles with
uniform inlet conditions) reasonably accurate predictive methods exit. The literature
also contains data and correlations for a vast number of specific system configura-
tions, fluid types, etc. Although experiments are often needed when a new system
121
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122 Two-Phase Flow Regimes – I
Camera
Tube
Figure 4.1. A simple flow-regime-observation experi-
mental system for vertical pipes.
Air, QG Mixer
Liquid, QL
configuration and/or fluid type is of interest, even in these cases the existing methods
can be used for preliminary analysis and design calculations.
In this chapter the major flow regimes and the empirical predictive methods
for adiabatic two-phase flow in straight channels and rod bundles will be discussed.
The discussion of mechanistic models for regime transitions will be postponed to
Chapter 7, so that the necessary background for understanding these mechanistic
models is acquired in Chapters 5 and 6.
Also, in this chapter only conventional flow passages (i.e., flow passages with
DH ≥ 3 mm) and rod bundles will be considered. There are important differences
between commonly used channels and mini- or microchannels with respect to
the gas–liquid two-phase flow hydrodynamics. Two-phase flow regimes and condi-
tions leading to regime transitions in mini- and microchannels will be discussed in
Chapter 10.
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4.2 Two-Phase Flow Regimes in Adiabatic Pipe Flow 123
(a) Bubbly (b) Dispersed (c) Slug (d) Churn (e) Annular/
Bubbly Dispersed
QG
Bubbly flow ends when discrete bubbles coalesce and produce very large bub-
bles. The slug flow regime [Fig. 4.2(c)] then develops; it is dominated by bullet-shaped
bubbles (Taylor bubbles) that have approximately hemispherical caps and are sepa-
rated from one another by liquid slugs. The liquid slug often contains small bubbles.
A Taylor bubble approximately occupies the entire cross section and is separated
from the wall by a thin liquid film. Taylor bubbles coalesce and grow in length until
a relative equilibrium liquid slug length (Ls /D ∼ 16) in common vertical channels
(Taitel et al., 1980) is reached.
At higher gas flow rates, the disruption of the large Taylor bubbles leads to churn
(froth) flow [Fig. 4.2(d)], where chaotic motion of the irregular-shaped gas pockets
takes place, with literally no discernible interfacial shape. Both phases may appear
to be contiguous, and incessant churning and oscillatory backflow are observed. An
oscillatory, time-varying regime where large waves moving forth in the flow direction
are superimposed on an otherwise wavy annular-dispersed flow pattern involving a
thick liquid film on the wall is also referred to as churn flow. Churn flow also occurs
at the entrance of a vertical channel, before slug flow develops. This is a different
interpretation of churn flow and represents the irregular region near the entrance of
a long channel where eventually a slug flow pattern will develop.
Annular-dispersed (annular-mist) flow [Fig. 4.2(e)] replaces churn flow at higher
gas flow rates. A thin liquid film, often wavy, sticks to the wall while a gas-occupied
core, often with entrained droplets, is observed. In common pipe scales, the droplets
are typically 10–100 μm in diameter (Jepsen et al., 1989). The annular-dispersed
flow regime is usually characterized by continuous impingement of droplets onto the
liquid film and simultaneously an incessant process of entrainment of liquid droplets
from the liquid film surface. Figure 4.3 depicts the cross section of a tube in the
annular-dispersed regime (Srivastoa, 1973).
The inverted-annular regime and dispersed-droplet regime, depicted schemati-
cally in Figs. 4.4, should also be mentioned here. These regimes are not observed
in adiabatic gas–liquid flows. They do occur in boiling channels, however. In the
inverted-annular flow regime a vapor film separates a predominantly liquid flow
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124 Two-Phase Flow Regimes – I
from the wall. The liquid flow may contain entrained bubbles. This flow regime takes
place in channels subject to high wall heat fluxes and leads to an undesirable con-
dition called the departure from nucleate boiling. In the dispersed-droplet regime
an often superheated vapor containing entrained droplets flows in an otherwise dry
channel. This regime can occur in boiling channels when massive evaporation has
already caused the depletion of most of the liquid.
Flow regimes associated with very high liquid flow rates are now discussed. In
these circumstances, in all flow regimes except annular (i.e., all flow regimes where the
two phases are not separated), because of the very large liquid and mixture velocities
the slip velocity between the two phases is often small in comparison with the average
velocity of either phase, and the effect of gravity is relatively small. Furthermore, as
long as the void fraction is small enough to allow the existence of a continuous
liquid phase, the highly turbulent liquid flow does not allow the existence of large
gas chunks and shatters the gas into small bubbles. Bubbly flow is thus replaced
by a finely dispersed bubbly flow regime, where the bubbles are quite small and
nearly spherical [Fig. 4.2(b)]. No froth (churn) flow may take place; furthermore, the
transition from slug to annular-mist flow may only involve churn flow characterized
with the oscillatory flow caused by the intermittent passing of large waves through a
wavy annular-like base flow pattern.
Inverted-annular Dispersed-droplet
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4.2 Two-Phase Flow Regimes in Adiabatic Pipe Flow 125
FLOW DIRECTION
O P Q R
10
ANNULAR
MIST
(Water
Dispersed)
Superficial Water Velocity, jL, ft/sec.
H I J K L M N
1.0
H s
E d) ) OT ase
BL rse
d FR h Ph ed)
B e UG rse ot ers
BU Disp SL ispe (B isp
r D D E D
A i B C ir F G
(A (A
0.1
Figure 4.5. Flow regimes for air–water flow in a 2.6-cm-diameter vertical tube. (From Govier
and Aziz, 1972.)
It must be emphasized that the flow regimes shown in Fig. 4.2 are the major and
easily distinguishable flow patterns. In an experiment similar to the one described
here, transition from one major flow regime to another is never sudden, and each pair
of major flow regimes are separated from one another by a relatively wide transition
zone. Figure 4.5, borrowed from Govier and Aziz (1972), displays schematics of
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126 Two-Phase Flow Regimes – I
Gas, QG
Liquid, QL
Mixer
Camera
flow regimes and their range of phase superficial velocities for air–water flow in a
2.6-cm-diameter vertical tube.
D
hL
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4.2 Two-Phase Flow Regimes in Adiabatic Pipe Flow 127
Figure 4.8. Major flow regimes in a horizontal pipe with low liquid flow rates.
The following flow regimes are observed as the gas flow rate is increased. In the
bubbly flow regime, discrete bubbles tend to collect at the top of the pipe owing
to the buoyancy effect. The finely dispersed bubbly flow regime is similar to the
finely dispersed bubbly flow pattern in vertical flow channels. It occurs only at very
high liquid flow rates. It is characterized by small spherical bubbles, approximately
uniformly distributed in the channel. The plug or elongated bubbles flow regime is the
equivalent of the slug flow regime in vertical channels. Finally, the annular-dispersed
(annular-mist) flow regime is obtained at very high gas flow rates.
It is once again emphasized that the flow patterns in Fig. 4.9 only display the
major flow regimes that are easily discernable visually and with simple photographic
techniques and are commonly addressed in flow regime maps and transition models.
Many subtle variations within some of the flow patterns can be recognized by using
more sophisticated techniques (Spedding and Spence, 1993). Figure 4.10, borrowed
from Govier and Aziz (1972), displays schematics of flow regimes and their range of
phase superficial velocities for air–water flow in a 2.6-cm-diameter tube.
(a) Bubbly
Figure 4.9. Major flow regimes in a horizontal pipe with high liquid flow rates.
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128 Two-Phase Flow Regimes – I
20
S T DISPERSED BUBBLE
10
O
N Q R
Superficial Water Velocity, jL, ft/sec
LE ED
2.0
B AT
BU NG L SLUG M
B
LO
FLOW
1.0
E
DIRECTION
ANNULAR
G I MIST
F
J
H K
0.2
A B
C D
0.1
D E
E
FI
TI th D
A oo ce) FI
E
R m fa WAVE
ST (S ter TI ly
A ipp ce)
In R fa
ST (R ter
.02 In
0.1 1.0 10 100
Superficial Gas Velocity, jG, ft/sec
Figure 4.10. Flow regimes for air–water flow in a 2.6-cm-diameter horizontal tube. (From
Govier and Aziz, 1972.)
With regards to the two-phase flow regimes, the following points should be borne
in mind:
1. Flow regimes and conditions leading to regime transitions are geometry depen-
dent and are sensitive to liquid properties. The most important properties are
surface tension, liquid viscosity, and liquid/gas density ratio. Important geomet-
ric attributes include orientation with respect to the gravitational vector, the size
and shape of the flow channel, the aspect ratio (length to diameter) of the channel,
and any feature that may cause flow disturbances.
2. The basic flow regimes such as bubbly, stratified, churn, and annular-dispersed
occur in virtually all system configurations, such as slots, tubes, and rod bundles.
Details of the flow regimes of course vary according to channel geometry.
3. The apparently well-defined flow regimes described here do not represent a com-
plete picture of all possible flow configurations. In fact, by focusing on the flow
regime intricate details, it is possible to define a multitude of subtle flow regimes
(e.g., see Spedding and Spence, 1993). However, flow regime maps based on
the basic regimes presented here have achieved wide acceptance over time. The
regime change boundaries are generally difficult to define because of the occur-
rence of extensive “transitional” regimes.
4. Bubbly, plug/slug, churn, and annular flow also occur in minichannels (i.e., chan-
nels with 100 μm ≤ D ≤ 1 mm)
5. In adiabatic, horizontal flow, often for simplicity the regimes are divided into four
zones:
r stratified (smooth and wavy),
r intermittent (plug, slug, and all subtle flow patterns between them),
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4.3 Flow Regime Maps for Pipe Flow 129
105
104
103
Annular Wispy Annular
ρGj2G (kg/m.s2)
102
Churn
10 Bubbly
Bubbly-Slug
1.0 Slug
0.1
Figure 4.11. The flow regime map of Hewitt and Roberts (1969) for upward, cocurrent vertical
flow.
r annular-Dispersed, and
r bubbly.
6. Flow regimes in boiling and condensing flows are significantly different than those
in adiabatic channels. They will be discussed later.
(Gx)2
ρG jG2 = , (4.1)
ρG
[G(1 − x)]2
ρL jL2 = . (4.2)
ρL
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130 Two-Phase Flow Regimes – I
50 Dispersed
Froth
20 Annular
Wavy
Gx / λ (kg/m2.s)
10
5.0
2.0 Slug
1.0
0.5 Stratified Bubbly
Plug
0.2
0.1
10 20 50 100 1,000 5,000 20,000
G(1 − x)ψ (kg/m2.s)
Figure 4.12. The flow regime map of Baker (1954) for cocurrent flow in horizontal pipes.
The flow regime map of Baker (1954), shown in Fig. 4.12, deals with cocurrent
horizontal flow in pipes. The data base of this flow regime map is primarily air–water
mixture. The property parameters are defined as
1
ρG ρL 2
λ= , (4.3)
ρa ρW
1
σ μ ρ 2 3
W L W
ψ= . (4.4)
σ μW ρL
and are meant to account for deviations from air and water properties. In these
expressions the subscript a stands for air, W for water, G for the gas of interest, and
L for the liquid of interest. In Eq. (4.4), σW represents the air–water surface tension
and σ is the surface tension of the gas–liquid pair of interest.
The flow regime map of Mandhane et al. (1974), displayed in Fig. 4.13, is probably
the most widely accepted map for cocurrent flow in horizontal pipes. The range of
its data base is as follows:
Pipe diameter 12.7–165.1 mm
Liquid density 705–1,009 kg/m3
Gas density 0.80–50.5 kg/m3
Liquid viscosity 3×10−4 –9×10−2 kg/m·s
Gas viscosity 10−5 –2.2×10−5 kg/m·s
Surface tension 0.024–0.103 N/m
Liquid superficial velocity 0.9×10−3 –7.31 m/s
Gas superficial velocity 0.04–171 m/s
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4.4 Two-Phase Flow Regimes in Rod Bundles 131
10
Bubbly
1.0
Plug Slug
jL (m/s)
Annular
10−1
Wavy
Stratified
10−2
10−3
10−2 10−1 1.0 10 102
jG (m/s)
Figure 4.13. The flow regime map of Mandhane et al. (1974) for cocurrent flow in horizontal
pipes.
5.00
DISPERSED BUBBLE C
B
B C
A
1.00 D
0.50
BUBBLE CHURN
jL (m/s)
Annular
SLUG
0.10
Figure 4.14. The rod bundle flow regime data of Venkateswararao et al. (1982).
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132 Two-Phase Flow Regimes – I
)
Post-dryout annular
PO
(IAN) ISL slug (ISL) (MST)
)(M
IAN/ SLG/ ISL-
PO
Transition BBY/IAN ISL- SLG/ ANM/MST
/M
ISL
PR
SLG ANM
) (M
Bubbly Slug SLG/ Annular
PR
Pre-CHF ANM mist (ANM)
(BBY) (SLG)
(M
Unstratified
UTB
G
ρ Transition
0.5UTB TG – TI
Figure 4.15. Schematic of RELAP5-3D vertical flow regime map (RELAP5-3D Code Devel-
opment Team, 2005). Hatchings indicate transitions.
displays the experimental flow regime map of Venkateswararao et al. (1982). These
authors showed that their data could be predicted by the flow regime transition
models of Taitel et al. (1980) (designated as theory in the figure), to be described in
Chapter 7, with modifications to account for rod bundle geometric configuration.
Flow regime maps and models that are used in reactor thermal-hydraulic com-
puter codes usually assume that the basic flow regimes include bubbly, slug/churn, and
annular, and they often include relatively large regime transition regions as well. For
thermal-hydraulic codes, the following points should be noted. First, hydrodynamic
parameters that are not easily measurable can be readily used in the development
of regime models because these parameters are calculated and therefore “known”
by the code. Second, what is really important for reactor codes is the correct pre-
diction of regime-dependent parameters such as interfacial friction, heat transfer
rates, etc.
The two-phase flow regime models of a well-known thermal-hydraulic code are
now briefly discussed as examples. These models utilize the void fraction and volu-
metric fluxes, based on the argument that in transient and multidimensional situations
they are the appropriate parameters that determine the two-phase flow morphology
(Mishima and Ishii, 1984).
The RELAP5–3D code (RELAP5–3D Code Development Team, 2005) uses sep-
arate flow regime maps for vertical and horizontal flow configurations. The verti-
cal flow regime map is used when 60◦ ≤ |θ | ≤ 90◦ , the horizontal flow regime map
is applied when 0◦ ≤ |θ | ≤ 30◦ , and interpolation is applied when 30◦ < |θ | < 60◦ ,
where θ is the angle of inclination with respect to the horizontal plane. (Note that
regime maps are primarily used for the calculation of parameters such as interfacial
area concentration, interfacial heat transfer coefficients, etc. Interpolation is used for
the calculation of these parameters.) The flow regime map for vertical flow is shown
in Fig. 4.15. Distinction is made between precritical heat flux (pre-CHF) and post-
CHF (post-dryout) regimes. Flow boiling and critical heat flux and postcritical heat
flux (post-CHF) will be discussed in Chapters 13 and 14, respectively. The post-CHF
regimes occur when, because of boiling, sustained or macroscopic physical contact
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4.4 Two-Phase Flow Regimes in Rod Bundles 133
Figure 4.16. Schematic of RELAP5-3D horizontal flow regime map (RELAP5-3D Code
Development Team, 2005). Hatchings indicate transitions.
between the surface and the liquid is interrupted. Post-CHF regimes are assumed
when TG − TI > 1 K. The parameters in Fig. 4.15 are defined as follows:
UTB = 0.35 g Dρ/ρL (Taylor bubble rise velocity in vertical tubes) (4.5)
⎧ ∗
⎪ αBS for G ≤ 2,000 kg/m2 ·s, (4.6)
⎪
⎨
∗ ∗ G − 2,000
αBS = αBS + (0.5 − αBS ) for 2,000 < G < 3,000 kg/m2 ·s, (4.7)
⎪
⎪ 1,000
⎩
0.5 for G ≥ 3,000 kg/m2 ·s, (4.8)
∗
αBS = max{0.25 min[1, (0.045D∗ )8 , 10−3 ]}, (4.9)
D∗ = D/ σ/gρ, (4.10)
αCD = αBS + 0.2, (4.11)
f
αSA = max αAMmin
, min αcrit , αcrit
e
, αBS
max
, (4.12)
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134 Two-Phase Flow Regimes – I
θ′
Gas
Figure 4.17. Definition of the angle θ .
LIQUID
⎧
⎪
⎨0.25 for G ≤ G∗1 , (4.22)
αBS = 0.25 + 0.00025 (G − G∗1 ) for G∗1 < G < G∗2 , (4.23)
⎪
⎩
0.5 for G ≥ G∗2 , (4.24)
where G∗1 = 2,000 kg/m2 ·s, G∗2 = 3,000 kg/m2 ·s, αDE = 0.75, αSA = 0.8, and θ is the
angle defined in Fig. 4.17 when stratified flow is assumed.
These flow regime transition models are sometimes modified and improved for
various conditions (see, e.g., Hari and Hassan, 2002).
PROBLEMS
4.1 Saturated liquid R-134a is flowing in a vertical heated tube that has a diameter
of 1 cm. The pressure is 16.8 bar, which remains approximately constant along the
tube. A heat flux of 100 kW/m2 is imposed on the tube.
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Problems 135
a) Assuming that friction and changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligible,
prove that the first law of thermodynamics leads to
d xeq 4qw
G = ,
dz Dhfg
where z is the axial coordinate.
b) Assuming the flow regime maps based on adiabatic flow apply, using the flow
regime map of Hewitt and Roberts (1969) determine the sequence of two-phase
flow regimes and the axial coordinate where each regime is established for the
following mass fluxes: G = 200, 500, 1,500 kg/m2 ·s.
4.2 Repeat Problem 4.1, this time assuming that the tube is horizontal, and use the
flow regime maps of Baker (1954) as well as Mandhane et al. (1974). Compare and
discuss the predictions of the two flow regime maps.
4.4 The fuel rods in a PWR are 1.1 cm in diameter and 3.66 m long. The rods are
arranged in a square lattice, as shown in Fig. P4.4, with a pitch-to-diameter ratio
of 1.33. For a period of time during a particular core uncovery incident, the core
remains at 40-bar pressure, while saturated liquid water enters the bottom of the
core. The heat flux along one of the channels is assumed to be uniform and equal
to 6.0 × 103 W/m2 . The flow is assumed to be one dimensional and the equilibrium
quality at the exit of the channel is 0.12.
Pitch
z
Flow
Channel L Figure P4.4. Figure for Problem 4.4.
Fuel Rods
a) Assuming that quality varies along the channel according to AG dxeq /dz =
pheat qw /hfg (where A is the flow area and pheat is the heated perimeter), calculate
the coolant mass flux.
b) Using the flow regime map of Hewitt and Roberts (1969), determine the sequence
of flow regimes and the approximate axial location of regime transitions.
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136 Two-Phase Flow Regimes – I
4.5 In an experiment with a test section that includes a vertical pipe with D = 5.25 cm
inner diameter, cocurrent upward two-phase flow regimes are to be studied. Liquid
superficial velocities are set at jf = 0.2, 1.0, and 2.5 m/s, jg is varied from 0.1 to 10 m/s,
and the flow regimes and their transition conditions are recorded. Using the flow
regime map of Hewitt and Roberts (1969), and the flow regime map of the RELAP5-
3D code, find the flow regimes and the conditions when they are established for
saturated steam–water mixtures at 1- and 5-bar pressures. Compare the predictions
of the two methods, and comment on the results. For void fraction calculation, when
needed, use the following correlation for the slip ratio:
ρf
Sr = 1 − x 1 − .
ρg
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