Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
opea ne
n Association of Nuclear Medi ci
Audrey Taylor
Sue Huggett
Chief Technologist
Member of EANM TC Education Sub-Committee
Dept of Nuclear Medicine, Guy’s and St Thomas’
Programme Coordinator for Nuclear Medicine
Hospitals
Technology
London, United Kingdom
Dept of Radiography, City University, London,
United Kingdom
Régis Lecoultre
Technologists Educator
HECVSanté - filière TRM, Lausanne, Switzerland
EANM
Contents
Foreword 4
Wim van den Broek
Introduction 5
Sue Huggett
References 44
This booklet was sponsored by an educational grant from Bristol-Myers Squibb Medical Imaging.
The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily of Bristol-Myers Squibb Medical
Imaging.
Foreword
Wim van den Broek
Technologists have become an important In early 2004, the idea of providing a series
group within the EANM. Since its inception, of booklets on imaging for technologists was
the Technologist Committee of the EANM has born. By September 2004, thanks to the hard
been working to improve the professional work of the EANM Technologist Sub-Commit-
expertise of nuclear medicine technologists tee on Education, it was possible to achieve
(NMTs) in Europe. the first goal in this series: this booklet on
myocardial perfusion scintigraphy (MPS) for
Expertise is the keyword; NMTs’ professional technologists.
and practical expertise is essential to ensur-
ing an expert nuclear medicine examination. I hope this booklet will find its way into the
The NMT must safeguard patients’ wellbeing, pockets of technologists across Europe, and
ensure each examination is performed cor- prove a valuable aid in the daily work of NMTs
rectly, and maintain an operating procedure performing MPS scans.
that guarantees the quality of the results.
Many thanks to all who have contributed to
In 1998, a start was made with the publica- this project, in particular the members of the
tion of ‘Competencies for the European NMT’, EANM Technologist Sub-Committee on Edu-
which was followed by ‘Advanced Skills and cation, and to Bristol-Myers Squibb Medical
Responsibility Guidelines for the Senior NMT’ Imaging for the sponsorship that made this
and other publications, all promoting good project possible.
practice for NMTs.
Wim van den Broek
Chairman
EANM Technologist Committee
Introduction
Sue Huggett
EANM
In early 2004, the EANM Technologist Commit- Knowledge of imaging theory can provide the
tee considered producing a booklet on myo- technologist with a deeper and more satis-
cardial perfusion scintigraphy (MPS) for tech- fying understanding of practical techniques,
nologists. This was an exciting opportunity to improve decision-making, and allow the tech-
involve technologists from many European nologist to pass on accurate information to
countries in a collaborative effort to produce patients, their carers, and other staff. Patient
a piece of work for and mainly by our own care is always paramount, and being able to
profession. We wanted to provide informa- explain why certain foods must be avoided
tion for reference in a handy form that could or why it is necessary to lie in awkward posi-
be kept nearby or even in the technologist’s tions improves compliance and is satisfying
pocket when scanning. in its own right.
Owing to the timescale, we decided that this Protocols vary between departments, even
booklet should focus on traditional tomo- within the broader terms of the EANM Guide-
graphic MPS and gated tomographic MPS lines, and this booklet is not meant to supplant
methods, with the possibility of further work these protocols but hopefully to supplement
on PET methodologies to follow. Members and explain the rationales behind them. This
of the Education Sub-Committee drafted a will hopefully lead to more thoughtful work-
framework and set about finding contribu- ing practices. For example, both checking
tors for the various sections. It was gratifying for suitability and proper preparation before
that everyone we approached was happy to a study can save time and reduce radiation
help. doses. Information from and about patients
can be incomplete or misleading, so under-
Of course, all nuclear medicine studies need to standing the importance of what they say
be performed well to obtain optimal diagnos- on arrival is vital if the technologist is to spot
tic information. MPS in particular encompass- potential problems early on.
es many areas of technologist practice, from
stressing and setting up ECG traces to analysis In order to know when and how to apply
and display. As a result, the opportunities to variations in the protocol for acquisition or
maintain and improve quality are sizeable. analysis, we must be aware of the rationales
behind certain strategies. For example, obese
We hope this booklet will prove useful in all patients attenuate more photons, so in such
areas. cases it could be advisable to linger longer at
each angle or to use a different order filter if
total counts are low.
The same philosophy applies to equipment;
if you understand the consequences of any
suspicious QC results, you will know when to
pay closer attention to certain parameters. We
hope that this booklet can provide informa-
tion as and when it is needed so that the in-
tegration of theory and practice is facilitated
and encouraged.
Applications and Rationale
of Myocardial Perfusion Imaging
Alberto Cuocolo
EANM
During the past two decades, the clinical role 4. Monitoring of treatment effect after coro-
of nuclear medicine procedures in cardiology nary revascularisation procedures
has evolved significantly. Initially, the diagnos-
tic role of nuclear medicine in detecting myo- 1. Diagnosis of coronary artery disease
cardial ischaemia in patients with suspected Myocardial perfusion imaging with exercise or
coronary artery disease was emphasised. Sub- pharmacological stress testing is an accepted
sequently, myocardial perfusion imaging has technique for the detection and localisation of
made significant advances in the determina- coronary artery disease (1,2).
tion of prognosis in patients with ischaemic
heart disease, preoperative risk assessment During exercise or pharmacological stress, the
for patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery, vasodilating capacity of microcirculation is lim-
and assessment of the efficacy of revasculari- ited and obstruction in the epicardial coronary
sation in patients undergoing coronary artery arteries becomes physiologically important,
bypass surgery or interventional procedures. providing a mechanism for the non-invasive di-
More recently, particular attention has been agnosis of obstructive coronary artery disease.
focused on the ability of nuclear cardiology Myocardial perfusion abnormalities detected
to characterise myocardial tissue and to assess during either exercise or pharmacological
myocardial viability in patients with ischaemic stress are due to differential blood flow be-
left ventricular (LV) dysfunction. tween normal and stenotic arteries.
Common clinical indications for an MPS The determination of these disparities is de-
study pendent on the ability of different tracers to
1. Diagnosis of coronary artery disease: pres- reflect the changes in increased blood flow
ence, location (coronary territory), and extent produced by the stressors.
(number of vascular territories involved)
All myocardial perfusion imaging agents avail-
2. Risk assessment (prognosis) in patients: both able for clinical use have shown a linear rela-
after myocardial infarction and preoperatively tionship up to approximately twofold higher
for major surgery that may be a risk for coro- than baseline. Beyond this level, there appears
nary events to be a decrease in the uptake of most agents
in relation to blood flow. The plateau effect dif-
3. Assessment of myocardial viability: differen- fers demonstrably between tracers. Compared
tiating ischaemia from scar, and predicting im- to resting blood flow, it should be assumed
provement of LV function after interventions that exercise will typically cause a two- to
threefold increase in myocardial blood flow,
while stress in response to pharmacological All these tracers have different kinetic char-
agents will typically be accompanied by a acteristics, which must be considered when
three- to eightfold increase. attempting to maximise their clinical applica-
tion in stress imaging. Moreover, it must be
Myocardial perfusion tracers available for remembered that in clinical imaging ideal
clinical use include thallium (Tl-201) and conditions do not always exist.
technetium-99m (Tc-99m) labelled agents
(e.g. sestamibi and tetrofosmin). The relation- Despite the differences in tracer kinetics,
ship between blood flow and the activities comparative studies involving thallium and
of these tracers has been widely studied. Tc-99m labelled agents have failed to show
Blood flow and thallium activity show a lin- significant differences. Several clinical stud-
ear relationship up to at least 3 ml/min/gm. ies have documented the clinical impact of
However, at approximately 3 ml/min/gm thallium imaging in the detection of coronary
there appears to be a plateau effect such artery disease. In particular, the sensitivity of
that further increases in blood flow do not single-photon emission computed tomog-
change thallium activity. The extraction frac- raphy (SPECT) thallium imaging has been
tion of sestamibi is less than thallium. Data reported to be approximately 90%, with a
from animal studies demonstrate a linear re- relatively low specificity of 60% to 70%. Since
lationship between blood flow and sestamibi their introduction, sestamibi and tetrofosmin
uptake, up to approximately 2 ml/min/gm. have been compared to thallium as the gold
Above this level, uptake is not linked to in- standard in the identification of patients with
creasing flow in a linear fashion. Similar data coronary artery disease. The reported respec-
are emerging for tetrofosmin, though this tive average sensitivities and specificities of
tracer demonstrates a plateau during stress at sestamibi and tetrofosmin in the identifica-
a lower blood flow level than does sestamibi. tion of coronary artery disease have been
Thus, thallium, sestamibi, and tetrofosmin all very similar to those obtained with thallium
exhibit a plateau effect that occurs above imaging. However, some studies have re-
the typical blood flow range for exercise or ported that sestamibi and tetrofosmin might
most pharmacological stress. The Tc-99m la- underestimate the total extent of myocardial
belled tracer with the best extraction fraction ischaemia, relative to thallium imaging, in pa-
(higher than thallium) is teboroxime, which tients with coronary artery disease (3). On the
shows a linear correlation within the range other hand, significant differences regarding
of pharmacological stress. However, the rapid the image quality have been reported in all
clearance of this tracer from the myocardium comparative studies performed. In particular,
has made this agent difficult to use clinically. images obtained using sestamibi or tetrofos-
Chapter 1: Applications and Rationale of Myocardial Perfusion Imaging – Alberto Cuocolo
EANM
min are of superior quality to those obtained 2. Risk assessment (prognosis) in patients
with thallium and tend to show fewer soft tis- with coronary artery disease
sue attenuation artefacts. Better definition of Another key role of myocardial perfusion im-
the myocardium, endocardial and epicardial aging is its ability to provide prognostic infor-
borders, and perfusion defects has been ob- mation in patients following acute myocardial
served. In general, there is much less statistical infarction, in patients with chronic coronary
noise when using sestamibi and tetrofosmin, artery disease, and in patients scheduled for
and the myocardial-to-background ratios are major surgery (5). The utility of thallium scin-
reportedly similar to those obtained with tigraphy associated with exercise pharmaco-
thallium imaging. Moreover, the permissible logical stress testing for this purpose has been
administered dose for Tc-99m labelled agents widely documented. In particular, it has been
is much larger than for thallium. This results in demonstrated that in patients without prior
an increased pixel count density for Tc-99m myocardial infarction the number of reversible
labelled tomographic projection images and thallium defects is the most important statis-
permits the use of higher resolution filters dur- tically significant predictor of future cardiac
ing reconstruction. events. Moreover, the extent and severity of
thallium defects correlate with the occurrence
Modern nuclear cardiology imaging tech- of cardiac events. Several studies have report-
niques coupled with the development of Tc- ed similar results for the prognostic value of
99m labelled perfusion tracers now permit thallium stress imaging, both after myocardial
simultaneous myocardial perfusion and LV infarction and in patients with suspected or
function studies in a single test. The potential known coronary artery disease. The data from
advantages of simultaneous assessment of these studies demonstrate that the extent of
myocardial perfusion and LV function have perfusion abnormality found through SPECT
recently been outlined (4). Gated imaging of imaging is the single most important prog-
the perfused myocardium is a well-established nostic predictor.
technique for this purpose, using a single in-
jection of a Tc-99m labelled perfusion tracer. More recently, the prognostic value of Tc-99m
Recent data has demonstrated the impact and labelled myocardial perfusion agents has been
clinical role of these studies in the diagnosis demonstrated with data comparable to that
of patients with suspected or known coronary of thallium imaging. In particular, the extent
artery disease; the addition of functional in- of hypoperfusion in post-stress sestamibi im-
formation to perfusion data has been shown ages can be factored into the decision-mak-
to improve the detection of multivessel dis- ing process when deciding whether to select
ease. medical therapy or revascularisation. Patients
with mild reversible perfusion defects who tion of viable myocardium, different thallium
are judged to be at low or intermediate risk protocols have been used in previous studies
can usually be treated medically, whereas pa- to assess myocardial viability in patients with
tients with high risk SPECT reversibility results previous myocardial infarction and chronic LV
are candidates for further invasive strategies. dysfunction. In particular, if the clinical issue
Moreover, a strategy incorporating stress MPS to be addressed is the viability of one or more
is also cost-effective. A large study in stable ventricular regions with systolic dysfunction
angina patients referred for stress myocardial and not whether there is also inducible isch-
perfusion SPECT imaging or direct catheterisa- aemia, rest-redistribution thallium imaging
tion revealed that costs were higher for the can yield useful viability data. In particular,
initial invasive strategy in clinical subsets with it has been demonstrated that quantitative
low, intermediate, or high pre-test likelihoods analysis of rest-redistribution images predicts
of disease. Diagnostic follow-up costs of care recovery of regional LV function and compares
were 30-41% higher for patients undergoing favourably to the results of both thallium re-
direct catheterisation, without any reduction in injection imaging and metabolic PET imaging
mortality or infarction compared with patients (7). Optimal interpretation of thallium imaging
having stress perfusion imaging as the initial for the detection of myocardial viability can be
test for coronary artery disease detection. accomplished by measuring regional tracer
uptake and by selecting the most appropri-
3. Assessment of myocardial viability ate cut-off to differentiate reversible from ir-
It has been demonstrated that a third of pa- reversible LV dysfunction (8-10). Furthermore,
tients with chronic coronary artery disease sestamibi and tetrofosmin showed similar re-
and LV dysfunction have the potential for sults to those of thallium scintigraphy in the
significant improvement in ventricular func- identification of viable myocardium (8).
tion after myocardial revascularisation. These
findings have several implications. Firstly, A quantitative analysis of tracer content as well
there is the important relationship between as the administration of nitroglycerin prior to
LV function and patients’ survival. In recent tracer injection increases the overall accuracy
years, numerous studies have demonstrated of Tc-99m labelled agents for identifying vi-
that nuclear cardiology techniques involving able myocardium. Recent data indicate that
SPECT provide important viability information in patients with chronic myocardial infarction
in patients with coronary artery disease and and impaired LV function on nitrate treatment,
impaired ventricular function (6-12). Although quantitative analysis of resting thallium and
positron emission tomography (PET) remains sestamibi regional activities comparably pre-
the most accurate technique for the detec- dict recovery of regional and global ventricular
10
Chapter 1: Applications and Rationale of Myocardial Perfusion Imaging – Alberto Cuocolo
EANM
function following revascularisation proce- that the amount of dysfunctional myocardi-
dures (11). Nitroglycerin most likely enhances um with preserved thallium uptake provides
myocardial viability detection by increasing independent prognostic information that is
coronary collateral flow, decreasing pre-load incremental to that obtained from clinical,
and after-load, and direct vasodilatation of functional, and angiographic data in patients
stenotic segments in coronary arteries (12- with chronic ischaemic LV dysfunction. In
14). These physiological effects in combina- particular, patients with a substantial amount
tion may enhance the delivery of myocardial (>30% of the total left ventricle) of dysfunc-
perfusion agents to regions of myocardium tional myocardium with preserved tracer
supplied by severely stenotic vessels. activity exhibited the greatest LV functional
benefit after successful revascularisation (17).
In the assessment of myocardial viability, phar- Moreover, patients with more than 50% viable
macological stress testing in combination with myocardium represented a subgroup at high-
wall motion analysis via gated images of the risk of cardiac death in whom successful revas-
perfused myocardium has been used (15). Al- cularisation improved survival (17). Altogether
though the recovery of regional function after these observations seem to lend further sup-
revascularisation has generally been regarded port to the choice of coronary revascularisa-
as the gold standard for detecting myocardial tion in patients with evidence of a substantial
viability, the clinical outcome after revasculari- amount of dysfunctional myocardium with
sation is a better and more valuable end-point. preserved myocardial perfusion tracer activ-
The criteria for viability determination with re- ity. Thus, it appears that the assessment of
spect to its true clinical impact should be the myocardial viability should be a mandatory
prediction of short- and long-term outcomes step in clinical decision-making for patients
such as cardiovascular mortality and recurrent with reduced global and regional LV systolic
myocardial infarction (16). It should be kept function, to better predict the potential value
in mind that preserved myocardial perfusion of revascularisation in improving functional
tracer uptake in zones of asynergy may have status and survival.
a sub-optimal value for positive prediction of
improved segmental function after revascu- 4. Monitoring of treatment effect after
larisation. However, it appears to predict a high coronary revascularisation procedures
cardiac death and infarction rate with medi- The use of exercise or pharmacological myo-
cal therapy and identifies a group of patients cardial perfusion imaging in the assessment of
with hibernating myocardium who would be interventions in chronic ischaemic heart dis-
predicted to have an excellent outcome after ease is indicated for the evaluation of resteno-
revascularisation. It has been demonstrated sis after percutaneous transluminal coronary
11
angioplasty (PTCA) in symptomatic patients, ischaemia is the cause of chest pain. Myocar-
and in the assessment of ischaemia in symp- dial imaging studies offer several advantages
tomatic patients after coronary artery bypass over stress electrocardiography, particularly
grafting (CABG). Radionuclide techniques are in patients with an abnormal resting electro-
also indicated in the assessment of selected cardiogram, multivessel coronary disease, or a
asymptomatic patients after PTCA or CABG, limitation to exercise stress testing. After PTCA,
such as those with an abnormal electrocardio- nuclear cardiac imaging procedures are not
graphic response to exercise and those with generally recommended in the absence of
rest electrocardiographic changes precluding recurrent symptoms, particularly since im-
identification of ischaemia during exercise. aging abnormalities would not likely result
in either a changed therapeutic regimen or
SPECT exercise imaging is an excellent tool repeat revascularisation. However, recent
for the detection of restenosis and disease data demonstrate that extent and severity
progression after PTCA after both one and of myocardial ischaemia found via exercise
multivessel angioplasty, and in complete and SPECT performed between 12 and 18 months
partial revascularisation. Hecht et al (18), study- after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI)
ing exercise tomographic thallium imaging in predict cardiac events during long-term fol-
the detection of restenosis after PTCA, showed low-up in both symptomatic and symptom-
sensitivity of 93% for scintigraphic studies and free patients (20).
52% for exercise electrocardiographic studies,
specificity of 77% vs 64%, and accuracy of 86% Exercise scintigraphy after CABG demonstrates
vs 57%, respectively. Moreover, it has been improved regional myocardial perfusion
demonstrated that, after PTCA, sensitivity and in most patients. After CABG, the New York
accuracy of exercise electrocardiography in Heart Association’s functional class improved
the detection of restenosis were significantly significantly. Early (less than 3 months) post-
less than those of SPECT imaging for patients CABG, myocardial imaging may be useful for
with silent or symptomatic ischaemia (19). the detection of perioperative infarction, or if
Patients with less typical symptoms and in- early graft closure with recurrence of angina
termediate probability of restenosis can be symptoms is suspected. Beyond 3 months,
accurately assessed for this PTCA complication and following the recovery of hibernation
by myocardial perfusion imaging studies. In effects, non-invasive cardiac imaging is use-
the patients with recurrent atypical symptoms, ful for detecting asymptomatic graft attrition
stress perfusion imaging should be performed and the recurrence of myocardial ischaemia.
soon after the onset of symptoms in order to However, this approach cannot be routinely
determine whether persistent myocardial recommended in all patients who undergo
12
Chapter 1: Applications and Rationale of Myocardial Perfusion Imaging – Alberto Cuocolo
EANM
CABG because it would not be cost-effective
to screen this large population in the 1 to 2
years following CABG surgery.
Contraindications
Myocardial perfusion imaging is non-invasive
- the complication rate of dynamic exercise
and pharmacological stress tests is low and
well established (at most 0.01% deaths and
0.02% morbidity) (21-24). Therefore, except in
patients with unstable heart disease or other
contraindications to stress, the risk is not con-
sidered significant.
13
Patient Preparation
Julie Martin and Audrey Taylor
14
Chapter 2: Patient Preparation – Julie Martin and Audrey Taylor
EANM
Patients with communication difficulties date of birth, etc., it is advisable for them
to sign as written evidence of confirmation
Ideally, patients who for any reason are un- of the relevant details.
able to identify themselves should wear an
identification wristband. Patient information
• Hearing difficulties - Use written questions Patients can be required to send in a list of
and ask the patient to supply the infor- medications, approximate height, weight, and
mation verbally or write their responses asthma status so that stressing drugs can be
down. chosen in advance. They should be advised
to contact the department if they are diabetic
• Speech difficulties - Ask the patient to to ensure that they are given the appropriate
write down their name, date of birth, guidance regarding eating, medication, and
address, and other relevant details. so on.
• Language difficulties - If an accompany- A full explanation of the procedure should be
ing person is unable to interpret the given, including risks, contraindications and
questions, then the study should be side effects of stress agents used, time taken
rescheduled to a time when a member of for scan, the need to remain still, and so on.
staff/relative/interpreter with the appro-
priate language skills will be available. Ideally, patients should be phoned before-
hand to remind them of their appointment
• Unconscious patient - Check the patient’s and to give them an opportunity to discuss
ID wristband for the correct name and any concerns they may have.
date of birth. If no wristband is attached,
ask the nurse looking after the patient to Pregnancy
positively confirm the patient’s ID. Women of child-bearing potential should
have their pregnancy status checked using a
• Confused patient - If an inpatient, check
form similar to that shown on the right.
the patient’s ID wristband for the correct
name and date of birth. If no wristband is • The operator administering the radiophar-
attached, ask the nurse looking after the maceutical should advise the patient re-
patient to positively confirm the patient’s garding minimising contact with pregnant
ID. If an outpatient, ask the person accom- persons and children.
panying the patient to positively confirm
• The operator administering the radiophar-
the patient’s ID.
maceutical should check that any accom-
• If a relative/friend/interpreter provides panying person is not pregnant (e.g. escort
information regarding the patient’s name, nurse).
15
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