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 ISSN: 1821-3480
eISSN: 2406-1379

EXERCISE AND QUALITY OF LIFE

Journal of Science in Sport
Vol. 10 (2018) No. 2 (1-62)

Contents

Milan JELIĆ
Differences in the achievement motivation in young football players and non-athletes ................................... 5

Miroljub IVANOVIĆ and Uglješa IVANOVIĆ

Prediction of mental health among cadet football players based on the emotional intelligence and
perfectionism ................................................................................................................................................... 13

Konstantinos GKAGKANAS, Dimitris HATZIMANOUIL and Vasilis SKANDALIS

Gender differentiation in tactical options in defense and attack on beach handball ........................................ 23

Milenko JANKOVIĆ, Karolina BERENJI, Zoran MILIĆ, Sandra VUJKOV and Ágnes HALASI
Inclusion of preschool children into organized activity in leisure time ........................................................... 31

Georgios ZAROTIS
Fitness- and Healthcenter evaluation by resigned members............................................................................ 39

Iordanis STAVRIANOS, Vasilios KAIMAKAMIS, Vasilios TSIMARAS and Athanasios ANASTASIOU

Perceptions and attitudes concerning individuals with disabilities in ancient Greece: physical exercise as a
means of prevention and treatment of health-related problems....................................................................... 47

GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS ..................................................................................................................... 55

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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Differences in the achievement motivation in young football players
and non-athletes
Milan Jelić 1✉
Received: 15th May, 2018
Accepted: 14th August, 2018
© The Author(s) 2018. This article is published with open access.
Abstract
There was lot of previous researches about
achievement motivation, but also not lot of
comparisons between young footballers and non-
footballers. This article intends to improve
psychological way of working with young
sportsmen and help to coaches how to approach in
positive way to young person. The main objective of
this research was to determine the differences in the
level of achievement motivation at boys age 10-14
years (N=200) in relation with sport status, school
success and economic characteristics who were
divided into 2 subsamples: who are/or not engaged
in football. In this study, for data collection the
MOP2002 scale was used (Franceško, Mihić, &
Bala, 2002). For the purpose of data processing in
this study were used methods of descriptive and
multivariate statistics (t-test, canonical discriminant
analysis, F-test). Application of canonical
discriminant analysis which showed that the
discriminating canonical correlation function of
0,39 (λ= 0.86; χ2 = 22.40; r = 0.00), which means
there is a statistically significant difference
regarding the structure of the achievement
motivation. The results of the research indicate that
engagement in football by an individual causes the
higher level of the achievement motivation, with the
most pronounced contribution by the component
“persistence in achieving goals”, and then “goals
achievement as a source of satisfaction”. Also, the
✉ jelke80@yahoo.com
1 University of Novi Sad, Association of Centers for
Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Studies and
Research, Novi Sad, Serbia
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 5-12
DOI: 10.31382/eqol.181201
results show that the economic status of the family
didn’t contribute to differences in achievement
motivation of their children, and difference in the
school success of the respondents is followed by
level of its motivation.
Keywords motivation in football players school
achievement • economic status • older school age
Introduction
The actuator of certain behaviour in a man is not
necessarily one motive, but rather a number of
motives at the same time. Most often, one of them
is more powerful and imposes itself as the first and
most important. In this, there are certain rules that
determine which of the motives will be the
strongest and which will dominate. One of the
most researched motives in psychology is
achievement motivation. Among many authors
there is an agreement that the hypothetical
construct of achievement motivation is related to a
stable disposition which may be more or less
pronounced in different people and which is
complex in structure.
Among the first who pointed to the existence of
this motivation was Murray (1938), who argues
that the basic driving force of a man includes 20
needs. Among others, these include the need for
achievement, and it is defined as “a complex need
that manifests itself through the desire to achieve
and accomplish something, to master and
manipulate with work, people and ideas, to
overcome obstacles and achieve something that is
appreciated, to compete with others and to stand
out in front of others, to invest a long repetitive
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EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 5-12
effort to achieve something that is very difficult”.
This definition indicates that the achievement
motivation is related to a large number of other
motives, such as the competitiveness motivation,
prestige motivation, dominance motivation, etc.
The achievement motivation is often defined as a
devotion to stand out compared to others, but also in
comparison to oneself, through own
accomplishments (Franceško, Mihić, & Bala, 2002).
This is a complex motivation consisting of several
simple ones, among which the competitiveness
motivation, the need for reputation, the level of
aspiration, etc. are the most emphasized. This group
of authors gave an empirical contribution as part of a
check of the metric characteristics of a scale for
measuring the achievement motivation, constructed
by them. Their conclusion is that there are four
components within this motivation: 1) two basic
components comprised by this achievement
motivation involves are setting goals and competing
with other people, which corresponds to McClelland's
concept of achievement motivation; 2) the other two
factors (persistence in achieving goals and orientation
towards planning) relate to the characteristics and
forms of behavior that have an instrumental function
in the realization of the mentioned basic components
of this motivation. According to McClelland (1969),
the achievement motivation is “the general tendency
of an individual to compete with standards of success
that he considers worth and socially significant.” So,
the achievement motivation is the tendency to invest
effort and achieve something worthwhile and to stand
out. He pointed out that this complex motivational
disposition contains two components: the tendency of
a person to set goals and competition with other
people. By its very nature, the achievement
motivation falls within the category of social motives
and it is largely the result of social factors, culture,
social ideology, family, school, and so on, which are
value orientations (Milošević, Maksimović,
Milovanović, Matić, Jakšić, & Vuković, 2016;
Raftery, Grolnick, & Flamm, 2012; Schunk, Meece,
& Pintrich, 2014). Also, this motivation is determined
as a cognitive motivational factor (Bong, 2009; Deci,
& Ryan, 2012; McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger,
1989). People with a developed achievement
motivation think and behave in a certain way. The
achievement motivation is reflected in the pursuit of
success and the achievement of high goals. It is
defined by two tendencies: towards success and
towards avoiding failure, or fear of failure (Cox,
1998). The result, or the difference between these two
tendencies, is achievement motivation.
6
Havelka and Lazarević (1981) also gave their
contribution to the clarification of the construct of
achievement motivation, pointing to the existence of
a general and specific achievement motivations. This
hypothesis was also supported by the results of their
research which showed that the general achievement
motivation can be low among the respondents, while
at the same time specific achievement motivation is
high within a specific activity: sports, education,
professional. It is necessary to emphasize the very
important role of sports, and therefore also of
football, in pedagogical processes. It has become an
inseparable part of education, imposing itself as a
prominent educational tool through activities of
physical education, that is, sports in school. Football
as a sports game, and therefore an integral part of
physical education, has found its stronghold in many
spheres of human life. As the most massive sport, it
has become an integral part of everyday life and
work, whether it is directly exercised (professional,
amateur, school sport, etc.) or indirectly (watching
games through the media, going to stadiums,
supporting, etc.).
Most often, in sports practice, not enough
attention is given to the importance of certain factors
of psychological nature. They are either taken for
granted or neglected, in any case, the opportunities
they create are not used for sports performance to the
adequate extent. Starting from the above premise, this
research should highlight the psychological
dimension of active engagement in sports (Gröpel,
Wegner, & Schüler, 2016), with particular emphasis
on factors of motivational nature that can be most
influenced by trainers (Barić, & Bucik, 2009; Khong
Chiu, Nor Idayu, Najib Ahmad, & Khor Poy 2014;
Soyer, Sari, & Laurenţiu-Gabriel, 2014), but also by
the players themselves. Only the most persistent ones
survive in sports, which is also linked to the motives
that influenced the commitment to sports at the first
place. Pre-selection is performed at the very
beginning of the engagement in sport when all those
who were not seriously interested give up.
Motivation, of course, plays an important role in later
phases of sport, at that moment more in the moral-
willing sphere (persistence in investing effort to
achieve the goal, hard work on training sessions, etc.).
Motivation in sport is also manifested through
efficiency (Duda, & Nicholls, 1992; Mouloud, & Abd
Elkader, 2016). Interest, persistence, focus on goals,
most often have to be fruitful. Motivation also leads
to differences in achievement between athletes who
are equally physically and tactically - technically
prepared (Tubić, 2004; Hasset, 2016; Zuber, &
 EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 5-12

Conzelmann, 2013; Schorer, Baker, Lotz, & Busch, perceived as a reward; 4) orientation towards
2010). planning: the items saturated by this factor indicate
the tendency of a person to plan activities in order to
The aim of the research is to determine the
achieve a predetermined goal.
differences in the level of the achievement motivation
in boys of the older school age, the attendants of the School achievement is a success achieved at the
school of football and boys who are not engaged in end of the past school year (sufficient, good, very
football, from Novi Sad primary school, and to good and excellent success).
determine the differences between their school
The economic status variable implied its
achievement and certain characteristics of their
assessment (less good, medium good, and very good).
economic status.
In the study, the methods of descriptive and
multivariate statistics were used to determine the
Method significance of the differences between the groups of
respondents, as well as between the contribution of
The study included a total of 200 boys of older school individual variables to the level of the achievement
age (10-14 years old). Of that, 100 are attendants of motivation (t - test, variance analysis and canonical
the FK Borac’s school of football, and 100 are discriminant analysis).
randomly selected respondents from the elementary
school “Dušan Radović” from the territory of the city
Results and Discussion
of Novi Sad. For both subsamples, written form of
parental consent is collected.
In the possible range of values from 1 to 5, for both
The achievement motivation is seen as a complex
groups of respondents (engaged in football and not
disposition whose components are: competing with
engaged in football), the obtained mean values on the
other people, achieving the goal as a source of
MOP2002 scale are shown, per components and the
satisfaction, persistence in achieving the goal and
obtained results shown in Table 1 indicate a tendency
orientation towards planning. For the collection of
towards a high level of significance of the
data, the scale MOP2002, developed by Franceško,
achievement motivation. In particular, when we look
Mihić, & Bala (2002), was used. The scale contains
at these groups, we observe that in respondents
55 items and is composed as a classic scale of claims
engaged in football, all components of the
of Likert type. By circling certain numerical values
achievement motivation differ.
on a scale, the respondent estimates the extent to
which a particular claim relates to him (completely The highest average value obtained on the
false - 1; mostly false - 2; I'm not sure - 3; mostly true subscale is for the “achieving goal as a source of
- 4; and completely true - 5). The MOP2002 satisfaction” (4.55), followed by “persistence in
instrument consists of four subscales, each of which achieving goals” (4.18), “competition with others”
measures one of the components, that is, factors of the (4.14) and with the lowest mean value for “orientation
general achievement motivation. towards planning” (3.66). The results of the t-test
show that respondents engaged in football have a
These are: 1) competing with others: a factor
higher level of significance of an achievement
defined by items that indicate the tendency of an
motivation than respondents not engaged in football
individual to stand out compared to others and be
in all its components: competition with other people,
more successful than others; 2) Persistence in
persistence in achieving goals, achieving goals as a
achieving goals: a factor defined by items indicating
source of satisfaction and orientation towards
persistence as a human trait; 3) achieving goals as a
planning.
source of satisfaction: items related to the tendency
towards achieving goals whose achievement is

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EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 5-12

Table 1. Level of achievement motivation on the total sample, by groups, observed through arithmetic means on the scale, per
components

Components of AM Group α M SD t p

Engaged in football 4.18 0.51

Persistence in achieving goals 0.87 4.49 0.00
Not engaged in football 3.82 0.41
Engaged in football 4.14 0.49
Competition with other people 0.91 2.61 0.01
Not engaged in football 3.90 0.60
Engaged in football 4.55 0.39
Achieving goals as a source of satisfaction 0.88 4.53 0.00
Not engaged in football 4.17 0.62
Engaged in football 3.66 0.53
Orientation towards planning 0.90 3.06 0.00
Not engaged in football 3.36 0.63
Legend: α – internal consistency coefficient, M – mean, SD – standard deviation, t – t-test, p – level of statistical
significance of the t-test

After the t-test, a canonical discriminant analysis
was applied which showed that the discriminating
canonical correlation function of 0,39 (λ = 0.86; χ2 =
22.40; r = 0.00) appears on the MOP2002 instrument,
which means there is a statistically significant
difference between attendants of the school of
football and pupils of elementary school regarding the
structure of the achievement motivation.
From the matrix of the structure and functions of
the groups on the centroids (Table 2), it can be seen
that the difference between these two groups is most
strongly contributed by the component persistence in
achieving goals, and then achieving goals as a source
of satisfaction (the difference is in favor of the
attendants of the school of football). The orientation
towards planning component contributes to the
discriminatory function to a small degree, and the
contribution of the component competition with
others is the lowest. The difference in the centroids
between the two groups is -0.80 of standard
deviations.

Table 2. Canonical discriminant analysis: differences between groups depending on whether they are attendants of the school of
football or pupils of elementary school in terms of the components of the achievement motivation

Components of the achievement motivation Function I

P 0.95
C 0.71
A 0.33
O 0.24
Function of the group on centroids Function I
Attendants of the school of football 0.39
Pupils of the primary school (non-athletes) -0.41
Legend: P – persistence in achieving goals, C – competition with other people, A – achieving goals as a source of
satisfaction, O – orientation towards planning

The results of the analysis of the differences in the components on the sample as a whole shown in Table
level of the achievement motivation in respondents 3.
and their school performance show the existence of
statistically significant differences in all of its

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 EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 5-12

Table 3. Analysis of the differences in the level of the achievement motivation in respondents and the school performance of the
respondents: by individual components

Components of AM Performance M SD MIN MAX F p

Sufficient 3.26 0.22 2.93 3.67
Good 3.72 0.43 2.80 4.80
Persistence in achieving goals 25.64 0.00
Very good 4.15 0.41 3.33 5.00
Excellent 4.31 0.41 2.87 5.00
Sufficient 3.26 0.44 2.32 3.84
Good 3.90 0.52 2.84 4.79
9.75 0.00
Competition with other people Very good 4.17 0.52 2.79 4.95
Excellent 4.16 0.50 2.84 4.79
Sufficient 3.41 0.57 2.31 4.15
Good 4.19 0.57 2.85 5.00
Achieving goals as a source of satisfaction 22.57 0.00
Very good 4.49 0.41 3.00 5.00
Excellent 4.64 0.29 3.92 5.00
Sufficient 3.13 0.29 2.50 3.63
Good 3.40 0.60 2.13 4.75
3.61 0.01
Orientation towards planning Very good 3.55 0.55 2.38 4.50
Excellent 3.73 0.63 1.88 4.88
Legend: M – mean, SD – standard deviation, MIN – minimum score, MAX – maximum score, F – F-test, p – level of
significance of F-test

Therefore, a better performance in school is The next step in the statistical analysis was to
automatically followed by a greater level of analyze the differences in the subsamples of the
achievement motivation in all of its components. respondents by the economic status of the
Only in the component of competition with other respondents' families in Table 4.
people we note that the mean value in very good
(4.17) is somewhat higher than in excellent ones
(4.16).

Table 4. Significance of differences between groups according to the economic status of families in relation with the level of the
achievement motivation

Components of AM Economic status M SD MIN MAX F p

Very good 4.01 0.47 2.87 4.93
Persistence in achieving goals Medium good 4.04 0.52 2.80 5.00 0.10 0.89
Less good 4.09 0.44 3.67 4.67
Very good 4.13 0.49 2.89 4.95
Competition with other people Medium good 4.02 0.56 2.79 4.95 1.84 0.16
Less good 3.67 0.95 2.32 4.89
Very good 4.43 0.44 3.00 5.00
Achieving goals as a source of satisfaction Medium good 4.38 0.57 2.31 5.00 0.35 0.70
Less good 4.24 0.69 3.54 5.00
Very good 3.58 0.57 2.13 4.88
Orientation towards planning Medium good 3.53 0.61 1.88 4.75 0.93 0.39
Less good 3.20 0.32 2.88 3.63

It can be noted that there is no statistically be concluded that the economic status of the families
significant difference in these three groups and it can of the respondents has no impact on the achievement

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EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 5-12

motivation in any of its components. The sample of component of the achievement motivation, the
respondents according to the economic status of the competition with others, was expressed in a score that
family is divided into 3 levels: very good, medium indicates the high level of this component in the
good and less good. Of the 200 respondents,106 overall structure of the achievement motivation.
respondents were from the “medium good” group or These data indicate that the motivation achievement
53%, 64 in the “very good” group or 32%, while there in respondents is realized, above all, through the
were 30 respondents in the third “less good” group or tendency to achieve the set goals primarily because of
15%. the satisfaction from their accomplishment, along
with the developed persistence in behavior. The
Given that there is a difference in the level of the
domination of the achievement motivation is the main
achievement motivation in children who are actively
reason for that. It contributes to the fact that subjects
engaged in football in relation to randomly chosen
do not choose difficult tasks where the chance of
children from elementary school, of the same age and
success is low, but they also do not choose too easy
gender not engaged in football, it is very important to
tasks because the incentive is weak in that case. Tasks
observe the contributions of certain factors to that
with medium average difficultness are chosen
difference in the level of the achievement motivation.
(Simonović, 2003, 2004). Also, the duration of the
There is a tendency towards a more prominent
period of engagement in football influences the
achievement motivation in small football players than
realization of the achievement motivation, primarily
in those who are not engaged in football in all of its
in the tendency to compete with others and to persist
components: competition with other people,
in behavior and achievement of goals. The longer the
persistence in achieving goals, achieving goals as a
person is engaged in football it develops an increasing
source of satisfaction and orientation towards
tendency to compete and stand out compared to
planning. Many authors emphasize the advantage of
others, as well as to persist in achievement of goals.
those whose family members were engaged in some
At the same time, the obtained results are in line with
sport, where there is a greater level of the
the interpretation of Bačanac (2008) that cognitive
achievement motivation in three components
abilities (memory, learning, thinking) allow the
(persistence in achieving goals, achieving goals as a
children to fully understand the competitive process
source of satisfaction and orientation towards
only at the age of 12. At the age of 10-12, children are
planning) than in respondents whose family members
finally developing capacities to understand others'
were not engaged in sports. Ebbek & Becker (1994)
views, to adapt and understand the perspective of the
conclude that if parents are decisively oriented toward
group (team) (Bačanac 2008).
achievement or ego, it is very likely that a child will
prefer parent’s orientation. Similarly, young task- In any case, the achievement motivation is related
oriented athletes often have parents with the same and depends largely on individual personality traits.
orientation (Cox 1998). One of such characteristics that characterizes highly
motivated individuals, which is confirmed as truly
The obtained results are in accordance with Tubić
present and relevant, is that such individuals have a
(2004), who argues that motivation in sports comes to
longer time perspective, show greater anticipation of
the fore already in the determination to engage in
the future and prefer higher rewards in the future
physical activity in relation to, for example, the
compared to smaller rewards in the present
preference of playing the instrument or learning a
(Heckhausen, 1967). Also, Arkes & Garske (1977)
foreign language. This is not a matter of exclusion,
noted that self-confidence is a discriminating factor
but in children, already at pre-school age, there is a
between an individual with a high and low
noticeable commitment towards certain areas
achievement motivation. Self-confident athletes who
(including sports), where motivation is a key element.
expect success are usually successful athletes (Cox,
In sports, motivation is also expressed through
1998). The importance of self-confidence factors is
persistence, hard work, responsibility... Attendants of
also highlighted by Prpa (2017), which is acquired
the school of football, future football players, in their
through an adequate strategy of athlete’s behavior
orientation towards achievement, are oriented
that reduces the pressure to achieve success.
primarily towards the achievement of goals as a
source of satisfaction, which is one of the two main In addition to the influence of sports status, there
components of the achievement motivation, followed was also a statistically significant link between the
by persistence in achieving goals, which is an school performance of the respondents and the level
important feature in the function of realization of the of the achievement motivation in all of its
achievement motivation. Also, the other basic components on the sample as a whole. Thus, better

10

performance in school is automatically accompanied
by greater level of the achievement motivation.
Kvaščev and Radovanović (1977) investigated the
influence of personality traits and pupils' abilities on
performance in school, and found that performance
was, inter alia, related to the achievement motivation.
Unlike sports status and school performance, the
economic status of the families of respondents has no
impact on the achievement motivation in any of its
components.
Conclusions
In conclusion, in sports practice, the importance of
certain factors of psychological nature is not given
enough attention. As stated in the introduction, they
are either taken for granted or ignored, in any case,
the opportunities they create are not used for the
benefit of sports performance to the adequate extent.
Starting from the above premise, this research was
aimed at clarification of the psychological dimension
of active engagement in sports, with a special
emphasis on factors of motivational nature that can be
most influenced by trainers, but also by the players
themselves. This study is small contribution for
coaches and players, how they can improve this
motive which is very important for all career and for
best results in it, also this can help to know on which
components we must pay more attention earlier, that
later achievement motivation became positive thing
and to be responsible for best results of players.
Research on the level of the achievement motivation
in older school age boys who are actively engaged in
football and boys of the same age who attend primary
school, regardless of whether they are engaged in
another sport or not, provides an insight into the
possibilities of improving sports performance by
taking into account the achievement motivation, i.e.
the planned and systematic development of this
motivation.
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How to cite this article:

Jelić, M. (2018). Differences in the achievement motivation in
APA: young football players and non-athletes. Exercise and Quality of
Life, 10(2), 5-12. doi:10.31382/eqol.181201
Jelić, Milan. "Differences in the achievement motivation in young
MLA: football players and non-athletes." Exercise and Quality of Life
10.2 (2018): 5-12.
Jelić, Milan. "Differences in the achievement motivation in young
Chicago: football players and non-athletes." Exercise and Quality of Life 10,
no. 2 (2018): 5-12.

12

ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Prediction of mental health among cadet football players based on the
emotional intelligence and perfectionism
Miroljub Ivanović 1✉ • Uglješa Ivanović
Received: 1st May, 2018
Accepted: 11th July, 2018
© The Author(s) 2018. This article is published with open access.
Abstract
The aim of this research was to examine in which
way the constructs of emotional intelligence and
perfectionism predict mental health of adolescent
football layers. The sample consisted of 164
participants (average age 16.63 (± 10,21) years).
The research was conducted in April 2018 and it
included the cadet football players from Kolubara-
Macva league in Serbia. Test of Emotional
Management (TUE; Babić-Čikeš i Buško, 2014),
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Frost
et al. 1990) and Mental Health Inventory (MHI-38;
Veit & Ware, 1983) were used to generalize data.
During the process of data analysis, metric
characteristics of the measuring instruments were
first tested using the method of internal consistency
which was based on Cronbach's alpha coefficient.
The empirical findings of the correlation analysis
revealed that there is no link between emotional
intelligence and mental health of football players,
meaning that managing emotions is only linked to
adaptive dimensions of perfectionism (p ≤ 0,01).
The obtained coefficient of multiple determination
(R = 0.27) indicated that the group of predictors
accounted for 27% of the variance of mental health,
meaning that the perception of non-adaptive traits of
perfectionism: (a) worry about mistakes, (b)
dilemmas regarding one’s own actions and (c) pare-
✉ miroljub.ivanovic@gmail.com
1
College of Vocational Studies for Teachers and
Professional Computer Scientists – Sirmium,
Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia
2 Telecom Serbia. Ltd., Belgrade, Serbia
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 13-21
DOI: 10.31382/eqol.181202
ntal criticism contribute the higher number of
mental health problems. In addition, it showed that
the adaptive trait of perfectionism (organizational
skills) directly contributes better mental health of
cadet football player. The results of this study
suggest that the variables of emotional intelligence
and perfectionism have significant role in
prediction mental health among adolescent
football players.
Keywords mental health • worry about mistakes •
dilemmas regarding one’s own actions • parental
criticism • being organized.
Introduction
Even though, many researches have been
conducted on the subject of emotional intelligence
and perfectionism as predictors of mental health of
adolescents, the researches concerning sport
population in the period of mid-adolescence, when
the biological, cognitive, social and emotional
changes are the most dynamic in the life of an
individual (physical growth, motoric development,
mental and sexual maturing), or football players
are comparably rare.
That is the reason it seemed important to
examine the predictive contribution of the
dimension of perfectionism in predicting the
variance of mental health among cadet football
players who, during this period of development,
prepare for life as adults (Mayer, Caruso &
Salovey, 2016). World Health Organization
defines mental health as the state of well-being in
which every individual realizes her or his potential
can cope with normal stresses of life, can work
13
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 13-21
productively and fruitfully, and is able to make
contributions to her or his community (WHO, 2014).
However, this definition does not take into account
that mental health contains factors which include
emotions, intellect and optimal functioning within
society, meaning that the care for the state of being
where life functions work in a normal way
presupposes the importance of emotional component
and perfectionism for explaining the mental health of
an athlete. Mental health can be positive and negative
(Sommers-Spijkerman, Trompetter, Schreurs, &
Bohlmeijer, 2012). Athletes who have positive
mental health possess the competence of effectively
facing stressful situations, taking part in their
community, life satisfaction, realized mental well-
being and adequate perception of reality. Negative
mental health includes mental problems which cause
athletes to have difficulties in functioning within the
community, to lack suitable work competence and to
lack life satisfaction and intensive social relationships
(Rice et al., 2018).
Emotional intelligence is one of the current topics
in the sports psychology. Tanchaisak (2018) defines
emotional intelligence as the group of correlating
competences which include personal emotions and
emotions of others. There are four different
dimensions of emotional intelligence: finding
emotions, applying emotions, realizing emotional
information and managing emotions (Rathwell &
Young, 2018). The athlete who possesses these
competences is considered to be adapted and
emotionally competent, while the athlete who lacks
them can have problems in emotional and social
functioning (Singh, 2018). Emotional competences
are a significant factor of mental health and well-
being (Oproıu, 2013). Football players with high
emotional intelligence have better perception of the
state of happiness and have better mental health,
which indicates that it is necessary for football clubs
to include techniques of improving emotional
intelligence (Sezen-Balçikanli & Sezen, 2018).
There are various findings regarding the
correlation between mental health and perfectionism.
Perfectionism is defined as a tendency of football
player to set and realize non-objective high criteria
and goals during the game (Eklund & Tenenbaum,
2014). Guenzi and Ruta (2013) consider the most
important signs of perfectionism among athletes to
be: emphasized high level of personal standards and
worry about mistakes, dilemmas about the quality of
their technique, excessive emphasis on precision. The
research findings by Petruk (2013) showed
significant positive correlation between
14
perfectionism and depression, anxiety and stress,
meaning that negative effects of these variables
correlate with worry about mistakes, doubts about
sport activities and parental criticism. On the other
hand, the findings by Mili & Kshetrimayum Rojeet
Singh (2018) indicate that athletes who possess high
structural self-expectations, during which they
remain optimistic in facing obstacles, at the same time
achieve better results, unlike their non-perfectionist
peers. On the contrary, the athletes without healthy
and adaptive perfectionism are preoccupied with
disbalance between their high, occasionally rigid
standards and their own technique (Putukian, 2016).
Besides, the symptoms of non-adaptive perfectionism
can generate high level of stress and anxiety, negative
model of thinking and, at times, suicidal ideas
(Reardon & Factor, 2010).
Taking into account the irrefutable relevance of
emotional processes and perfectionism in explaining
mental health, as well as the lack of research on
Serbian football population, the aim of this research
was to test the potential role of variables of emotional
intelligence and perfectionism in predicting the
perception of mental health among the cadet football
players. In accordance with the aim of the research,
we proposed a hypothesis that lower emotional
intelligence and unsuitable manifestations of
perfectionism would explain weaker mental health,
while the adaptive manifestations of perfectionism
would be the positive predictor of mental health
among adolescent football players.
Method
The research included 164 cadet football players, age
1 to 17 years (AM = 16.63, SD = 10.21). The pertinent
sample was collected in seven football clubs of
Kolubara-Macva league in Serbia. FC “Radnički”
(Valjevo), FC “Budućnost-Krušik 2014” (Valjevo),
FC “Senjak” (Valjevo), FC “Ribnica” (Mionica), FC
“Železnicar” (Lajkovac), FC “Jedinstvo” (Ub) and
FC “Rađevac” (Krupanj).
The data was collected in April 2018. This
transversal research was anonymous and was
conducted before practice, using the pen-and-paper
method. The participants were told that the collected
data would be used solely for the purpose of the
research, and that they would be processes and
analyzed on the group, not individual level. Clear
instructions were written at the beginning of each
questionnaire which participants had to read before

beginning to fill in the questionnaires. They were
asked to give honest answers. The process of filling
in the questionnaires lasted approximately 30
minutes.
Measuring instrument
Test of Emotional Management (Babić-Čikeš &
Buško, 2014). It consists of 13 imagined everyday
situations where various emotions are manifested -
fear, sadness, disappointment, anger, jealousy,
happiness and pride. For each given situation, four
possible reactions were given, and they varied
depending on how much they benefit a person. The
test contained 52 items (13 situations, 13 x 4
possibilities). The participant’s task was to evaluate
the usefulness or uselessness of each given behavior
on the scale from -3 to +3, in the reduction of
unpleasant emotions and the intensifying or
maintaining positive emotions in given situation.
Total test score represents the total of points on all
items. The higher result means better management of
emotions. The correctness of answers is defined
based on expert criteria, where the correct answer
brings two points, second best brings one point, and
all the other answers bring zero points. The reliability
of this test was expressed using Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient (α = 0.77).
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS-F:
Frost, Marten, & Lahart, 1990). It consists of 35 items
which evaluate perfectionism through six subscales:
personal standards, worry about mistakes, parental
expectations, dilemma regarding personal actions and
organizational skills.
1) Personal standards contain seven items, with
maximum score being 35 (for example, “I expect
more from myself than other people”).
2) Worry about mistakes contains nine items in
total, with maximum theoretical score being 45
(for example, “I should feel bad when I make a
mistake”, “The less mistakes I make, the more
people will love me”).
3) Parental expectations include five items, with
maximum score being 25 (for example, “Parents
set me very high demands”, “Only the
exceptional results are valued in my family”).
4) Parental criticism contains four items, with
maximum score being 20 (for example, “I have a
feeling that I never satisfied my parents
demands”).
5) Dilemma regarding personal actions contains
four items (for example, “Even when I am careful
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 13-21
about what I do, I often feel that it is not good
enough”).
6) Organizational skills contain six items in total,
with maximum score being 30 (for example, “I
am the type of person who is well organized”).
The participant’s task is to, on a five-point Likert-
type scale (from 1- I fully agree to 5- I fully disagree),
evaluate the level of agreement with individual items
of the scale. Total score is represented as the sum of
scores on all subscale. The higher result points to
higher level of perfectionism. Cronbach’s alpha in
this research is (α = 0.89). The reliability coefficient
for personal standards is (α = 0.75), for organizational
skills (α = 0.68), for parental pressure (α = 0.78), for
worry about mistakes (α = 0.73) and for dilemma
regarding persona action (α = 0.70).
Mental Health Inventory (MHI-38: Veit & Ware,
1983). It evaluates mental health of clinical and non-
clinical population. This model contains 38 items
which measure two factors of mental health – positive
(for example, “Within the last month, how often did
future seem promising and full of hope?”) and
negative (for example, “Did you feel depressed
during the last month?”). Global index of mental
health represents complex measurement of mental
health and it contains all the items from the inventory.
The result is the sum of answers from all scales, but
certain items are necessary to recode. The higher
score means the higher level of global, meaning
positive and negative mental health. Cronbach’s
alpha of the entire measuring instrument is (α = 0.93),
while the reliability of the subscale for negative
mental health is (α = 0.94), and for positive mental
health is (α = 0.92).
During data processing in this research,
descriptive statistical methods (arithmetic mean,
standard deviation and interval values – maximum
and minimum, and theoretical range), skewness
(SKEW) and kurtosis (KURT) were applied. The
nature of the relationship between values is examined
using Pearson’s coefficient of linear correlation and
hierarchical regression analysis. Kolmogorov-
Smirnov non-parametric test was used to examine the
normal distribution of the total score. Data was
processed using SPSS for Windows, version 17. All
conclusions were based on the level of statistical error
of 5%.
15
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 13-21

Results emotional management and multidimensional

perfectionism scale, with its six subscales, do not
statistically significantly deviate from normal, and are
Table 1 shows descriptive indicators of the analyzed
within acceptable range for conducting parametric
variables, normal distribution indicators (asymmetry,
analyses (the obtain values of asymmetry range from
kurtosis, Kolmogorov-Smirnov non-parametric test).
-2 to 2, and of kurtosis < 3; Petz, Kolesarić, & Ivanec,
The values of skewness and kurtosis, as well as the
2012).
values of Kolmogorov-Smirnov non-parametric test
indicate that mental health inventory, test of
Table 1. Descriptive statistic parametric instruments

Variables M SD Min Max Sk SkSE Ku KuSE K-Sp

Index of mental health 119.65 24.01 57 179 0.12 0.10 0.73 0.08 0.02
Management of emotions 59.93 9.12 25 79 0.23 0.10 0.19 0.08 0.10
Worry about mistakes 21.84 8.05 8 45 0.34 0.10 0.12 0.08 0.17
Dilemma regarding personal actions 10.04 3.82 4 20 0.44 0.10 0.16 0.08 0.15
Parental criticism 7.52 3.66 3 21 0.50 0.10 0.13 0.08 0.13
Parental expectations 12.06 4.83 4 24 0.66 0.10 0.11 0.08 0.08
Personal standards 22.02 5.68 10 36 0.37 0.10 0.20 0.08 0.14
Organizational skills 22.96 4.99 6 29 0.71 0.10 0.27 0.08 0.09
Legend: M – mean; SD – standard deviation; Min – minimum value of the variable; Max – maximum value of the
variable); Sk – standardized skewness SkSE – skewness standard error; Ku – standardized kurtosis; KuSE – kurtosis
standard error; K-Sp – value of Kolmogorov-Smirnov test on the level of p ≤ 0.01 = 0.20.

The scores obtained on Mental Health Inventory
and Test of Emotional Management indicate that the
participants are of average mental health and
emotional intelligence.
Table 2 shows the values of parametric Pearson’s
correlation coefficient, which examine the level of
linear correlation between the used variables.
The calculated correlation coefficients indicate
that the variable emotional management linearly only
correlates with the adaptive dimensions of
perfectionism. That points to the fact that there is a
direct stochastic correlation between the
aforementioned constructs, meaning that there is a
same direction tendency (the values of both variables
are either increasing or decreasing). In addition, non-
adaptive dimensions of perfectionism have low and
positive correlation with the construct index of mental
health, except the variable parental expectations
whose values of correlation coefficient with mental
health equal zero (r = 0.47, p ≤ 0.09). Latent variable
(personal standards) also does not correlate with
mental health, which points to the probability that
certain values of one variable cannot be used to reach
the conclusion regarding another variable, and
therefore should not be interpreted in such sense. That
also meant if the football players worry more about
mistakes and have more dilemmas regarding their
own actions, they perceive parental criticism more
and have more mental health problems. Regarding
adaptive dimensions of perfectionism, only the
variable organizational skills has low, negative
statistically significant linear correlation with the
index of mental health, which leads one to assume
that better organized football players have better
mental health.

16
 EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 13-21

Table 2. Correlation of all variables

Variables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
1. Management of emotions –
2. Worry about mistakes .09 –
3. Dilemma regarding personal actions .03 .47** –
4. Parental expectations -.06 .39** .32** –
5. Parental criticism -.02 .37** .36** .70** –
6. Personal standards .14* .48** .29** .27** .18* –
7. Organizational skills .15* -.09 .05 -.01 -.13* .28** –
8. Index of mental health -.04 .30** .33** .07 .20* -.05 -.32** –
Legend: *p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01

With the aim of defining the relations between the dilemma regarding personal actions (β = 0.19, p =
examined independent variable – predictor of 0.05), and that indicates that these variables
perfectionism, and dependent variable – criterion of negatively affect mental health of football players. At
mental health, method of standard multiple regression the same time, it is clear that the variable
was applied (Table 3). organizational skills (β = -0.20, p = 0.05) is
statistically significant determinant of positive mental
Multiple correlation coefficient values R = 0.49 (p
health of football players. On the other hand, the
= 0.01), and the value of multiple determination
tested linear regression model did not prove to have
coefficient (R squared) is R = 0.27 (p = 0.01), where
statistically significant partial contribution in
the defined group of predictors accounted for 27% of
predicting scores of independent variables – parental
the variance mental health. Seeing how the difference
criticism in explaining the variability (information)
between Rand R2 is very small, the observed
regarding mental health.
regression model can be generalized to include the
entire sport population. With the aim of identifying possible problem of
high linear correlation within the group of predictor
The calculated beta-coefficients are partial
variables, multicollinearity diagnostics has been
correlation coefficients of every predictor variable
conducted. Tolerance and the factor of increased
with criterion, and they point to the relevant influence
variance have been determined for each predictor
of individual independent variable in regression
variable. It has been calculated that none of the
model. In predicting criterion variable, out of four
tolerance values was under 0.2, meaning that the
independent variables, three variables (organizational
factor of increased variance is not higher than the
skills, worry about mistakes and dilemma regarding
criterion 0.80. That would mean that there is no
personal actions) statistically significantly influence
problem of correlation in this research (Hair, Black,
criterion variable. The obtained values of beta-
Babin, & Anderson, 2010).
coefficient are of low intensity on the predictors
worry about mistakes (β = 0.16, p = 0.05) and
Table 3. Multiple regression analysis with the variables of perfectionism and evaluation of the significance of the regression model

Predictors β SE
Worry about mistakes 0.16* 0.06
Dilemma regarding personal 0.19* 0.03
actions
Parental criticism 0.09 0.05
Organizational skills 0.20* 0.07
2
R = 0.49 R = 0.27
Legend: R – multiple correlation coefficient; R – multiple determination coefficient; β – standard partial regression
coefficient; SE – standard error. * p < 0.05

17
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 13-21
Discussion
This research determined that there is no statistically
significant correlation between management of
emotions and mental health, which is not in
accordance with the tested hypothesis that stated that
“the football players with higher emotional
intelligence will have better mental health, or that
those with lower emotional intelligence will have
more mental health problems”. Previous researches
on this correlation mostly did not provide compatible
findings (Agans, Su, & Ettekal, 2018; Laborde,
Dossevill, & Allen, 2015; Mann & Narula, 2017;
Singh & Mili, 2015). Due to low experience of
emotions, football players believe that they have
joyful disposition, which helps them mind their
mental health, but they do not take into consideration
the fact that they can feel depressed or suicidal
(Bethune et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2015). Based on
this, it can be concluded that emotional experience
and managing other people’s emotions are two
different components of the complex construct of
emotional intelligence. People who are bad at
perceiving other people’s emotions can be less
sensitive to stress (Derakhshanpour, VaezMousavi, &
Reza Taheri, 2018; Gustafsson, Sagar, & Stenling,
2017). In addition, some researches (Fernández-Río,
Cecchini, Méndez-Giménez, Terrados, & García,
2018; Gaudreau & Braaten, 2016) suggested that the
tendency towards not thinking about thoughts and
emotions, and bad psychological awareness correlate
with the lower level of anxiety and high self-respect.
They point out that avoidance and suppressing of
emotions can short-term be useful for mental health.
Certain dimensions of emotional intelligence do not
always have to be useful since emotionally perceptive
athletes can be sensitive to negative influence of
stress (Gustafsson, Sagar, & Stenling, 2017;
Weinberg, Butt, Mellano, & Harmsion, 2017). Due to
low level of perception of emotions, athletes believe
that they are happy and that they protect their mental
health because they do not take into consideration nor
do they accept the fact that they could feel depressed.
At the same time, with the aim of obtaining
significant correlation between emotional
intelligence and mental health other components of
emotional intelligence besides ability should be
included: various personality traits, motivational
constructs, aptness of good motoric skills and various
social skills (Clancy, 2016; Cowden, 2016; Holden,
Pugh, & Schwarz, 2017). Besides, in order to achieve
better level of emotional intelligence, the research
18
where two different tests with coaches’ self-
evaluation should be conducted.
The social environment of athletes is of great
importance to every athlete. Firstly, the athletes
encounter a great deal of demands within their sport
system which can become generators for
psychological stress, meaning mental disorders
(Nezhad & Besharat, 2018). Various factors can
increase stress and cause athletes to have difficulties
adapting, for example forming new motor relations
with competition from other clubs, experiencing
romantic love, adopting new sport techniques and
cognitive and metacognitive skills needed for
resolving problems on field (Fehr & Collin 2017; Lee
& Chelladurai, 2016).
Depression is common mental disorder among
athletes (Ayer, 2015). Also, high parental
expectations and difficulties in adopting motor skills
can generate stress (Moen, Giske & Hoigaard, 2015).
The research by Ströhle (2018) did not determine
correlation between emotional intelligence and
mental health because the football players were not
giving correct answers on the test of emotional
management and did not know to identify what is
useful or harmful in the given situations. However,
that does not mean that they use the same
competences and manifestations to reduce stress and
positively affect their mental health in objective life
situations (Ring & Kavussanu, 2018; Meneghel,
Salanova & Martínez, 2016).
On the other hand, this research determined
positive correlation between emotional intelligence
and adaptive traits of perfectionism (organizational
skills and personal standards). That matches earlier
researches where the perfectionist strivings of rugby
players correlate positively with the dimension of
emotional intelligence, while perfectionist concerns
correlate negatively with the dimension of emotional
intelligence (Gouttebarge, Kerkhoffs, & Lambert,
2016).
In addition, the results of this research indicate that
the non-adaptive traits of perfectionism are in
relevant correlation with mental health, meaning that
football players who worry more about mistakes,
have more dilemmas regarding personal actions and
experience higher parental criticism have negative
mental health, which proves the tested hypothesis.
When it comes to adaptive traits of perfectionism
(personal standards), no correlation with mental
health was determined, but organizational skills do
negatively correlate with mental health. The obtained
findings are in accordance with the results that show

that negative perfectionism is a risk factor of
depression and anxiety, while positive perfectionism
is the construct of protection (Rice et al., 2016). To
add, negative results of perfectionism correlate with
the traits which include worry about mistakes,
parental expectations, parental criticism and dilemma
regarding personal actions, while personal standards
and organizational skills correlate with positive
components: orientation towards success, motivation
to achieve a goal and commitment to goal (Gano-
Overway, Steele, Boyce, & Whaley, 2017;
Hammond, Gialloreto, Kubas, & Davis, 2013). Thus,
it is expected that personal dimensions of
perfectionism assume too high, non-objective goals
which athlete sets for himself/herself, and that can
cause depression due to inability to accept personal
mistakes.
The conducted research has certain
methodological limitations which should be taken
into account during generalization of conclusions.
Firstly, the research is correlational which means that
causal conclusions cannot be reached. Next, the
research did not examine the relations of various
constructs of protection with positive and negative
mental health, which is needs to be done in further
research. In addition, the lack of research and
participants’ self-evaluation, their honesty and
motivation, means that there is a possibility that they
were giving socially acceptable answers.
Finally, it should be added that this research,
despite certain limitations, has a number of
advantages, theoretical contributions and practical
implications. The biggest advantage of this research
is the non-adaptive component perfectionism which
disturbs the mental health of athletes. Therefore, it is
advisable that adolescent football players who
possess visible negative perfectionism first of all
notice their negative way of thinking and then
reevaluate their method of thinking so as not to
measure their own value on the basis of their
competence, since that sort of negative thinking
causes automatic negative thoughts. That way, there
will be less anxiety and more concentration, mood
will improve, and junior football players will be more
intense in their effectiveness and acquiring new motor
skills and that will improve their mental health.
Conclusion
High internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) points
to the fact that the applied measuring instruments Test
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 13-21
of Emotional Management, Multidimensional
Perfectionism Scale and Mental Health Inventory are
reliable and applicable in theory and practice on
Serbian sport population. Based on the obtained
empirical results of the Pearson’s correlation
coefficient, it can be said that the variable emotional
intelligence does not linearly correlate with mental
health. In addition, the value of the coefficient of
multiple determination is 0.27, which means that the
system of predictor variables (worry about mistakes,
dilemma regarding personal actions and parental
criticism) can predict 27% of mental health
variability. On the other hand, the predictor variable
organizational skills i.e. adjusted characteristic of
perfectionism, is beneficial to the metal health of
cadet football players. Therefore, the findings of
correlation and regression analysis shown in this
study give a new perspective to, up until now,
insufficiently examined correlation between
emotional intelligence, perfectionism and mental
health. They represent only one of possible starting
points for the process of researching the relations
between emotional intelligence, perfectionism and
mental health in adolescent population of football
players, and can encourage further research of this
phenomenon which would validate the used
instrument on the greater sample of participants of
both sexes in other areas of Serbia.
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How to cite this article:

Ivanović, M., & Ivanović, U. (2018). Prediction of mental health
among cadet football players based on the emotional intelligence
APA:
and perfectionism. Exercise and Quality of Life, 10(2), 13-21.
doi:10.31382/eqol.181202
Ivanović, Miroljub and Uglješa Ivanović. "Prediction of mental
health among cadet football players based on the emotional
MLA:
intelligence and perfectionism." Exercise and Quality of Life 10.2
(2018): 13-21.
Ivanović, Miroljub, and Uglješa Ivanović. "Prediction of mental
health among cadet football players based on the emotional
Chicago:
intelligence and perfectionism." Exercise and Quality of Life 10,
no. 2 (2018): 13-21.

21
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2)

22

ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Gender differentiation in tactical options in defense and attack on
beach handball
Konstantinos Gkagkanas 1✉ • Dimitris Hatzimanouil 2 • Vasilis Skandalis 2
Received: 1st May, 2018
Accepted: 11th July, 2018
© The Author(s) 2018. This article is published with open access.
Abstract
Although beach handball comes from the sport that
is played indoors it has significant differences from
it. The aim of the study was to investigate and
compare tactical options in both defense and attack
between men and women. In 16 games from 2017
European Beach Handball Championship, 1074
attacks and defense situations were analyzed, in
order to examine different attack and defense tactics.
The selected method was video-analysis. The ꭓ2-test
was used to compare the differences between the
formations in defense and attack. In defense the
results showed that men use more often 3:0, 2:1C
and 2:1L formations, while women use more often
3:0. From the comparison between men and women
it appeared that, in the initial formation of defense,
there are significant differences, while in the final
tactical formation are minimal. Men, in the initial
and final tactical option in attack, used the system
with one pivot and the specialist in center. Women
use the same formation but also the one with a pivot
and specialist at the left side of the attack at the
substitution area. In the initial attack formation,
appeared few significant changes between men and
women, while in the final tactical formation there
were no changes. Finally, the final throwing
attempts, men choose to make them mainly from the
center while women from the right and from the ce-
✉ kgaganas@yahoo.com
1
Teacher of Physical Education, Greece
2
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of
Physical Education and Sports Science,
Thessaloniki, Greece
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 23-30
DOI: 10.31382/eqol.181203
nter. In conclusion, we can say that men’s and
women’s tactical choices in defense and offense
show some differences, but these differences are
small.
Keywords Tactic’s analyses • Video analysis •
Sand sport
Introduction
Beach Handball is an impressive sport that comes
from the sport that is played indoors and is directly
related to it (Zapardiel, Ferragut, Paramio &
Lozano, 2015). This sport has significant
differences from the indoor handball, such as the
fact that contacts with opponents are not allowed,
and that dribbling is allowed but in a different way
and not the one we encounter in indoor handball
(“Rules of the Game”, 2017). This sport is
particularly exciting because it involves a lot often,
actions like inflight shots and spin-shots (360
degrees). During the game, the goalkeeper turns
into a “specialist” who is the main player of the
game, as his/her goals are two pointers (Skandalis,
Hatzimanouil, Papanikolaou, Kanioglou &
Yiannakos, 2017). Beach handball requires highly
developed skills such as strength and speed, as
high jumps and complex moves must be
performed on a sandy pitch of at least 40
centimeters thick (Gehrer & Posada 2010).
This sport started in the early 90’s and has since
then flourished throughout the world with World
and European competitions, held every second
year (“EHF Beach Handball History”, 2018). The
next World Championship will be held in Kazan,
Russia, with the participation of the Greek Natio-
23
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 23-30
nal Women’s Team, as well as Greek referees and
observers, ranking our country into the global elite of
the sport. (“USA Beach Handball”, 2018; “In word
beach handball championship John Meimaridis”,
2018). So, the upcoming World Championship in
Russia will be of great interest to Greece. In recent
years, although there has been an increase in the
number of scientific studies concerning team sports,
in this particular sport, there is no specialized field
research in areas that would help coaches, better and
more effectively manage the flow and development
of a match. Thus, in addition to the mere recording
and frequency of the various actions of the
competitors, data and information are needed to
clarify technical - tactical issues and issues relating to
the sport. Therefore, it is clear from the above that
there is a need for reliable, valid and accurate studies
presenting data on both attacking and defensive
options for both men and women, particularly at high
level (Morillo-Baro, Reigal, & Hernández-Mendo
2015; Rokavec, 2009).
Regarding tactics, it seems to be an important
factor in team sports and affects the performance of a
team and consequently the result of a match
(Carmichael & Thomas, 1995). In particular, Brack
(2002) reports that tactics in handball are a critical
factor during the game. Skandalis et al. (2017) report
that there is an increasing interest in issues that
concern beach handball, including the tactics of the
sport. This also led to the purpose of this study, which
was to investigate and compare tactical options in
both defense and attack of the national beach handball
teams between men and women in the European
Championship of 2017.
Method
The field of the study was at the 2017 European
Beach Handball Championship which took place in
June at the lake of Jarun in Croatia and the sample
came from the games of the tournament. There was a
direct qualification to the next World Championship,
which will take place at Kazan in Russia, for the first
six teams. Finals, semifinals, quarterfinals and phase
of placement games were taken under consideration
for both men and women.
Totally, 16 games were analyzed (8 women games
and 8 men games). From the phase of quarterfinals
four games (two games for both women and men),
four games (two games for both women and men)
from the semifinals and eight games from the final’s
24
day (the final, 3rd and 4th position game, 5th and 6th
position game and 7th and 8th position game for both
women and men). The selected method was video-
analysis.
Specifically, 1074 attacks and defense situations,
in order to examine different attack and defense
tactics (attack and defense formations) of the game,
were analyzed. In addition, we analyzed the attempts
ending with a shot from some point of the court that
were made so to break the defense.
The SPSS 22 (IBM, USA) statistical program was
utilized for the analysis of the results and the method
applied was descriptive and inferential statistics. The
ꭓ2-test was used to compare the differences between
the formations of defense and attack (initial defense
formation vs final defense formation, initial attack
formation vs final attack formation). For defense we
use the variables: 3 defenders aligned by the goal area
line (3:0), 2 defenders aligned by the goal area line
and the center defender forwarded (2:1C), 2
defenders aligned by the goal area line and the left
side player forwarded (2:1L), 2 players aligned by
the goal area line and the right side player forwarded
(2:1R) ,1 defender aligned by the goal area line and
both the left side defender and the center defender
forwarded (1:2LC), 1 defender aligned by the goal
area line and both the right side defender and the
center defender forwarded (1:2RC), the center
defender aligned by the goal area line and 2 side
defenders forwarded (1:2RL), all 3 defenders
forwarded (0:3), man to man (MtM), equal number of
players between defense and offense (EQ).
For attack we use the variables: 1. 3 back players
– 1 line player /specialist at the center position, 2. 3
back players – 1 line player / specialist at the left side
of the attack (at the substitution area), 3. 3 back
players – 1 line player / specialist at the right side of
the attack (opposite of the substitution area), 4. 4 back
players – no line player / specialist at the far left side
of the attack (at the substitution area), 5. 4 back
players – no line player / specialist at the far right side
of the attack (opposite of the substitution area), 6. 4
back players – no line player / specialist at the second
left position of the attack, 7. 4 back players – no line
player / specialist at second right position of the
attack, 8. 3 back players – 1 line player (specialist), 9.
Numerical equality 3 vs 3 / no specialist, 10.
Numerical inferiority 2 vs 3 / no specialist. The level
of significance was determined at 0.05.
 EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 23-30

Results

Regarding initial and final defense formations the

results showed that men use more often 3:0, 2:1C and
2:1L formations.

Table 1. Initial and final defense formations in men’s tournament

Initial defense Final defense

Serial number Frequency Percent % Frequency Percent %
Formations Formations
1 3:0 103* 19,1 3:0 282* 52.1
2 2:1C 107* 19.7 2:1C 155* 28.6
3 2:1L 113* 20.8 2:1 L 54* 10
4 2:1R 15* 2.8 2:1R 2* 0.4
5 1:2CL 75* 13.8 1:2CL 18* 3.3
6 1:2CR 14 2.6 1:2CR 4 0.7
7 1:2RL 39* 7.2 1:2RL 11* 2
8 0:3 69* 12.7 0:3 11* 2
9 MtM 6* 1.1 MtM 5* 0.9
10 EQ 1 0.2 EQ - 0
Total 542 100% 542 100
Legend: * Significant difference p < 0.001 between initial and final defense formation

In men’s tournament the ꭓ2-test showed that the The results for initial and final defense formations
variable “initial defense formation” showed showed that women use very often the same
statistically significant difference with the “final formations as men. More specifically women use
defense formation”. In particular, in all formations we more often 3:0, 2:1C and 2:1L formations.
had statistically significant differences p < 0.001
between an initial defensive formation and its final
formation (final specific formation), except for the
defensive formation 1:2CR, which did not show
statistically significant difference (p = 0.818).

Table 2. Initial and final defense formations in women’s tournament

Initial defense Final defense

Serial number Frequency Percent % Frequency Percent %
Formations Formations
1 3:0 253* 47.6 3:0 395* 74.2
2 2:1C 48* 9.0 2:1C 59* 11.1
3 2:1L 70* 13.2 2:1 L 24* 4.5
4 2:1R 27* 5.1 2:1R 14* 2.6
5 1:2CL 14* 2.6 1:2CL 9* 1.7
6 1:2CR 10 1.9 1:2CR 4 0.8
7 1:2RL 27* 5.1 1:2RL 9* 1.7
8 0:3 72* 13.5 0:3 9* 1.7
9 MtM 8* 1.5 MtM 7* 1.3
10 EQ 3* 0.6 EQ 2* 0.4
Total 532 100% 532 100

In women’s tournament the ꭓ2-test showed that the statistically significant difference with the “final
variable “initial defense formation” showed defense formation”. In particular, in all formations we

25
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 23-30

had statistically significant differences p < 0.001
between an initial defensive formation and its final
formation (final specific formation), except for the
defensive formation 1:2CR which did not show
statistically significant difference (p = 0.846).
As regards the “initial defense formation” there
were also statistically significant differences between
men and women. More specifically ꭓ2-test showed
that in formation 3:0 (p = 0.000), in formation 2:1C
(p = 0.018), in formation 2:1L (p = 0.003) and in
formation 0:3 (p = 0.021) there were statistically
significant differences. In all other formations we had
no statistically significant differences.
Furthermore, there were also statistically
significant differences in the “final defense
formation” between men and women. From ꭓ2-test
showed it appears that that in formation 3:0 (p =
0.000) and in formation 2:1C (p = 0.001) there were
statistically significant differences. In all other
formations we had no statistically significant
differences.
The results also showed that in attack formations
in men’s tournament, men beach handball players use
more often the formation 1 (3 back players – 1-line
player /specialist at the center position).

Table 3. Initial and final attack formations in men’s tournament

Initial defense Final defense

Serial number Frequency Percent % Frequency Percent %
Formations Formations
1 1 406* 74.9 1 435* 80.3
2 2 32* 5.9 2 35* 6.5
3 3 27* 5 3 24* 4.4
4 4 57* 10.5 4 39* 7.2
5 5 2 0.4 5 1 0.2
6 6 4* 0.7 6 2* 0.4
7 7 6 1.1 7 - -
8 8 - - 8 - -
9 9 8* 1.5 9 6* 1.1
10 10 - - 10 - -
Total 542 100% 542 100

In men’s tournament the ꭓ2-test showed that the
variable “initial attack formation” showed
statistically significant difference with the “final
attack formation”. In particular, in all formations we
had statistically significant differences p < 0.001
between an initial attack formation and its final
formation (final specific formation), except for the
attack formation 5 (4 back players – no line player /
specialist at the far-right side of the attack (opposite
of the substitution area) which did not show
statistically significant difference (p = 0.951).
Furthermore, the descriptive statistic reveals that
in the initial and in the final attack formations in
women’s tournament, women use more often
formations 1 and 2 (3 back players – 1-line player
/specialist at the center position and 3 back players –
1-line player / specialist at the left side of the attack
and specifically at the substitution area).

26
 EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 23-30

Table 4. Initial and final attack formations in women’s tournament

Initial defense Final defense

Serial number Frequency Percent % Frequency Percent %
Formations Formations
1 1 174* 32.7 1 218* 41
2 2 134* 25.2 2 178* 33.5
3 3 14* 2.6 3 54* 10.2
4 4 86* 16.2 4 47* 8.8
5 5 30* 5.6 5 6* 1.1
6 6 50* 9.4 6 7* 1.3
7 7 23* 4.3 7 5* 0.9
8 8 2 0.4 8 2 0.4
9 9 19* 3.6 9 14* 2.6
10 10 - - 10 1 0.2
Total 532 100% 532 100

In women’s tournament the ꭓ2-test showed that the
variable “initial attack formation” showed
statistically significant difference with the “final
attack formation”. In particular, in all formations we
had statistically significant differences p < 0.001
between an initial defensive formation and its final
formation (final specific formation), except for the
attack formation 8 (3 back players – 1-line player
“specialist”) which did not show statistically
significant difference (p = 0.931).
In terms the “initial attack formation”, there were
also statistically significant differences between men
and women. More specifically ꭓ2-test showed that in
formation 2 (3 back players – 1-line player / specialist
Table 5. Attempts from each point of the court in all final attack formations in men’s tournament
at the left side of the attack “at the substitution area”)
p = 0.013 and in formation 5 (4 back players – no line
player / specialist at the far-right side of the attack
“opposite of the substitution area”) p = 0.006 there
were statistically significant differences. In all other
formations we had no statistically significant
differences.
Finally, the results showed that there were no
statistically significant differences in the “final attack
formation” between men and women.
Descriptive statistic revealed that a total of 892
attempts were made in order to break the defense,
ending with a shot from some point of the court.

Final attack Attempts

Serial number
Formations Left side Center Right side
1 1 113 136 120
2 2 9 15 7
3 3 5 8 5
4 4 6 17 11
5 5 0 1 0
6 6 1 0 1
7 7 0 0 0
8 8 0 0 0
9 9 0 0 4
10 10 0 0 0
134 177 148
Total in all three 459
points

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EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 23-30
Table 6. Attempts from each point of the court in all final attack formations in women’s tournament.
Final attack
Serial number
Formations Left side
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
122
Total in all three
points
Discussion
Particular for men, the regular tactical defense
formation which they most often use is the 3:0, 2:1C
and 2:1L systems. Regarding the final tactical
formation in men, they usually use 3:0 and 2:1C in
their final choice in defense. One possible
explanation for the fact that the majority usually
chooses the final defensive formation 3:0 is that due
to mandatory numerical inferiority in defense,
defenders try to cover more vital space as the attack
attempts take as much space as possible. Morillo-
Baro et al. (2015), reported that men are using more
closed defensive formations and that they choose the
defense formation 3:0. In addition from the ꭓ2-test,
appeared that between initial and final formation in
the defense, there is great mobility. More specifically,
there are a large number of transitions from one form
of defense to another depending on the formation of
the opponent’s attack or the specific conditions of the
match. Morillo-Baro et al. (2015), report that in men’s
tournament regarding the importance of the specialist,
the defense many times in order to reduce the activity
and ability of this player prefers an open defense
system, mainly towards the center (because the
specialist plays in the center).
Correspondingly, the results showed that women
use the 3:0 system most of the time in the initial
formation in defense. The same system (3:0) is used
most of the time in the final defense formation.
Generally speaking, women use the same tactical
options as men in the initial and final defense
28
Attempts
Center Right side
47 76 61
50 49 56
5 15 19
14 9 11
1 1 2
1 2 3
1 0 2
0 0 0
3 2 3
0 0 0
154 157
433
formations but at a lower frequency (3:0, 2:1C and
2:1L). These results are in contrast to those of
Morillo-Baro et al. (2015), who reported that women
are using open defensive formations. In addition to
the ꭓ2-test, it appeared that between initial and final
formation in the defense, there is great mobility.
Thus, except 1:2CR system, in all other defense
systems we had either positive or negative changes
between the initial or the final defensive formation.
This is probably due to the fact that the defender’s risk
more in the initial phase than in the final phase of the
defense.
From the comparison of men and women (ꭓ2-test)
it appeared that in the initial formation of defense,
there are significant statistical differences. In
particular there are differences in the 3:0, 2:1C, 2:1L,
and 0:3 systems. In addition, at the final tactical
choice in defense, the ꭓ2-test showed that there were
few statistically significant differences between men
and women specifically in the 3:0 and 2:1C
formations. In the final tactical defense options there
were no significant changes. So, we would say that
both men and women in the final tactical choice have
a uniformity in the defense systems they use.
However, women in the final defensive formation
make greater use of the 3:0, while the 2:1C formation
they are less likely to use.
For the attack we could say that results showed
that in the men’s tournament, in the initial and final
tactical selection during attack, men were mainly
using the 1 attack formation. One possible reason for
this is the ability of the specialist in shooting two
pointers without attempting spin shots or inflight

shots that makes him a very dangerous player for the
defense (Skandalis et al., 2017).
From the ꭓ2-test it appeared that between initial
and final tactical formation in the attack, men, except
in the formation 5, there were no significant changes.
Probably this is due to the fact that the attack, in
opposition to the defense is oriented to a certain
tactical formation from the beginning to the end of the
attack obviously because of the fact that the attack is
played almost all the time with numerical superiority.
From the descriptive statistics at women, it
appeared that in the initial and final tactical selection
in the attack, often used formations 1 and 2. Possible
explanations for the preferences is that, in formation
1 is the best possible view of the goal and for the
formation 2 is the speed of positioning. These
findings are consistent with the results of Morillo-
Baro et al. (2015), who reported that while developed
attack, women, depends on the position of the
specialist. Moreover, these two formations give the
specialist a clear advantage against defense. This
method of developing the game in attack, both in men
and women is widespread since it enables the
specialist to score a two-pointer more easily when his
defender is blocked (Morillo-Baro et al., 2015). From
the ꭓ2-test it appeared that there are significant
changes between initial and final tactical selection in
the attack, except for system 8, in women. This
suggests that the attack in female beach handball,
passes through a mobility cycle until it ends up in its
final formation.
From the comparison between men and women in
the initial attack option, it appeared (ꭓ2-test) that there
were insufficient significant changes. In particular,
there were differences in formations 2 and 5. Finally,
the comparison between men and women in the final
tactical option from the results has shown that there
were no changes. From the above it appears that the
initial and final attacking options of men and women
are related and do not differ greatly.
Regarding the final throwing attempts, it seems
that men choose to make them mainly from the
center. These results are in accordance with Skandalis
et al. (2017), who found that, for the players of this
level, most of the time their attempts were made from
the center. Possibly that happens because the center
has the largest throwing angle. On the other hand,
women try most of their efforts from the right and
secondly from the center. From these it is obvious that
moving the ball from left to right is easier and more
natural than being moved from right to left. These
results are in contrast to those of Morillo-Baro et al.
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 23-30
(2015), who reported that female players try to attack
from the left side of the court while men try to attack
from the right side of the court. Skandalis et al. (2017)
report that women try to attempt throws from the
center of the attack.
Still, the results of this research agree with those
of Skandalis et al. (2017), who reported that men have
an average of throwing efforts 56 per game and
women 54.2 per game. In our results, men had 57.3
and women 54.1 attempts to throw. Finally, men
mostly attempt their ultimate attacking efforts with
attacking formation 1, while women with attacking
formations 1 and 2. This is logical because both these
attacking formations give a clear advantage to the
specialist to score a two-pointer (Morillo-Baro et al.,
2015).
Conclusion
In conclusion, we would say that men’s and women’s
tactical choices in both defense and offense show
some differences between them and between genders.
These differences, however, we could say that they
are often small. In the final defensive selection both
men and women choose mainly the 3: 0 closed
defense formation, while in the final attacking option
both men and women often choose the formation 1,
thus highlighting the decisive and important role of
the specialist who is usually chosen to be positioned
and used in the best possible way. Furthermore, the
final attempts to throw, men choose to make them
mainly from the center, while women from the right
and from the center.
References
Brack, R. (2002). Sportspielspezifische Trainingslehre:
Wissenschafts-und objekttheoretische Grundlagen am
Beispiel Handball. Czwalina.
Carmichael, F., & Thomas, D. (1995). Production and
efficiency in team sports: an investigation of rugby
league football. Applied Economics, 27(9), 859-869.
EHF Beach Handball History. (2018). Retrieved 3/1, 2018,
from http://bheuro2017.com/yac/2016/10/02/ehf-bh-
history/
Gehrer, A., & Posada, F. (2010). Statistics from the 4th
Beach Handball World Championships 2010 in
Antalya. Retrieved January, 25, 2018.
In word beach handball championship John Meimaridis.
(2018). Retrieved 5/13, 2018, from
http://www.greekhandball.com/2018/05/blog-
post_21.html
29
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 23-30

Morillo-Baro, J. P., Reigal, R. E., & Hernandez-Mendo, A.
(2015). Analysis of positional attack in beach handball
male and female with polar coordinates. Ricyde-Revista
Internacional De Ciencias Del Deporte, 11(41), 226-
244.
Rokavec, D. (2009). Beach Handball: application and
influence on indoor handball. Publications.
Retrieved 2/1, 2018, from
http://home.eurohandball.com/ehf_files/Publikation/W
P_Rokavec_BH%20application%20and%20influence
%20on%20indoor%20handball_090313.pdf
Rules of the Game. (2017). Beach Handball. Retrieved
11/27, 2017, from http://www.ihf.info/en-us/the
game/statutes regulations.aspx?catid=5
Skandalis, V., Hatzimanouil, D., Papanikolaou, F.,
Kanioglou, A., & Yiannakos, A. (2017). Effectiveness
analysis in shooting in European Beach Handball
Tournament (EBT) 2016. Physical Training,
http://ejmas. com/pt/, 2017/September (electronical
journal).
USA Beach Handball. (2018). USA Beach Handball to host
the 2018 pan American beach handball championships.
Retrieved 1/15, 2018, from
https://www.teamusa.org/usa-team-
handball/news/2017/october/04/usa-beach-handball-
to-host-the-2018-pan-american-beach-handball-
championships
Zapardiel, J. C., Ferragut, C., Paramio, E. M., & Lozano,
D. (2015). Comparación del tiempo hasta momento
máximo entre jugadores de balonmano playa y
lanzadores de disciplinas sin balón comparison of the
time to peak torque between handball players and
athletes of non-ball throwing disciplines. Revista
Internacional De Ciencias Del Deporte, 11(41), 226-
244.

How to cite this article:

Gkagkanas, K., Hatzimanouil, D., & Skandalis, V. (2018). Gender
differentiation in tactical options in defense and attack on beach
APA:
handball. Exercise and Quality of Life, 10(2), 23-30.
doi:10.31382/eqol.181203
Gkagkanas, Konstantinos , Dimitris Hatzimanouil and Vasilis
Skandalis. "Gender differentiation in tactical options in defense and
MLA:
attack on beach handball." Exercise and Quality of Life 10.2
(2018): 23-30.
Gkagkanas, Konstantinos , Dimitris Hatzimanouil, and Vasilis
Skandalis. "Gender differentiation in tactical options in defense and
Chicago:
attack on beach handball." Exercise and Quality of Life 10, no. 2
(2018): 23-30.

30

ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Inclusion of preschool children into organized activity in leisure time
Milenko Janković 1✉ • Karolina Berenji 2 • Zoran Milić 3 • Sandra Vujkov 3 • Ágnes Halasi 4
Received: 10th October, 2018
Accepted: 13th November, 2018
© The Author(s) 2018. This article is published with open access.
Abstract
All physical activity of preschool children during
the day occurs while they are in kindergarten or
during their leisure time. The aim of the study was
to present the results related to the participation of
children in organized activities during leisure time
and what is the perception of parents about the scope
of their children's physical activity and the time
spent on watching TV, using computers and playing
video games (as a part of wider study). The research
was conducted in 2017 in the Preschool institution
“Naša Radost” in Subotica. The survey
questionnaire was filled in by 135 parents for
children of the average age of 5.14 years (±0.91).
The survey questionnaire contained questions about
children's nutrition (NutriStep survey) and their
involvement in organized activities with educational
and sports-recreational content during leisure time,
as well as parent’s opinion on quantity in child’s
sedentary activities. 65.9% of children aged 5 to 7
was found to attend some kind of organized activity,
most often within programs of foreign language
schools, sports schools and programs with aesthetic
✉ milenkojankovic@live.com
1
University of Novi Sad, College for Vocational
Education of Preschool Teachers, Novi Sad,
Serbia
2
Public Health Institute, Subotica, Serbia
3
University of Novi Sad, College for Vocational
Education of Preschool Teachers and Sport
Coaches, Subotica, Serbia
4
Polytechnic School, Subotica, Serbia
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 31-37
DOI: 10.31382/eqol.181204
presentation of skills is important (ballet, dance
and folklore). The largest number of parents
reported that their child spent one hour watching
TV, using a computer or playing games. About
71% of parents reported that their child was
physically active enough. In both cases, a
statistically significant difference was found
between boys and girls. Within the family circle
and within the educational institution, where
children spend most of the time, it is necessary to
provide conditions for undisturbed growth and
development. One of the best ways is through
exercising physical activity.
Keywords preschool children • structured activity
• leisure time
Introduction
The importance of physical activity for human
health is reflected in the improvement of cardio-
vascular functions (Lachman et al, 2018),
respiratory functions (Fuertes et al, 2018), and
significantly is associated with motor skills in
children (Wrotniak, Epstein, Dorn, Jones,
Kondilis, 2006), etc. The term physical activity is
usually understood as any physical movement
generated by skeletal muscles that leads to energy
consumption (Caspersen, Powell, & Christenson,
1985). This definition should be understood in the
broadest context, as it applies to all consciously
executed movements and motion.
Recent studies confirmed that the lack of
physical activity (PA) is commonly assumed as a
concerning factor for obesity risk (Machado-
Rodrigues et al., 2016). Furthermore, nutritional
habits of children and adolescents are crucial to
maintaining health and preventing diseases. Very
31
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 31-37
often early nutritional habits are extended into
adulthood, increasing the risk of chronic non-
communicable diseases and disability (Deren et al.,
2018).
Recommendations for daily and weekly amount of
physical activity can be given in means of time,
distance (or steps), content desirably practiced, etc.
The World Health Organization's documents
recommend that children aged 5 to 17 practice 60
minutes of moderate to intense physical activity
(World Health Organization, 2010). It is also stated
that additional health benefits are achieved if the
activity exceeds the recommended 60 minutes, and it
may even be practiced in several separate parts (e.g.,
twice for 30 minutes). Habits related to regular
physical exercise and positive attitudes towards
physical activity should be built at the youngest age.
In that case, children are most likely to follow in
footsteps of their parents and adults from their
surroundings because they spend most of their time
with them.
Free physical activities are predominant in daily
activities of pre-school children, but a large number
of parents enroll their children in educational and
sports-recreational programs. Organized activities
involve the existence of certain structure, orientation
towards some goals or outcomes, and is organized
and carried out by a trainer, instructor or other trained
person. It is very important for children to get
involved in some sports-recreational organization
from the earliest days, in order to remain active at
later stages of life. Thus, in previous studies, it was
found that the involvement of children in sports and
recreational activities in childhood and adolescence
contribute to the same output in early adulthood
(Kjønniksen, Anderssen, & Wold, 2009; Telama,
Yang, Hirvensalo, & Raitakari, 2006) and old age
(Hirvensalo, Lintunen, & Rantanen, 2000).
All physical activity of children during the day
occurs while they are in kindergarten or during leisure
time. There is a lack of information regarding daily
level of organized activities in preschool children in
Serbia outside kindergarten. Therefore, the aim was
to present only the results related to the participation
of children in organized activities during leisure time
and what is the perception of parents about the scope
of their children's physical activity and the time spent
32
watching TV, and playing video games or using
computer.
The results presented in this paper are part of a
wider study on children's physical activity, it was not
possible to display all the results obtained by
research.
Method
The research was conducted in September and
October 2017 in the pre-school institution “Naša
Radost” in Subotica. The survey was completed by
135 parents (70 parents of boys and 65 parents of
girls) of children of the average age of 5.14 years
(±0.91).
The results presented in this paper are part of a
wider study on nutrition and body composition of pre-
school children in Subotica. In this research the
parents completed the survey questionnaire with
questions about children's nutrition (NutriStep
survey) and their involvement in organized activities
with educational and sports-recreational content. This
paper presents only results related to the participation
of children in organized activities during leisure time
and parents’ attitudes on physical and sedentary
activities of their children.
The results were processed by calculating the
percentage values and displaying the frequency of the
results in statistical program (SPSS.20). Mann-
Whitney test was used to compare groups of subjects
in nonparametric variables. The level of significance
is set to p ≤ 0.05.
Results
Out of 135 parents who completed the survey
questionnaire, 89 (65.9%) responded positively to the
question: “Does your child attend some organized
activity during the week?”. Table 1 lists activities
indicated by parents as attended by their children. It
must be noted that some parents have indicated that
children attend two, and in some cases three
activities.
 EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 31-37

Table 1. Organized activities attended by children in their free time

Gender
Activity
Boys Girls
Music school, choir... 0 11
School of foreign language 16 23
Drawing or painting school 0 1
Logico 2 1
NTC school 0 1
Logoped / Speech Therapist 1 1
Ballet, dance, folk dance... 3 29
School of sports 22 6
School of football 7 0
Swimming 4 1
Ice skating, roller skating… 1 2
Karate 3 2
Gymnastics 0 1

Although organized activities with sports-
recreational content can be and usually are
educational in nature, in this paper they are divided
and separately discussed. In the first six of the above-
mentioned activities there is no content referring to
sports-recreational activities.
Since it was assumed that a number of children do
not attend any of the activities, parents were asked to
indicate the reason for their absence. The obtained
results are presented in Chart 1.

7%
2%
23%

21%

20%
9%

7%
11%

Sports facilities, foreign language schools, music schools, etc. are too far away...
I think there’s no need
I work with him/her
Due to financial situation
He/she will get enrolled soon
The child does not want, has not shown interest or hesitates
No answer or explanation
Other

Figure 1. Reasons for non-attendance organized activity

33
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 31-37
Most parents agree that there is a need for a child
to attend some organized activity, but there are certain
reasons why some parents did not enroll their children
in some organized activity. The largest number of
parents whose children do not attend any activity did
not give a response or explanation or stated that they
work with the child. Attending any kind of activity,
in most cases, requires certain financial expenses, so
parents in a minority of cases (8.7%) pointed out the
financial situation. When the parents opted for Other
(21.7%), they stated the following: “my husband and
I are working in shifts, so we cannot take the child to
the activity”; “I do not have time to take him/her to
Table 2. Perception of parents about the scope of physical activity of the child
Variable Boys
More physical activity is needed 15 (21.4%)
It is physically active enough 55 (78.6%)
From the Table 2 it can be seen that most parents
consider that their child is sufficiently physically
active. A statistically significant difference was also
found in the responses of the parents of boys and girls.
Table 3. Watching TV, using a computer or playing games
Variable Boys
About 4 hours 0 (0.0%)
About 3 hours 12 (17.1%)
About 2 hours 21 (30.0%)
1 hour or less 37 (52.9%)
An integral part of daily activities represents
activities that are being exercised with: watching TV,
using computer or playing video games. In Table 3
also was established a statistically significant
difference in the responses of the parents of boys and
girls. When comparing the results, it can be seen that
a higher percentage of the parents of the girls
indicated that their child watches TV, uses computer
or plays video games for a longer period of time
Discussion
The activities indicated by parents as attended by
their children can partially be understood in the
context of modern times. For example, the largest
number of parents stated that their child is attending
a foreign language school, which is nowadays highly
appreciated: in education, employment, tourism, etc.
34
the activity anymore”; “I'm waiting for him/her to
adapt to the kindergarten a bit”; “choir, sometimes”,
“due to transportation”; “I’m waiting for a karate
group to be formed”; “we are waiting until he/she
turns five so he/she could start with swimming”, etc.
Considering the overall activity of the child,
parents were asked whether their child should be
more physically active and how much time does it
spend watching TV, using a computer or playing
video games. The results are shown in Table 2 and
Table 3.
Girls Total p
24 (36.9%) 39 (28.9%)
.048
41 (63.1%) 96 (71.1%)
A higher percentage of boys' parents compared to the
girls’ parents thinks that their child is physically
active enough.
Girls Total p
5 (7.7%) 5 (3.7%)
15 (23.1%) 27 (20.0%)
.017
22 (33.8%) 43 (31.9%)
23 (35.4) 60 (44.4%)
For this reason, parents very early begin to encourage
their children to learn a foreign language. Other
educational activities in which there is no sports-
recreational content (music school, choir, school of
drawing or painting, logico, etc.) are present in
preschool children to a lesser extent. One of the
reasons may be that work in a preschool institution is
carried out through various areas (art, music,
mathematics, etc.), so parents do not decide to enroll
their child on some of the organized activities with
related content. During the execution of activities in
the kindergarten, the areas of work often intertwine,
and it is worth mentioning that in previous studies it
was found that physical activity positively affects
cognitive functioning (Donnelly et al., 2016; Fedewa,
& Ahn, 2011; Sibley, & Etnier, 2003). This fact is
very important for all those working in the
educational process with children.

The most common form of organized physical
activity of pre-school children is the sports school.
This is somewhat expected, as the programs of these
schools are adapted to the age and are directed to the
development of all motor skills, muscle groups and
the enrichment of motor skills. In some studies, it has
been found that the attendance of such programs
contributes to the development of children's motor
skills and positively influences morphological
characteristics (Popović, & Stupar, 2011; Stupar et al,
2017). In addition, it must be noted that lately there is
more and more such contents (school of sports). It is
good that parents usually decide to enroll their
children on such programs because that creates a
good basis for engaging in some sports in the later
period.
Based on the results in Table 1, there are some
differences between boys and girls in engagement in
one of the activities. Although this study did not
investigate who had the most influence on the
selection of activities, it is assumed that preschool
children are most influenced by parents. In almost all
organized physical activities, boys are more
represented, except in those that are practiced with
music and where aesthetic aspects of skills matter
(ballet, dance, folk dance, ice skating, etc.). A greater
proportion of boys in sports clubs has been observed
in earlier studies with older children (Telama et al,
2006), and it can be assumed that organized sport
activities are more suited to their needs and interests
(Kjønniksen et al., 2009).
Most experts agree that the most appropriate
period for the psycho-physical development of
children is until they turn 7 or 8 years (Strong et al.,
2005). During that period parents should spend most
of their time and attention to the intellectual,
emotional and physical development of their children.
In the conducted research, 46 parents gave a negative
answer to the question on engagement of children in
organized activity. Participation of children in
organized physical activities provides the possibility
of a positive effect on the health status, children have
the opportunity to get acquainted with sports skills,
and in such an environment it is possible to control
the potential risks when exercising physical activity
(Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness, &
Committee on School Health, 2001). Also, parent
support is significantly related to the physical activity
of children (Trost et al, 2003).
The results obtained in this study are comparable
with the results from earlier studies, showing that
girls spend longer periods of inactivity such as
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 31-37
watching TV, using computers and playing video
games (Cherney, & London, 2006). As much as
30.8% of girls spend more than 3 hours in these
activities, while with boys these activities make up
17.1%. These activities are often associated with poor
social skills, while having a TV in the bedroom is
related with sleeping problems and lower emotional
reactivity (Mistry, Minkovitz, Strobino, &
Borzekowski, 2007). Watching a violent or non-
violent entertainment program before child turns
three is associated with an Attention Deficit Disorder
(Zimmerman, & Christakis, 2007). It should be noted
that sedentary activities such as watching TV, playing
video games and spending time using computers can
be one of the causes of obesity (Danner, 2008; Proctor
et al, 2003), which is due to the reduced volume of
physical activity and increased calorie intake.
However, it should be noted that the findings of some
studies confirm that the effects of watching television
depend on the content of the program and the genre
(Wright, Huston, Murphy, Peters & Piñon, 2001),
which means that they may have positive impact on
children's development.
Conclusion
During growing up, children spend most of their time
with their families and within the educational
institution. During that period, it is necessary to
provide adequate conditions for their undisturbed
growth and development. Although within the pre-
school educational program there are contents that are
focused on the overall psycho-physical development,
this research found that a large number of pre-school
children are involved in organized activities during
their free time. Free physical activity is becoming less
represented in children, which is probably noticed by
parents, so they enroll their children in sports-
recreational organized contents. Future studies need
to identify the extent of the physical activity of
children during their stay in the kindergarten and
during their free time. Thus, adequate
recommendations can be provided and certain
corrections can be made. Furthermore, as a part of a
limited study, overall results on current dietary
behaviors and practices of preschool children from
Subotica was evaluated with satisfactory nutritional
level.
35
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 31-37
Acknowledgements
This research is a part of science-research project
“Body composition, postural state and nutrition
quality in preschool children from Subotica”, co-
financed by the Provincial Secretariat for Higher
Education and Scientific-Research Development of
Vojvodina, accomplished by the College for
Vocational Education of Preschool Teachers and
Sport Coaches in Subotica (No: 142-451-3018/2017-
02-2, head researcher: Sandra Vujkov, PhD).
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How to cite this article:

Janković, M., Berenji, K., Milić, Z., Vujkov, S., & Halasi, Á.
(2018). Inclusion of preschool children into organized activity in
APA:
leisure time. Exercise and Quality of Life, 10(2), 31-37.
doi:10.31382/eqol.181204
Janković, Milenko, et al. "Inclusion of preschool children into
MLA: organized activity in leisure time." Exercise and Quality of Life
10.2 (2018): 31-37.
Janković, Milenko, Karolina Berenji, Zoran Milić, Sandra Vujkov,
and Ágnes Halasi. "Inclusion of preschool children into organized
Chicago:
activity in leisure time." Exercise and Quality of Life 10, no. 2
(2018): 31-37.

37
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2)

38

ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Fitness- and Healthcenter evaluation by resigned members
Georgios Zarotis 1✉
Received: 10th June, 2018
Accepted: 23rd July, 2018
© The Author(s) 2018. This article is published with open access.
Abstract
The aim of the study is to examine if and to what
extent the evaluations of fitness studios by persons
who have recently resigned from their membership
are related to general studio conditions such as
studio atmosphere, facilities, trainer’s competence
and other features. In other words, the question is
whether there are typical prioritizations on positive
or negative evaluations by dropouts from fitness
sport. In the survey a total of 225 people, who had
quitted their membership in the past, were
questioned in a telephone inquiry. The study was
conducted in a health-oriented fitness center in a
major city in Germany. At the time of the study the
fitness facility had up to 1.151 memberships.
Among them, 59% of the members were women and
41% were men. The average age of the respondents
was 43.5 years. The average duration of
membership added up to 4.4 years. Overall, the
various aspects of the studio offer and its
surroundings were mostly rated as “good”. The
respondents appreciated particularly the coaches
(friendliness, helpfulness, competence), followed by
opening hours, trial training and the first impression.
The membership costs and individual aspects such
as space, music and ventilation are assessed more
critically, if not really badly.
The data show that the various evaluation aspects
were clearly assessed differently by the respondents,
and that there was apparently little generalized
information on the studio evaluation.
✉ zarotisg@rhodes.aegean.gr
1
University of the Aegean, Faculty of Human
Sciences, Rhodes, Greece
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 39-45
DOI: 10.31382/eqol.181205
Keywords Fitness-center • evaluation • resigned
members
Introduction
In the statistical analyses presented here, we
examine the evaluations of a fitness studio by
persons who have just given up the activity in this
sports facility. We examine the question as to
which are the characteristics of the individual
evaluation aspects by dropouts. Furthermore, we
examine the extent to which these evaluations
differ from one another. Thus, we aim to answer
the question whether there are typical
prioritizations on positive or negative evaluations
by dropouts from fitness sport.
For many years the number of fitness clubs is
almost stagnating. The fitness line is also marked
by an annual fluctuation of total membership
numbers. High customer fluctuation, however,
significantly complicate long-term financial and
staff-wise arrangements. But how is it that
dropouts occur in fitness clubs at all? In order to
answer this question, we need to identify the
different needs of the customers in the first place.
In the evaluations and statistical analyses
presented here, the question is how strong the
various reasons for abandoning activities in a
fitness studio are. We also examine whether there
are typical priorities in the drop-out justification
and which reasons are used, in a statistically
significant way, more or less or not at all (Zarotis
et al., 2017).
Brehm and Eberhardt (1995) questioned fitness
studio members about their reasons for quitting
training because they had not renewed their
contract. The major reason for quitting the activity
39
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 39-45
was the “lack of fun in the sporting activities”. Also
important for the quitting decision were “motivation
problems” (e.g., laziness), “lack of time” (often due
to heavy workload) and “financial reasons” (too
expensive membership fees). In response to an open
question about the specific quitting reasons, the
members criticized the “studio atmosphere” (too
impersonal) as well as the “lack of social support”
(e.g. no contact with other members, partner has quit
the training, etc.) and also the “high membership
costs” (e.g. for additional services like childcare)
were viewed critically. This shows that quitting a
sports program always depends on personal as well as
situational characteristics (Rampf, 1999). Although it
is possible to identify specific reasons which finally
lead to dropping out, the participation behavior is
affected by a complex factor structure.
Dishman (1982, 1998) several times remarks
critically on the often-unsystematic approach of many
studies and describes them as a-theoretical. This lack
of standardization of theories and examination
methods restricts the comparability of the studies
considerably. Especially the limited data base and the
lack of uniform models complicate the research.
Method
A total of 225 people, who had terminated their
contract in the past, were questioned by a telephone
inquiry about their decision. The advantages of the
telephone survey are the low cost per interview, the
possibility of responding to queries and the high
external validity (Homburg & Krohmer, 2008).
The study was conducted in a health-oriented
fitness center in a major city in Germany in July 2016.
At the time of the study, the gym had up to 1.151
memberships. Among them 59% of the members
were women and 41% were men. The average age of
the respondents was 43.5 years. The average duration
of membership added up to 4.4 years. The
respondents were persons who have terminated their
contract in the period between July 2015 and July
2016. In this period 305 members departed, of those
225 persons were found and questioned. 54 people
could not be found, probably due to a relocation or
change of the telephone number. 26 persons did not
wish to participate in the survey (Zarotis & Tokarski,
2005, Zarotis et al. 2017).
The persons were asked about the importance of
different reasons for their decision to leave the gym.
They were asked to rank the importance of each of
40
these 19 reasons for leaving in a five-point Likert
scale. The scaling ranged from “does not apply at all”
(coded with the numerical value 1) and “applies
strongly” (coded with the numerical value 5). The
three intermediate stages were not verbally expressed
in the questionnaire; only the polarity of the scale was
verbalized over the two extreme points. Thus, the
total of 19 individual subjects were considered as
scale marks regarding the significance of individual
quitting reasons even in the strict meaning of the
metric theory, which in statistical evaluation makes
the calculation of mean values and the use of
parametric statistical methods possible.
In most of the questionnaire items there were no
response refusals, so that in 14 of the 19
questionnaires there are valid values even N = 225. In
three items there was a missing value, i.e. a person
refused to respond, in one item there were 2 missing
values and in another item 3 missing values.
In the data analysis, the sample characteristics are
initially described in terms of “gender distribution”,
“age” (in years and in age categories) and “duration
of membership in the studio”. Respondents’ age data
were divided into the following four age categories:
Respondents up to 25
Age category 1
years old
Respondents between 26
Age category 2
and 40 years old
Respondents between 41
Age category 3
and 55 years old
Respondents from 56
Age category 4
years old and over
The 19 studio evaluations are described
descriptively on the basis of the distribution
characteristic values: mean, median and standard
deviation.
A variance analysis with measurement repetition
factor is calculated to ensure the inferential statistic
of the differences between studio evaluations. The
variance analysis checks the empirical data of the
sample against the null hypothesis that in total all
evaluation aspects basically have the same central
tendency.
It is, of course, to be expected that the sample data
will contradict this null hypothesis, since the
assumption that all studio evaluations are in fact the
same is really not plausible. The variance analysis
initially provides only an "Overall" -significance test,
whether there is somewhere any difference between
the evaluations.
 EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 39-45

More important than the question of whether there
is any difference between the quitting reasons, is the
question of which evaluations are comparatively
particularly positive or negative.
For this purpose, one could theoretically make full
pairwise individual comparisons. However, this is
impractical for two reasons:
The number of required pairwise individual
comparisons is 171 (18 + 17 + 16 + ... + 2 3 + 1)
individual comparisons. This is very unclear because
of the variety of the individual results.
In this variety of individual comparisons via T-
tests for connected samples, the problem of so-called
“multiple testing” would occur in a very drastic
manner, in which the probability of so-called
“random signals” strongly increases. A Bonferroni
correction with regard to the applied significance
level would give a critical value for the protection
against the alpha error of p <0.00029 and would be
extremely conservative, i.e. the null hypothesis is far
too “favorable2” (Hombur & Krohmer, 2008).
Instead, each mean value of the 19 justifications is
tested as regards to significance against the overall
mean value of all 19 justifications. One sample t-test
are used here, which check whether the mean value
of the importance of each quitting reason differs
significantly from the total mean value over all
quitting reasons.
Results
The sample consists of almost ¾ of female
respondents and ¼ of male respondents. The age
range is between 16 and 74 years with a respondents’
mean age of 43.5 years and a distribution of 13.0
years. In the age categories mentioned, most
respondents (42.9%) are in age category 3 and a
further 31.3% is in age category 2. Very young
respondents represent only 9% of the respondents and
respondents over 55 years 17% of the respondents.
Contract terminations were made on average after 4.4
years of membership, with a very large distribution
(standard deviation) of 3.8.

Table 1. Sample distribution characteristic values

N % M Median SD N
Gender Female 164 72.9%
Male 61 27.1%
Total 225 100.0%
Age 43.5 43.0 13.0 224
Membership duration (years) 4.4 3.0 3.8 225
Age categories up to 25 years 20 8.9%
26-40 years 70 31.3%
41-55 years 96 42.9%
>55 years 38 17.0%
Total 224 100.0%

41
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 39-45

Table 2 shows the mean value, median and standard

deviation of the 19 studio evaluations.
Table 2. Mean, median and distribution of the studio sample is compared to the mean of the significance of
evaluations all reasons. This corresponds to the distance between
the blue bars and the red line in Figure 1.
N = 224
Variable
M Median SD Table 3. Mean value of each evaluation in relation to the overall
Studio location 1.7 2.0 0.7 mean value of all evaluations
Parking facilities 2.0 2.0 0.9
First impression 1.5 1.0 0.6 Mean value
Difference
Evaluation aspects M of all
Opening hours 1.4 1.0 0.6 value
Evaluations
Studio atmosphere 1.7 2.0 0.7
Studio location 1.7 1.8 -0.1
Trial training 1.5 1.0 0.6
Parking facilities 2 1.8 0.2
Membership costs 2.5 2.0 0.8
First impression 1.5 1.8 -0.3
Strength training offer 1.9 2.0 0.5
Opening hours 1.4 1.8 -0.4
Endurance training offer 1.9 2.0 0.5
Studio atmosphere 1.7 1.8 -0.1
Spaciousness 2.3 2.0 0.7
Trial training 1.5 1.8 -0.3
Music 2.3 2.0 0.6
Membership costs 2.5 1.8 0.7
Light 1.8 2.0 0.6
Strength training offer 1.9 1.8 0.1
Ventilation 2.2 2.0 0.6 Endurance training 1.9 1.8 0.1
Locker rooms 2.1 2.0 0.6 offer
Spaciousness 2.3 1.8 0.5
Sanitary facilities 2.0 2.0 0.5
Music 2.3 1.8 0.5
Gastronomy 2.0 2.0 0.4
Light 1.8 1.8 0.0
Trainer’s friendliness 1.3 1.0 0.5
Ventilation 2.2 1.8 0.4
Trainer’s helpfulness 1.3 1.0 0.5
Locker rooms 2.1 1.8 0.3
Trainer’s competence 1.3 1.0 0.5
Sanitary facilities 2 1.8 0.2
Gastronomy 2 1.8 0.2
Among all 19 studio evaluations occurs in the Trainer’s friendliness 1.3 1.8 -0.5
sample a mean evaluation of 1,821 (SD: 0.318). Trainer’s helpfulness 1.3 1.8 -0.5
Table 3 shows the different values that result when Trainer’s competence 1.3 1.8 -0.5
the significance of each individual reason in the

Figure 1. Difference values of the individual studio evaluations in relation to the total mean value

42
 EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 39-45

As expected, the variance analysis with
measurement repeat factor gives a highly significant
effect with p < .001 (F: 67,769; df: 18/203) for N =
221 cases with valid values in all 19 items. So
initially it proved particularly significant, that not all
evaluations are the same and that the evaluations’
differences are not a mere random variation of this
specific sample selection. This result was to be
expected, however, since a complete similarity of all
the evaluations would not be very plausible.
The extremely high variance clarification (partial
Eta squared) of 857 appears to be more important in
this result. This means that 85.7% of the total variance
in all evaluation aspects can be derived from the fact
Table 4. Significance of the deviations of the mean values of the studio evaluation from the total mean value of all evaluations
that different questionnaires are available. Only 15%
of the total variance is attributable to differences
between the respondents within the same evaluation
aspect. Thus, the respondents of the sample answered
very homogeneously as regards to the individual
evaluation aspects and are quite differentiated
between the different evaluation aspects.
Table 4 shows the results of the significance test
using so-called one-sample t tests. It is tested, in each
case, the zero hypothesis that the mean evaluation for
the respective studio feature (apart from random
variations) does not deviate from the total mean value
of all studio evaluations, which is 1.821.

Test value = 1.821

Mean
Variable
t df Sig. value
difference
Studio location -2.412 223 0.017 -0.111
Parking facilities 3.593 223 0.000 0.206
First impression -8.870 222 0.000 -0.368
Opening hours -11.458 223 0.000 -0.433
Studio atmosphere -3.352 223 0.001 -0.160
Trial training -8.455 223 0.000 -0.321
Membership costs 12.170 223 0.000 0.639
Strength training offer 2.308 223 0.022 0.076
Endurance training offer 1.555 222 0.121 0.053
Spaciousness 10.401 223 0.000 0.465
Music 10.798 223 0.000 0.433
Light -0.476 222 0.635 -0.018
Ventilation 9.590 222 0.000 0.394
Locker rooms 7.210 223 0.000 0.277
Sanitary facilities 5.849 223 0.000 0.206
Gastronomy 6.643 223 0.000 0.188
Trainer’s friendliness -16.052 223 0.000 -0.509
Trainer’s helpfulness -15.170 223 0.000 -0.495
Trainer’s competence -16.805 223 0.000 -0.517

It seems that the mean values of 17 out of the 19 Discussion

evaluations differ significantly from the overall mean
value of all studio evaluations. In 15 of the 19 tests,
In general, the mean values of the evaluations vary
the results are significant at the 0.1% level, in two
between 1.3 and 2.5, i.e. all are consistently in the
cases (studio location and strength training offer)
positive evaluation range of the scale. Most items are
significant at the 5% level. The mean evaluation of
a little below or slightly above the value of 2, which
the lighting conditions in the studio is clearly not
is “good”.
different from the overall mean value.
Clearly, the best scores are found in the last three
The results confirm that the individual aspects of
items, in which the studio trainers are evaluated. Also,
the studio evaluation were actually evaluated
the items opening hours, trial training and first
independently by the interviewees and are not the
impression are in the mean value closer to the
expression of a generalized evaluation of the studio.
evaluation level “very good” than at the evaluation

43
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 39-45
level “good”. The - relatively speaking - worst ratings
appear at the features of membership costs,
spaciousness, music and ventilation (Brehm &
Eberhardt, 1995, Rampf, 1999).
A concentration of negative aspects in terms of
training, will over time lead to an abandonment of the
activity. Overall these results confirm the assumption
that drop-outs are more critical towards general
conditions and thereby support the results of other
studies released on this topic.
It is important that the customer feels comfortable
in the training area and in all other parts of the fitness-
club. Comfortable feelings are for example
guaranteed by not crowding the training area with
training equipment. Sufficient space for movement
during training, facilitates a positive training
experience. Background music also creates a positive
atmosphere. Sufficient ventilation is of special
significance in that regard (Rampf, 1999).
In the research made by Rampf (1999) it becomes
also evident that 19 % of the respondent group stated
“too high cost for membership” as the main single
reason for quitting the sports program. However, the
real amount of cost is not the actual problem but
rather the negative cost/benefit balance.
There is also evidence in other studies that
financial aspects of dropout play an important role. In
the survey by Breuer et al. (2013) even 45.1% of the
149 respondents cite as a reason "membership costs",
which is why they discontinue fitness training.
Financial aspects are also mentioned in a study by
the IHRSA (2012) as main arguments for the
termination of membership in a fitness club. 52.2% of
the 1,000 respondents surveyed said they were no
longer able to afford their membership or rated them
as expensive. Therefore, in future work, the collection
of the income should be considered in order to assess
its impact on the dropout.
The significance test shows, on one side, that the
studio conditions were indeed evaluated very
differently, and that a kind of generalized "mind set"
is hardly reflected in the evaluation. How an
evaluation is made largely depends on the specific
evaluation aspect and only on a much lesser scale on
personality differences.
With one exception, each evaluation is different as
regards to significance, thus differentiated, from the
basic trend over all studio evaluations.
44
Conclusions
On the whole, the various aspects of the studio offer
and its surroundings were largely rated as "good".
The respondents appreciated particularly the coaches
(friendliness, helpfulness, competence), followed by
opening hours, trial training and the first impression.
The membership costs and individual aspects such as
space, music and ventilation are assessed more
critically, if not really badly.
The data show that the various evaluation aspects
were clearly assessed differently by the respondents,
and that there was apparently little generalized
information on the studio evaluation.
References
Brehm, W., & Eberhardt, J. (1995). Drop-Out and
adherence in Fitness-Studio. Sports Science, 25(2),
174-186.
Breuer, C., Wicker, P., & Nagel, N. (2013). A time-
economic analysis of fitness training. Cologne: German
Sport University Cologne, Institute of Sport Economics
and Sport Management.
Dishman, R. K. (1982). Compliance/Adherence in Health-
Related Exercise. Healthy Psychology, 1, 237-267.
Dishman, R. K. (1998). Exercise Adherence – Its Impact
on Public Health. Champaign: Human Kinetics Books.
Homburg, Ch., & Krohmer, H. (2008). The process of
market research: definition of data collection, sample
formation and questionnaire design. In Herrmann, A.,
Homburg, Ch., Klarmann, M., Handbook Market
Research (3rd Edition) (pp.21-51). Wiesbaden: Gabler.
IHRSA. (2012). Why did you leave / quit your former
health club?In Statista - The Statistics Portal. Retrieved
January 05, 2015,
from http://www.statista.com/statistics/246978/reason
s-for-quiting-healthclub membership/.
Rampf, J. (1999). Drop-out and adherence in fitness
sports. Favourable and unfavourable conditions for
activities in the gym. Hamburg: Cwalina.
Zarotis, G. (1999). Goal Fitness-Club: Motivation in
Fitness-Sport. Aachen: Meyer & Meyer.
Zarotis, G., & Tokarski, W. (2005). Gender-specific
differences for motivation in health-oriented sports and
fitness facilities. Spectrum Free Time, 28(2), 81-89.
Zarotis, G., Athanailidis, I., Arvanitidou, V., & Mourtzios,
C. (2017). Age-specific reasons for dropping out of the
Fitness-Sport. Journal of Physical Education and
Sport, 17(2), 916-924.
Zarotis, G., Athanailidis, I., Arvanitidou, V., & Mourtzios,
C. (2017). Age-dependent fitness centre evaluation by
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Zarotis, G., Athanailidis, I., Tosunidis, A., & Sport. Comparing the general relevance of Reasons for
Mastrogiannopoulos N. (2017). Drop-Out in Fitness- quitting. Trends in Sport Sciences, 24(4), 175-181.

How to cite this article:

Zarotis, G. (2018). Fitness- and Healthcenter evaluation by
APA: resigned members. Exercise and Quality of Life, 10(2), 39-45.
doi:10.31382/eqol.181205
Zarotis, Georgios. "Fitness- and Healthcenter evaluation by
MLA: resigned members." Exercise and Quality of Life 10.2 (2018): 39-
45.
Zarotis, Georgios. "Fitness- and Healthcenter evaluation by
Chicago: resigned members." Exercise and Quality of Life 10, no. 2 (2018):
39-45.

45
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2)

46
 EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 47-53
REVIEW ARTICLE

Perceptions and attitudes concerning individuals with disabilities in

ancient Greece: physical exercise as a means of prevention and
treatment of health-related problems

Iordanis Stavrianos 1✉ • Vasilios Kaimakamis 1 • Vasilios Tsimaras 1 • Athanasios Anastasiou1

Received: 12th March, 2018 DOI: 10.31382/eqol.181206

Accepted: 18th May, 2018
© The Author(s) 2018. This article is published with open access.

Abstract Methodology

In the history of human kind in all ethnic groups and

communities there have been individuals with
physical or mental disabilities. Until the 18th
century not only these individuals did not receive
any support or care by their community but they
were rather treated as inferior with a diminishing
way. More or less the same attitude occurs to the
ancient Greek world, where old age, limited
psychomotor skills and potential disability were
perceived as evidence of deprivation of the grace of
gods. A minor acknowledgment of individuals with
disabilities started from Athens, since there were
several benefits introduced on behalf of the disabled
for the very first time in the history of human kind.
In the ancient times Greeks made use of physical
exercise as a mean for therapeutic as well as
prevention purposes against various diseases. Thus,
a great number of distinguished physicians such as
Herodikos and his student Hippocrates
recommended physical exercise as the ideal
treatment of several health-related problems.
Keywords disability • exclusion • acceptance •
physical exercise • ancient Greek world • doctors •
Asclepieiea • healing
✉ stavrianos12@hotmail.gr
1
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of
Physical Education and Sport Science,
Thessaloniki, Greece
This review paper followed a fieldwork survey
approach that included initial selection of data
retrieved from primary ancient written records as
well as contemporary reliable writers and
classification according to the historic value and
relation of data to the examined issue.
A brief report on the stance and attitude
concerning individuals with disabilities in
various communities from the antiquity to
the 18th century
Studying the history of the human kind leads to the
safe conclusion that there have always been
individuals with mental or physical disabilities in
all communities and that the attitudes towards
people with disabilities would vary depending on
the era, the nature of disability (mental or physical)
and the cultural values featuring in the society
where disabled individuals lived in (De Pauw &
Gavron, 1995).
Mainly, those individuals were treated to a
greater or a lesser extent in a derogatory manner.
Nevertheless, there were certainly some societies
that regarded them in a more humane way,
whereas other societies were prejudiced against
them or they perceived them as subjects of
adoration or something divine.
Especially in the societies of the prehistoric
times or the ancient times (3000-500 b.C) when
prejudice dominated, there was no exception for

47
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 47-53
individuals with disabilities1. A typical example of
such prejudices found mainly in the prehistoric times
is that in Indian and Asian communities such
individuals were left to die so as to improve the
quality of the community (De Pauw & Gavron, 1995).
Another feature of the prehistoric communities is the
piercing of the skulls of individuals with disabilities
as a method of treatment. It was then believed that the
evil spirits that had occupied the person would exit
through the hole that was drilled in the skull leading
to their healing (Stasinos, 1991). Overall, it can be
said that in the prehistoric period individuals with
disabilities were regarded as pariahs, of lower quality
and in many cases even cursed and possessed by evil
spirits.
In later historic periods, Hippocrates, the father of
medicine, was the first to approach disability in a
scientific way, claiming that it was not God or
demons that harm people but some kind of a disease
(Tzouriadou, 1995). Furthermore, during the Hellenic
and Roman era, there was the onset of more favorable
and humane ideas concerning individuals with
disabilities.
In the middle ages of the western world, where
prejudices and obsessions were dominant, these
individuals with disabilities were again treated with
suspicion and rejection. Depending on the nature of
disability, they would either be submitted to
exorcisms, or tortures, or confined in monasteries or
exploited as jokers in the courts of the palaces
(Tzouriadou, 1995). Thus, it can be said that until the
18th century, apart from the fact that individuals with
disabilities were not receiving any support or care
from the societies they lived in, they were actually
treated brutally, they were acquainted with rejection,
social isolation, or became victims of exploitation
(Fotiadou, 2008).
The renaissance and the French revolution
create favourable conditions for individuals
with disabilities
The Renaissance and the later French Revolution (late
18th century) created, among other things, a favorable
atmosphere toward individuals with disabilities, with
a transition noticed from fear, prejudice and suspicion
to acceptance and determination to educate disabled
1
The term “disability” is general and refers to people who
have a reduced or total lack of body and mind skills.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
individuals with disabilities are considered to be all
48
people (De Pauw & Gavron, 1995). It’s the same era
when people started treating children in a more
humane way. Children were rescued and offered care
on public expenditure while later as adults they were
accommodated and received care in special
institutions for the poor (Hewett & Forness, 1974).
Thus, during this period individuals with
disabilities were institutionalized with limited
possibilities, but on the other hand they could also
receive education, apart from more severe cases that
they were taken over by a philanthropist teacher.
Although they were provided with accommodation,
nutrition and clothing, the fact that no further
treatment concerning their disabilities was supplied
accordingly plus that the institutes were situated in
the countryside far away from society, shows that
society was not yet ready to accept those individuals
as functioning members (Carter, Van Andel & Robb,
2011).
The first free-of-charge schools for the deaf and
the blind children made their appearance in the late
decades of the 18th century. More specifically in the
decade of 1760, the first free schools for the deaf
commenced their operating in Paris (Ammons &
Eickman, 2011). After 1800, this favorable
atmosphere and institutionalization of individuals
with disabilities would gradually pass from Europe
beyond the Atlantic Ocean, to the US with special
institutes established from 1818 to 1894 for
individuals with mental disabilities alongside with
such for the blind and the deaf.
Isolated institutionalization was considered the
most effective treatment for those individuals, with
those suffering from serious diseases institutionalized
for life, while those with milder forms of diseases
were considered as eligible and suitable for work
according to their potential (Winnick, 2000). Overall,
during this period some individuals with disabilities
started being more acceptable and comprehensible by
organized communities, while at the same time
individualized education started to emerge and
promoted in isolated environments, though.
persons with a severe disability resulting from physical or
mental disabilities. We therefore distinguish between the
physically disabled and the mentally disabled.

Results the 19th and 20th century period:
treatment, education, recreation and sports
for individuals with disabilities are organized
In that entire positive atmosphere occurred during the
18th century and the first attempt to educate
individuals with disabilities, the first recreational
opportunities for individuals with disabilities took
place in the early 19th century. Thus, in some
hospitals and state institutes, bowling was used for
recreational reasons alongside music and other forms
of entertainment. Later in the same century,
educational and recreational practice outdoors, in the
countryside would appear first in Europe and later in
the USA, while worth mentioning are the first
campuses for children with disabilities created in
1888 (DePauw & Gavron, 1995).
The favorable attitude toward individuals with
disabilities started spreading in other sectors, too. So,
during the late 19th and early 20th century in some
European countries, special education classes were
created, with this model later adopted by the U.S.A.,
with increase of special schools at greater numbers.
On the whole, 20th century according to DePaw &
Gavron (1995) was characterized as a period of
increased interest in individuals with disabilities
especially in the fields of education, psychology and
medicine. During the 20thcentury, a transition is also
noticed from the medical model of approaching
individuals with disabilities to the educational one
with integration and acceptance as essential features.
Nowadays there is a tendency in the developed
countries in favor of inclusion policies of individuals
with disabilities in schools, employment and
communities (Sherrill, 2004).
Exercise as a means of treatment in several
ancient societies
The application of an adapted program of Physical
Education corresponding to the specific needs of
individuals with disabilities as well as the significant
development in the field of sports concerning
individuals with disabilities are relatively recent
developments. Nevertheless, the use of exercise for
therapeutic purposes is not a recent phenomenon
(Winnick, 2000).
Therapeutic practice of exercise is found in the
ancient world in many societies such as in China
(about 2700 B.C.), in the ancient Egyptians, the
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 47-53
Greeks and the Indians (DePauw & Gavron, 1995),
with specific special exercises developed for patients
who suffered from several chronic diseases or
musculoskeletal problems. A very few references can
be located in international bibliography concerning
the use of exercise for therapeutic purposes by the
ancient communities with the exception of the ancient
Greek world indicative once again of the splendor of
the ancient Greek civilization.
Nonetheless, all the civilized societies that tried to
promote their health status via exercise extracted their
information from the ancient Greek world
(Mouratidis, 2007). It is widely known that the
acknowledgement of the importance of exercise for
the healing of the body was first introduced by the
Greeks. The physician called Herodicus was the
founder and the first teacher of medicinal exercise
while his student Hippocrates who is considered the
father of Medicine laid the, undisputed so far,
foundations of massage and therapeutic exercise
(Eustathianos, 1927).
Stance and attitude of the ancient Greek
world toward individuals with disabilities
In the ancient Greek world, social exclusion of those
who deviated from normal was granted. In general,
old age, limited psychomotor skills and potential
disability were evidence of deprivation of the grace
of gods (Sahaj, 2011). Furthermore, in the two big
state-cities, Athens and Sparta, there was the
phenomenon of killing disabled babies and children
(Penrose, 2015). An example of the Spartan rough
treatment and the emphasis they put on the health of
young children is the fact that upon birth the children
that were assessed as unhealthy were thrown away
from a cleft called Caiadas in mountain Taygetos
(Ploutarxos, Parallel Lives.I.16.6). Of course, there
are other theories such as that by Freeman suggesting
that these children were nurtured by Eilotes (servants
in ancient Greece) as if they were their own children
(Freeman, 1969).
The Greeks who hoped to occupy distinguished
posts and achieve a high hierarchy status in society
tried to hide their body imperfections (Sahaj, 2011).
It is also believed that ancient Greeks used to exercise
naked so that there would be no chance that they
could hide anybody flaws and every athlete no matter
what sport he competed he used to exercise all the
parts of his body for its harmonious growth and
avoidance of unpleasant conditions resulting from
49
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 47-53
partial exercise (Mouratidis, 2007). Disapproval of
the ancient Greeks toward an ugly and flawed body
can be seen on an Athenian vessel of the 6th century
which is displayed in the British Museum. On this
vessel two very athletic young men are depicted while
there is two more standing on the left one of whom is
obese and not athletic at all. From their movements it
is obvious that the obese man is angry probably
because of the sarcastic remarks of the athletes
(Mouratidis, 2008).
A slight acknowledgement of individuals with
disabilities begins in Athens where Athenian people
used to offer a certain amount (3 mnas) to the « weak»
as a benefit for not being capable of supporting
themselves, also allowing them to be exempted from
military duties (Penrose, 2015). In addition to that,
Aristotle acknowledged disability by saying “Even
though none of us blames the one who was born with
disability, nevertheless we do blame those whose
ugliness results from negligence and lack of exercise”
(Aristotelis, Nicomachean Ethics. III.5.1114a).
Generally, if a person with disability was somehow
accepted, that would entail that he had some special
skills. A typical example is Perikles who despite the
fact that he had a big and long head, which was
disproportionally big compared to his body, he
managed to govern Athens. That is the main reason
why Pericles in almost all his portraits or statues
appears wearing a helmet on his head in an attempt of
the artists to protect him appearing ridiculous.
Another example is the famous orator and politician
Demosthenes, who although he had a speech
problem, he managed to become one of the most
important orators in Greece. Demosthenes is
considered the father of logotherapy, since he
managed to correct his speaking skills walking along
the seaside and delivering speeches with his mouth
full with pebbles (Sahaj, 2011).
The ancient Greeks use exercise as a means
of promotion of the “Kaloskagathos” (citizen
with a beautiful body and kind spirit), but
also as a means of healing of physical and
mental diseases.
Exercise in the ancient Greek world played an
important role, since the main objective of the Greek
education was the development of citizens with
beautiful, athletic bodies and kind spirits
(kalokagathia). This means that they wanted to have
citizens with harmonious and symmetrical growth in
50
body and mind, that is, in good shape physically and
mentally. The importance of exercise for the ancient
Greeks can be clearly seen in the recommendation
which Socrates made to a young man called Epigenis,
who in case he neglected his body and his physical
education would run the danger of getting killed in
battle or being captured during retreat (Ksenofon,
Memorabilia. III.12.1); while to another young man
is sharing this conversation with him who also had
neglected his body Socrates stated that he needs to
bear always in mind and not forget the nasty results
of abstinence from exercise such as loss of memory,
bad character, as well as loss of sense which makes
every spiritual pursuit impossible (Ksenofon,
Memorabilia. III.12.6-7).
The Greeks, apart from using exercise as an
important part of general education, they used
exercise for therapeutic purposes as well. If we go
back to the classic Hellenic eras, we will realize that
the educator (called paedotrivis) and the gymnast (the
teacher of physical education) used to cooperate with
the physician for the prevention and treatment of
several diseases, something that is confirmed by the
great philosophers Aristotle and Plato. Aristotle
indeed claims that due to scientific thinking two
scientific arts emerged concerning the human body
and health, that is, medicine and exercise
(Kaimakamis, 2005). Moreover, he also mentioned
chorotherapy (dance therapy) claiming that with the
Bakchikoi dances (Vakhikoi) seizures of depression
can be overcome and individuals through cleansing
can get rid of their painful experiences. In the ancient
Greek world, a lot of famous and distinguished
doctors recommend a variety of fundamental
exercises of gymnastics as means of restoration from
several musculoskeletal diseases (Mavrovouniotis,
Malkogeorgos & Argiriadou, 2006).
Kinesiotherapy was also widely known in Greece.
Its proponents were great geniuses of those times
such as Plato and Hippocrates. Hippocrates`s teacher,
Herodicus, one of the greatest Greek doctors was the
first to recommend physical exercise for various
diseases. His student, Hippocrates also recognized the
therapeutic importance of exercise and he was a
major proponent of hiking, walking and running for
prevention and healing purposes (Sahaj, 2011).
Xenophon, Dion Chryssostomos and others also refer
to the usefulness of exercise and its use in the
treatment of many diseases (Mouratidis, 2007). Thus,
coexistence of medicine and exercise are found in
“Peri Diaitis” (About Diet) by Hippocrates, in
“Hygienic Logous” (Healthy Speeches) by Galinos,
the “Gymnastiko” (Exercise) by Philostratos and

many other works by doctors who dealt with healing
of the mind or body.
Galinos, for example, writes in his Healthy
Speeches about kinesiotherapy: “One needs to go
through a therapeutic exercise (gymnasion) during
which, movements should be made in a symmetrical
way in terms of quantity, slower in terms of quality
(at a lower degree) and with many intervals in
between, while relieving rubbing is necessary during
these intervals” (Galinos, Healthy Speeches. III.6).
The same doctor in the “Healthy Speeches” refers to
the relation between exercise and mental health,
stating that unpleasant conditions of the soul and the
body such as sadness, insomnia, anger, systematic
wine drinking, venereal diseases and many cutaneous
diseases can be healed by rubbing, ointment
application and special physical exercises (Galinos,
Healthy Speeches. I.6). He also refers to a specialist,
a physical tutor called Theontas, whose description
reminds us of the modern experts in sports and
exercise physiology and experts in therapeutic
exercise, specialized in training and rehabilitation,
recommending a variety of horizontal bar exercises
for the restoration of certain musculoskeletal
problems (Galinos, Healthy Speeches. II.71).
Hippocrates believed that the part of physical
effort related to maintenance of good health and
fitness concerns exercise (physical education)
whereas the use of exercise for therapeutic purposes
concerns medicine. In his written work, he makes use
of exercise not only for prevention and maintenance
of good health, but also for the restoration of several
physical malformations and even for diseases. He
further recommends dance, balance exercises and
rope walking (walking with gear), as types of exercise
that promote good health to its best (Kaimakamis,
2005). In his work “About Diet”, for example, he
refers to the beneficial effects of walk on the body and
their significance in losing fat and maintaining body
weight to its normal limits. He also refers to several
other forms of exercise and sports such as running,
horse riding, wrestling and others, that he also
examines in terms of their therapeutic importance for
various diseases and their beneficial effect on the
correct growth of the human body (Eustathianos,
1927). Finally, he writes that respiratory exercises
help the individual to relieve anxiety caused by
nightmares while at the same time he analyses how to
treat kyphosis explicitly.
Rhuphus the Ephesian, an ancient Greek doctor-
philosopher who is also acknowledged by Galinos as
a famous and distinguished doctor, lived in the 1st and
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 47-53
early 2nd century b.C. Kinesiotherapy is for him a
therapeutic factor and very useful for the treatment of
various diseases, analyzing particularly its
contribution to the healing of arthritis (Eustathianos,
1927).
The immediate relation between medicine and
exercise, though, is even more obvious from
gymnasiums and palestras (wrestling schools) that
were close to the Asclepieia, while the priests of god
recommended physical exercise to the sick people
who sheltered in altars. From signs and inscriptions
found in the altar of Asclepius in Epidavros, it is
reported that patients who suffered from pains and
insomnia were cured after following exercise
(Mouratidis, 2007). From all the above mentioned, it
is obvious that exercise and participation in sports
were perceived as forms of treatment in Asclepieia,
recommending walking and running with bare feet,
horse riding, spas (probably swimming as well) and
passive exercises. There is even reference to some
examples of humans that god Asclepius cured using
exercise as part of the treatment.
Agesistratus addresses god Asclepius to get a
remedy for his migraines, toughing him a particular
movement from pangration sport as part of the
treatment. Additionally, Hermodicus from
Lampsakos, cured his own physical weakness after
god Asclepius` s instruction to start weight lifting and
finally Aristeides reports that he was cured from
several disorders by visiting Asclepieia and using
physical exercise as a basic means of the healing
process (Kilby, 1979).
There are even more examples of ancient Greek
athletes who took up exercise for therapeutic
purposes in the first place and ended up being
champions, highlighting the great importance of
exercise in the ancient Greek world. As a first
example, Pyron from Helida achieved a victory in
Olympia and came second in the Nemea events,
although in his childhood he suffered from dystrophy
before he started to compete in Pentathlon so as to
reinforce his immune system and cure himself (Sahaj,
2011). Another example relates to Mys the Egyptian
who took up exercise to cure the atrophy of his arm
and eventually became a great wrestler. Even
Stratonas from Alexandreia used exercise to cure a
serious disease of his spleen and managed to become
an Olympic medallist at the 178th Olympiad of 68 b.C
(Giatsis, 2006). Plato also states that Herodicus from
Syllmbria became a good gymnast due to his disease
which made him combine medicine with exercise
(Giatsis, 2006).
51
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2): 47-53
All these cases do not differ from current reality.
The careers of the Paralympic athletes begin in a
similar way. Usually everything starts with a disease
or a disability; the athletes start initially with
treatment and restoration and they gradually enter the
training process and following succession in restoring
their motor skills on the sport of their choice, they
often enter international competitions. The
relationship of exercise and medicine continued its
existence following the antiquity of the Greek world,
since Christian leaders in East and West agreed
participation to exercise that is related to better health.
In this way, many ancient world practices were
preserved in Byzantium as well as in the modern era
(Giatsis, 2006).
Conclusion
Since the dawn of the world in all human societies,
individuals with disabilities were always present,
who, to a lesser or greater extent, were considered
pariahs, people of lower quality and in many cases as
they were cursed and dominated by evil. Negative
attitudes toward these individuals started to change
during the Renaissance and French Revolution period
when a slight acceptance, education, treatment and
recreation of those people took place for the first time.
During the 19th and the 20th century - mainly after
the second half of the 20th century - special classes
including special treatment, education, recreation and
sports were founded and their number rapidly
increased.
The ancient Greek world, to a lesser or greater
degree, expressed a repulsion against disability and
generally against the ugly and lacking of fitness body.
Hippocrates was the first to approach disability in a
scientific way, supporting that physical or mental
disorders are caused by certain diseases and not
punishment by gods. Thus, Hippocrates himself as
well as other eminent physicians began using exercise
as a means of prevention and treatment of several
physical or mental diseases. This practice was also
identified in Asclepieia where priests regarded
exercise as a fundamental part of the treatment of
patients.
Overall, one might claim that the ancient Greeks
were the first who got sensitized toward disability and
analyze relative disability conditions in a scientific
way, laying for the first time the foundations of
therapeutic exercise.
52
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Eustathianos, A. (1927). Therapeutic massage Medicinal
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(2006). Greek Dances. Thessaloniki: Fotios
Mavrovouniotis Aleksandros Malkogeorgos.
Mouratidis, I. (2008). History of Physical Education and
Sport of the ancient world. Thessaloniki: Platon.
Mouratidis, I. (2007). Introduction to Ancient Greek
Philosophy Themes of Philosophy of Physical
Education and Sport. Thessaloniki: Platon.
Penrose, W. (2015). The Discourse of Disability in Ancient
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Tzouriadou, M.(1995). Children with Special Educational Winnick, J. (2000). Adapted Physical Education and Sport.
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How to cite this article:

Stavrianos , I., Kaimakamis, V., Tsimaras, V., &
Anastasiou, A. (2018). Perceptions and attitudes
concerning individuals with disabilities in ancient Greece:
APA:
physical exercise as a means of prevention and treatment of
health-related problems. Exercise and Quality of Life,
10(2), 47-53. doi:10.31382/eqol.181206
Stavrianos, Iordanis, et al. "Perceptions and attitudes
concerning individuals with disabilities in ancient Greece:
MLA: physical exercise as a means of prevention and treatment of
health-related problems." Exercise and Quality of Life 10.2
(2018): 47-53.
Stavrianos, Iordanis, Vasilios Kaimakamis, Vasilios
Tsimaras, and Athanasios Anastasiou. "Perceptions and
attitudes concerning individuals with disabilities in ancient
Chicago:
Greece: physical exercise as a means of prevention and
treatment of health-related problems." Exercise and
Quality of Life 10, no. 2 (2018): 47-53.

53
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(2)

54

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• Any person cited as a source of personal
communication has approved the quote;
• The opinions expressed by the authors are their
exclusive responsibility;
• The author signs a formal statement that the
submitted manuscript complies with the
directions and guidelines of EQOL.
The Editor-in-Chief and associate editors will make a
preliminary analysis regarding the appropriateness,
quality, originality and written style/grammar of the
submitted manuscript. The editors reserve the right to
request additional information, corrections, and guideline
compliance before they submit the manuscript to the ad-
hoc review process.
EQOL uses ad-hoc reviewers, who volunteer to analyze
the merit of the study. Typically, one or two expert
reviewers are consulted in a double-blind process. Authors
are notified by e-mail when their submission has been
accepted (or rejected). Minor changes in the text may be
made at the discretion of the Editor-in-Chief and/or
associate editors. Changes can include spelling and
grammar in the chosen language, written style, journal
citations, and reference guidelines. The author is notified
of changes via email. The final version is available to the
author for his or her approval before it is published.
 informing them about the faulty authors. Plagiarism will
result in immediate rejection of the manuscript.
1.5. Open Access License and Publisher Copyright
Policies EQOL only publishes studies that have been approved
by an institutional ethics committee (when a study involves
EQOL applies the Creative humans or animals). Fail to provide such information
Commons Attribution (CC BY) prevent its publication. To ensure these requirements, it is
license to articles and other essential that submission documentation is complete. If
works it publishes. If author(s) submit its paper for you have not completed this step yet, go to EQOL website
publication by EQOL, they agree to have the CC BY and fill out the two required documents: Declaration of
license applied to their work. Under this Open Access Potential Conflict of Interest and Authorship Statement.
license, the author(s) agree that anyone can reuse their Whether or not your study uses humans or animals, these
article in whole or part for any purpose, for free, even for documents must be completed and signed by all authors
commercial purposes. Anyone may copy, distribute, or and attached as supplementary files in the originally
reuse the content as long as the author(s) and original submitted manuscript.
source are properly cited. This facilitates freedom in re-use
and also ensures that EQOL content can be mined without
barriers for the needs of research. On the other hand, the 1.6. After Acceptance
author(s) may use content owned by someone else in their
article if they have written permission to do so. If the After the manuscript has been accepted, authors will
manuscript contains content such as photos, images, receive a PDF version of the manuscripts for authorization,
figures, tables, audio files, videos, et cetera, that the as it should look in printed version of EQOL. Authors
author(s) do not own, EQOL will require them to provide should carefully check for omissions. Reporting errors
it with proof that the owner of that content has given them after this point will not be possible and the Editorial Board
written permission to use it and has approved of the CC BY will not be eligible for them.
license being applied to their content. Otherwise, EQOL
will ask the author(s) to remove that content and/or replace Should there be any errors, authors should report them
to the Office e-mail address eqol@uns.ac.rs or
it with other content that you own or have such permission
office@eqoljournal.com. If there are not any errors authors
to use. EQOL provides a form the author(s) can use to ask
should also write a short e-mail stating that they agree with
for and obtain permission from the owner.
the received version.
In addition, the author(s) may freely use the content
they previously published in a paper through another
publisher and they own the rights to that content; however, 1.7. Code of Conduct Ethics Committee of Publications
that’s not necessarily the case and it depends on the license
that covers the other paper. Some publishers allow free and EQOL is hosting the
unrestricted reuse of article content they own, such as Code of Conduct
under the CC BY license. Other publishers use licenses that Ethics Committee of
allow reuse only if the same license is applied by the person Publications of
or publisher reusing the content. If the article was the COPE (the Committee on Publication Ethics), which
published under a CC BY license or another license that provides a forum for publishers and Editors of scientific
allows free and unrestricted use, the author(s) may use the journals to discuss issues relating to the integrity of the
content in the submitted manuscript provided that the work submitted to or published in their journals.
author(s) give proper attribution, as explained above. If the
content was published under a more restrictive license, the
author(s) must ascertain what rights they have under that
license. EQOL advices the author(s) not to include any
content in the submitted manuscript which they do not have
rights to use, and always give proper attribution.
The editors of EQOL consider plagiarism to be a
serious breach of academic ethics. Any author who
practices plagiarism (in part or totality) will be suspended
for six years from submitting new submissions to EQOL.
If such a manuscript is approved and published, public
exposure of the article with a printed mark (“plagiarized”
or "retracted") on each page of the published file, as well
as suspension for future publication for at least six years,
or a period determined by the editorial board. Third party
plagiarized authors or institutions will be notified,

57
2. MANUSCRIPT STRUCTURE conjunctions, short prepositions no longer than four letters
etc.) so that first letters of the words in the title are
2.1. Title Page
capitalized. Exceptions are words like: “and”, “or”,
The first page of the manuscripts should be the title page, “between”, etc. The word following a colon (:) or a hyphen
containing: title, type of publication, running head, authors, (-) in the title is always capitalized.
affiliations, corresponding author, and manuscript 2.1.2. Type of publication
information. See example:
Authors should suggest the type of their submission.
2.1.3. Running head
Effects of Invasion games on physical fitness in primary
school children Short running title should not exceed 50 characters
including spaces.
Original Scientific Paper 2.1.4. Authors
The form of an author's name is first name, middle
Invasion games in Children initial(s), and last name. In one-line list all authors with full
names separated by a comma (and space). Avoid any
abbreviations of academic or professional titles. If authors
Irena Valantine1, Dejan Madic2, Goran Sporis3 belong to different institutions, following a family name of
the author there should be a number in superscript
1
Lithuanian Sports University, Department of Sport designating affiliation.
Management, Kaunas, Lithuania 2.1.5. Affiliations
2
Faculty of sport and physical education, Novi Sad, Serbia
3
Faculty of Kinesiology, Zagreb, Croatia Affiliation consists of the name of an institution,
department, city, country/territory (in this order) to which
Corresponding author: the author(s) belong and to which the presented/submitted
work should be attributed. List all affiliations (each in a
separate line) in the order corresponding to the list of
D. Madic authors. Affiliations must be written in English, so
carefully check the official English translation of the names
of institutions and departments.
University of Novi Sad Only if there is more than one affiliation, should a
number be given to each affiliation in order of appearance.
This number should be written in superscript at the
Faculty of Sport and Physical Education beginning of the line, separated from corresponding
affiliation with a space. This number should also be put
after corresponding name of the author, in superscript with
16 Lovcenska str, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia no space in between.
If an author belongs to more than one institution, all
E-mail: dekimadic@gmail.com corresponding superscript digits, separated with a comma
with no space in between, should be present behind the
family name of this author.
Word count: 2,980
In case all authors belong to the same institution
affiliation numbering is not needed.
Abstract word count: 236 Whenever possible expand your authors' affiliations
with departments, or some other, specific and lower levels
of organization.
Number of Tables: 1
2.1.6. Corresponding author
Corresponding author's name with full postal address in
Number of Figures: 1 English and e-mail address should appear, after the
2.1.1. Title affiliations. It is preferred that submitted address is
institutional and not private. Corresponding author's name
Title should be short and informative and the
should include only initials of the first and middle names
recommended length is no more than 20 words. The title
separated by a full stop (and a space) and the last name.
should be in Title Case, written in uppercase and lowercase
Postal address should be written in the following line in
letters (initial uppercase for all words except articles,
sentence case. Parts of the address should be separated by

58
a comma instead of a line break. E-mail (if possible) should
be placed in the line following the postal address. Author
should clearly state whether or not the e-mail should be
published.
2.1.7. Manuscript information
All authors are required to provide word count (excluding•
title page, abstract, tables/figures, figure legends,
Acknowledgements, Conflict of Interest, and References),
the Abstract word count, the number of Tables, and the
number of Figures.
2.2. Abstract
The second page of the manuscripts should be the abstract
and key words. It should be placed on second page of the
manuscripts after the standard title written in upper and
lower-case letters, bold.
Since abstract is independent part of your paper, all
abbreviations used in the abstract should also be explained
in it. If an abbreviation is used, the term should always be
first written in full with the abbreviation in parentheses
immediately after it. Abstract should not have any special
headings (e.g., Aim, Results…).
Authors should provide up to six key words that capture
the main topics of the article. Terms from the Medical
Subject Headings (MeSH) list of Index Medicus are
recommended to be used.
Key words should be placed on the second page of the
manuscript right below the abstract, written in italic.
Separate each key word by a comma (and a space). Do not
put a full stop after the last key word. See example:
Abstract
Results of the analysis of…
Key words: games, teaching, impact, kids
2.3. Main Chapters
Starting from the third page of the manuscripts, it should
be the main chapters. Depending on the type of publication
main manuscript chapters may vary. The general outline is:
Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion,
Acknowledgements (optional), Conflict of Interest
(optional), and Title. However, this scheme may not be
suitable for reviews or publications from some areas and
authors should then adjust their chapters accordingly but
use the general outline as much as possible.
2.3.1. Headings
Main chapter headings: written in bold and in Title
Case. See example:
Methods
Sub-headings: written in italic and in normal sentence case.
Do not put a full stop or any other sign at the end of the
title. Do not create more than one level of sub-
heading. See example:
Table position of the research football team
2.3.2 Ethics
When reporting experiments on human subjects, there
must be a declaration of Ethics compliance. Inclusion of a
statement such as follow in Methods section will be
understood by the Editor as authors' affirmation of
compliance: “This study was approved in advance by
[name of committee and/or its institutional sponsor]. Each
participant voluntarily provided written informed consent
before participating.” Authors that fail to submit an Ethics
statement will be asked to resubmit the manuscripts, which
may delay publication.
2.3.3 Statistics reporting
EQOL encourages authors to report precise p-values.
When possible, quantify findings and present them with
appropriate indicators of measurement error or uncertainty
(such as confidence intervals). Use normal text (i.e., non-
capitalized, non-italic) for statistical term “p”.
2.3.4. “Acknowledgements” and “Conflict of Interest”
(optional)
All contributors who do not meet the criteria for authorship
should be listed in the ‘Acknowledgements’ section. If
applicable, in ‘Conflict of Interest’ section, authors must
clearly disclose any grants, financial or material supports,
or any sort of technical assistances from an institution,
organization, group or an individual that might be
perceived as leading to a conflict of interest.
2.4. References
References should be placed on a new page after the
standard title written in upper and lower-case letters, bold.
All information needed for each type of must be present
as specified in guidelines. Authors are solely responsible
for accuracy of each reference. Use authoritative source for
information such as Web of Science, Medline, or PubMed
to check the validity of citations.
2.4.1. References style
EQOL adheres to the American Psychological Association
6th Edition reference style. Check “American
Psychological Association (2009). Concise rules of APA
style. American Psychological Association.” to ensure the
manuscripts conform to this reference style. Authors using
EndNote® to organize the references must convert the
citations and bibliography to plain text before submission.
59
 2.4.2. Examples for Reference citations
One work by one author
✓ In one study (Reilly, 1997), soccer players…
✓ In the study by Reilly (1997), soccer players…
✓ In 1997, Reilly’s study of soccer players…
✓ Works by two authors
✓ Duffield and Marino (2007) studied…
✓ In one study (Duffield & Marino, 2007), soccer
players…
✓ In 2007, Duffield and Marino’s study of soccer
players…
Works by three to five authors: cite all the author names
the first time the reference occurs and then subsequently
include only the first author followed by et al.
✓ First citation: Bangsbo, Iaia, and Krustrup (2008)
stated that…
✓ Subséquent citation: Bangsbo et al. (2008) stated
that…
✓ Works by six or more authors: cite only the name
of the first author followed by et al. and the year
✓ Krustrup et al. (2003) studied…
✓ In one study (Krustrup et al., 2003), soccer
players…
Two or more works in the same parenthetical citation:
Citation of two or more works in the same parentheses
should be listed in the order they appear in the reference
list (i.e., alphabetically, then chronologically)
✓ Several studies (Bangsbo et al., 2008; Duffield &
Marino, 2007; Reilly, 1997) suggest that…
2.4.3. Examples for Reference list
Journal article (print):
✓ Bangsbo, J., Iaia, F. M., & Krustrup, P. (2008).
The Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test: a useful
tool for evaluation of physical performance in
intermittent sports. Sports Medicine, 38(1), 37-
51.
✓ Duffield, R., & Marino, F. E. (2007). Effects of
pre-cooling procedures on intermittent-sprint
exercise performance in warm
conditions. European Journal of Applied
Physiology, 100(6), 727-735.
✓ Krustrup, P., Mohr, M., Amstrup, T., Rysgaard,
T., Johansen, J., Steensberg, A., . . . Bangsbo, J.
(2003). The yo-yo intermittent recovery test:
physiological response, reliability, and
validity. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise, 35(4), 697-705.
60
Journal article (online; electronic version of print source):
✓ Shaw, A. (1999). The planning and development
of New Bombay [Electronic version]. Modern
Asian Studies, 33(4), 951-988.
Journal article (online; electronic only):
✓ Chantavanich, S. (2003, October). Recent
research on human trafficking. Kyoto Review of
Southeast Asia, 4. Retrieved November 15, 2005,
from http://kyotoreview.cseas.kyoto-
u.ac.jp/issue/issue3/index.html
Conference paper:
✓ Pasadilla, G. O., & Milo, M. (2005, June
27). Effect of liberalization on banking
competition. Paper presented at the conference on
Policies to Strengthen Productivity in the
Philippines, Manila, Philippines. Retrieved
August 23, 2006, from
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPHILIPPI
NES/Resources/Pasadilla.pdf
Encyclopedia entry (print, with author):
✓ Pittau, J. (1983). Meiji constitution. In Kodansha
encyclopedia of Japan (Vol. 2, pp. 1-3). Tokyo:
Kodansha.
Encyclopedia entry (online, no author):
✓ Ethnology. (2005, July). In The Columbia
encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York: Columbia
University Press. Retrieved November 21, 2005,
from
http://www.bartleby.com/65/et/ethnolog.html
Thesis and dissertation:
✓ Pyun, D. Y. (2006). The proposed model of
attitude toward advertising through sport.
Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Tallahassee,
FL: The Florida State University.
Book:
✓ Borg, G. (1998). Borg's perceived exertion and
pain scales: Human kinetics.
Chapter of a book:
✓ Kellmann, M. (2012). Chapter 31-Overtraining
and recovery: Chapter taken from Routledge
Handbook of Applied Sport Psychology ISBN:
978-0-203-85104-3 Routledge Online Studies on
the Olympic and Paralympic Games (Vol. 1, pp.
292-302).
Reference to an internet source:
✓ Agency. (2007). Water for Health: Hydration
Best Practice Toolkit for Hospitals and
Healthcare. Retrieved 10/29, 2013, from
www.rcn.org.uk/newsevents/hydration

2.5. Tables
All tables should be included in the main manuscript file,
each on a separate page right after the Reference section.
Tables should be presented as standard MS Word
tables.
Number (Arabic) tables consecutively in the order of
their first citation in the text.
Tables and table headings should be completely
intelligible without reference to the text. Give each column
a short or abbreviated heading. Authors should place
explanatory matter in footnotes, not in the heading. All
abbreviations appearing in a table and not considered
standard must be explained in a footnote of that table.
Avoid any shading or coloring in your tables and be sure
that each table is cited in the text.
If you use data from another published or unpublished
source, it is the authors’ responsibility to obtain permission
and acknowledge them fully.
2.5.1. Table heading
Table heading should be written above the table, in Title
Case, and without a full stop at the end of the heading. Do
not use suffix letters (e.g., Table 1a, 1b, 1c); instead,
combine the related tables. See example:
• Table 1. Repeated Sprint Time Following
Ingestion of Carbohydrate-Electrolyte Beverage
2.5.2. Table sub-heading
All text appearing in tables should be written beginning
only with first letter of the first word in all capitals, i.e., all
words for variable names, column headings etc. in tables
should start with the first letter in all capitals. Avoid any
formatting (e.g., bold, italic, underline) in tables.
2.5.3. Table footnotes
Table footnotes should be written below the table.
General notes explain, qualify or provide information
about the table as a whole. Put explanations of
abbreviations, symbols, etc. here. General notes are
designated by the word Note (italicized) followed by a
period.
• Note. CI: confidence interval; Con: control group;
CE: carbohydrate-electrolyte group.
Specific notes explain, qualify or provide information
about a particular column, row, or individual entry. To
indicate specific notes, use superscript lowercase letters
(e.g. a, b, c), and order the superscripts from left to right, top
to bottom. Each table’s first footnote must be the
superscript a.
• a
One participant was diagnosed with heat illness
and n = 19.bn =20.
Probability notes provide the reader with the results of
the texts for statistical significance. Probability notes must
be indicated with consecutive use of the following
symbols: * † ‡ § ¶ || etc.
• *P<0.05, †p<0.01.
2.5.4. Table citation
In the text, tables should be cited as full
words. See example:
✓ Table 1 (first letter in all capitals and no full stop)
✓ ...as shown in Tables 1 and 3. (citing more tables
at once)
✓ ...result has shown (Tables 1-3) that... (citing
more tables at once)
✓ ....in our results (Tables 1, 2 and 5)… (citing more
tables at once)
2.6. Figures
On the last separate page of the main manuscript file,
authors should place the legends of all the figures
submitted separately.
All graphic materials should be of sufficient quality for
print with a minimum resolution of 600 dpi. EQOL prefers
TIFF, EPS and PNG formats.
If a figure has been published previously, acknowledge
the original source and submit a written permission from
the copyright holder to reproduce the material. Permission
is required irrespective of authorship or publisher except
for documents in the public domain. If photographs of
people are used, either the subjects must not be identifiable
or their pictures must be accompanied by written
permission to use the photograph whenever possible
permission for publication should be obtained.
Figures and figure legends should be completely
intelligible without reference to the text.
The price of printing in color is 50 EUR per page as
printed in an issue of EQOL.
2.6.1. Figure legends
Figures should not contain footnotes. All information,
including explanations of abbreviations must be present in
figure legends. Figure legends should be written bellow the
figure, in sentence case. See example:
• Figure 1. Changes in accuracy of instep football
kick measured before and after fatigued. SR –
resting state, SF – state of fatigue, *p>0.01,
†p>0.05.
61
2.6.2. Figure citation
All graphic materials should be referred to as Figures in the
text. Figures are cited in the text as full
words. See example:
• Figure 1
• figure 1
• Figure 1.
• ….exhibit greater variance than the year before
(Figure 2). Therefore…
• ….as shown in Figures 1 and 3. (citing more
figures at once)
• ….result has shown (Figures 1-3) that... (citing
more figures at once)
• ….in our results (Figures 1, 2 and 5)... (citing
more figures at once)
2.6.3. Sub-figures
If there is a figure divided in several sub-figures, each sub-
figure should be marked with a small letter, starting with a,
b, c etc. The letter should be marked for each subfigure in
a logical and consistent way. See example:
• Figure 1a
• …in Figures 1a and b we can…
• …data represent (Figures 1a-d)…
2.8. Latin Names
Latin names of species, families etc. should be written in
italics (even in titles). If you mention Latin names in your
abstract they should be written in non-italic since the rest
of the text in abstract is in italic. The first time the name of
a species appears in the text both genus and species must
be present; later on, in the text it is possible to use genus
abbreviations. See example:
• First time appearing: musculus biceps brachii
• Abbreviated: m. biceps brachii
3.0 Additional
3.1. Proofs
The corresponding author will receive page proofs (as PDF
files) by e-mail. Corrections referring to typesetting,
editing, completeness and correctness of the manuscript
should be made within five days. Significant changes at
this stage are not acceptable. The authors bear main
responsibility for proofreading: any subsequent corrections
cannot be guaranteed. If no response from the authors is
received, the Editor reserves the right to delay publication
or to proceed to press without author proofs.

3.2. Offprints
2.7. Scientific Terminology
The corresponding author, at no cost, will be provided with
All units of measures should conform to the International a PDF file of the article via e-mail.
System of Units (SI).
Measurements of length, height, weight, and volume 3.3. Correspondence
should be reported in metric units (meter, kilogram, or
liter) or their decimal multiples. Please direct all correspondence concerning manuscript
Decimal places in English language are separated with submissions to:
a full stop and not with a comma. Thousands are separated Damjan JAKŠIĆ, Editor-in-Chief,
with a comma.
“Exercise and Quality of Life” Journal,
Percentage  10%  10 %
Degrees  10º  10 º Faculty of Sport and Physical Education,
All other units of measure  10 kg  10kg University of Novi Sad,
Ratios  12:2  12 : 2
16 Lovćenska str., 21000 Novi Sad
Decimal numbers  0.056  .056
Republic of Serbia
Signs should be placed immediately preceding the +381 21 450 188, desk 150
relevant number e-mail: eqol@uns.ac.rs or
 45±3.4  p<0.01  males >30 years of age
office@eqoljournal.com
 45 ± 3.4  p < 0.01  males > 30 years of age

62