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Interaction and
Interdependence
An Introduction
24
to Ecology
After you have finished reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Define ecology and ecosystems.
Identify some biotic and abiotic factors and explain their effects on
organisms.
Discuss the ways in which limiting factors affect organisms.
If the Earth were only a few feet in diameter, floating a few feet above a field
somewhere, people would come from everywhere to marvel at it.
Anonymous
Introduction
An aquarium is a complete small world in itself. Plants live together with
animals in one place. By looking closely, you can see a snail crawling
along the leaf of an underwater plant. Elsewhere on the plant, hidden
between some leaves, are masses of snail eggs surrounded by small globs
of clear jelly. Within the eggs are the individual dark spots that are the
developing snail embryos. A goldfish swims slowly by. The mouth of the
fish opens and closes again and again. Water enters its mouth, bringing
the oxygen the fish needs. The fish takes a bite out of a plant leaf for food,
perhaps eating some snail eggs, too. (See Figure 24-1 on page 512.)
The aquarium is near a window. Light pours into the tank, and the
plants grow toward the sun. The plants are anchored by their roots in a
mixture of crushed stones and gravel. In the corner of this small aquatic
world is a plastic tube that releases bubbles. The fish swim in and out of
the bubbles that form a curtain of air.
Why do some people spend long periods of time gazing quietly into
an aquarium? Some answers become obvious upon reflection.
An aquarium is a self-contained miniature world of life. The basis of
511
Figure 24-1 The
aquarium fulfills
the life-support
needs of all its
inhabitants.
It is truly amazing how so many organisms seem to fit so well with their
environment. Camels have extremely wide two-toed feet with skin that
stretches between the toes. With these feet, camels can avoid sinking into
the desert sand. (See Figure 24-3 on page 514.) In fast-moving tropical
streams, some species of catfish have suckers on the bottom of their bod-
ies. The suckers hold onto a rock and thus prevent the catfish from being
swept downstream. The larval stage of the tiger swallowtail butterfly
resembles a bird’s dropping. With this disguise, it is not the first choice of
a hungry bird searching for a meal!
In a tropical rain forest, the fertile soil is extremely shallow. Most of the
nutrients available for plants are located in this thin layer. Many rain for-
est trees have shallow root systems. To support themselves upright, these
trees have wide supports called buttresses. The tree’s buttresses, located at
514 Interaction and Interdependence
Figure 24-3 The wide, two-toed feet of camels enable them to walk in sand
without sinking.
the base of their trunks, support the tree in much the same way as the
stone buttresses of a Gothic cathedral support its walls. (See Figure 24-4.)
The giant saguaro cactus is able to take in enormous amounts of water
during the rare desert rainstorms. The stem of this cactus, once it is
swollen with water, can keep the plant alive throughout the long dry
months ahead. (See Figure 24-5 on page 516.) The tiny pond skater insect
has a waxy substance on its six feet. The wax keeps the insect from break-
ing through the top layer of water molecules, and it can easily walk across
the surface of a pond. Wherever we look on this living planet, we see
more examples of adaptations that enable organisms to survive Earth’s
vastly different living conditions. How did all this happen?
First, we must be clear about what did not happen. No individual
organism intentionally changed to survive in a particular environment.
No individual rosebush purposely developed brighter flowers to attract
more insects. No individual arctic hare intentionally became whiter to
hide in the snow.
What did happen is that individuals in a population have always been
somewhat different from one another. Sometimes the differences are obvi-
ous. Two dogs from the same litter, for example, might be very different
sizes or colors. Sometimes the differences are not obvious to an observer.
A slight difference in the biological makeup of an organism, for example,
the ability to make a particular enzyme, might provide that organism
Chapter 24 / An Introduction to Ecology 515
conditions. The place where an organism lives is its habitat. The habitat
of a bullfrog is a pond. The habitat of a giant anteater is open grassland.
An organism’s habitat is its “address.”
To understand an organism’s relationship to its environment, we must
know more than its address, or habitat. We must know what it does, that
is, its “occupation.” The occupation of an organism is called its niche.
The niche of an organism includes how it gets its food, reproduces, and
avoids predators, among other things. The behavioral adaptations of an
organism make up its niche. These adaptations are the result of evolution
just as are the organism’s physical adaptations. For example, woodpeck-
ers that were best able to find insects in the bark of trees survived. Their
offspring inherited a whole series of structural and behavioral adapta-
tions. The niche of an organism determines its habitat. In other words,
the ways that an organism has evolved to survive will also determine
where it can live. A woodpecker cannot live in the grasslands. Its niche
involves finding its insect food in the trunks of trees. Woodpeckers need
trees, and the insects that live in them, to survive.
Chapter 24 / An Introduction to Ecology 517
Just how important niches are has been made clearer with new
research on fossils reported in 2002 by scientists at the University of Cal-
ifornia–Berkeley. Their investigations on mass extinctions of long ago
showed that it took much longer than had been thought for the diversity
of species to return to Earth. The report stated, “One possible explana-
tion for why diversification takes so long after an extinction is that extinc-
tion eliminates not merely species or groups of species, but takes away
ecological niches. It eliminates both organisms and the roles those organ-
isms played in the ecosystem. Recovery thus becomes more complicated.”
■■ ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Figure 24-6 The conditions present in a garden determine which plants will thrive
there. Some plants prefer shade; others prefer more direct sunlight.
518 Interaction and Interdependence
0
Lake depth (m)
10
15
Figure 24-7 A lake’s
temperature decreases with 0 5 10 15
increasing depth. Water temperature (°C)
plants, they also have to be present in the right forms. Farmers have long
been aware of this. In many cases, soil contains less than the minimum
amount of nutrients needed by plants to grow well. Many crops cannot be
grown unless fertilizers are added to the soil. Fertilizers increase the
amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus to levels needed by the crops.
Almost every gardener has experienced another important limitation.
While too little of a limiting factor may prevent the growth of an organ-
ism, too much may also limit the organism’s growth. Some gardeners
think that the more fertilizer they give their plants, the more flowers and
vegetables they will get. To their surprise, they find that their plants often
die when greater amounts of fertilizer are added to the soil. Organisms
have a tolerance range, sometimes a very narrow one. The amount of an
environmental factor should be neither too low nor too high. The toler-
ance range determines the best conditions for a specific type of organism
in a specific location.
■■ SALTWATER ECOSYSTEMS
3.5 percent salt. Anyone who swims in the ocean knows the taste of salt
water and probably also knows that it is not a good idea to drink it.
The actual amount of salt in ocean water varies. As the amount of salt
varies, the density of the water also changes. The more salt, the denser the
water. This is why a person can float easily in very salty water, while it is
difficult for many people to float at all in freshwater.
The temperature of ocean water also differs from place to place. Tem-
perature affects water density, just as the level of salt does. Cold water is
more dense than warm water. Because of density differences, water in the
ocean is constantly moving. Denser water sinks, while less dense water
rises. These water movements, along with winds on the surface, cause
currents to occur in the ocean. Some ocean currents are so large that they
actually form “rivers” in the ocean. The Gulf Stream is an example of a
major ocean current. It originates in the Gulf of Mexico, travels north
along the east coast of the United States, and moves across the Atlantic
Ocean to bring warm water toward Great Britain. In fact, some of the
islands off the coast of Britain are so warm that semitropical plants can
survive there. (See Figure 24-10.)
Light is another important limiting factor in oceans. Different parts of
the ocean have different sets of conditions. Because of this, the ocean is
considered to be made up of different zones. The top zone in the ocean
down to about 200 meters is where sunlight penetrates. Below this depth,
it is always completely dark. Because plants need light to make food
m
rea
St
f
ul
G
Intertidal
zone Pelagic zone
Neritic zone Oceanic zone
Photic
zone
Figure 24-11 200 m
Continental
Sunlight shelf
penetrates Aphotic
about 200 zone
meters below
the ocean’s
Benthic zone
surface.
through photosynthesis, all plant life in the ocean lives only in the top
zone. (See Figure 24-11.)LIVING ENVIRONMENT BIOLOGY, 2e/fig. 24-11 s/s
Another zone occurs at the very edge of the ocean. This zone experi-
ences very unusual environmental conditions—it varies, at different times
of the day, between being either wet or dry. Why do alternating wet and
dry conditions occur here?
The force of gravity from the moon and sun pulls on Earth. The land
does not move, but the water does. The water in the world’s oceans there-
fore rises and falls twice each day. These movements of the ocean water
are called tides. At high tide, the shoreline of the ocean is covered by
water. At low tide, the same place is left exposed to the air. The area that
is alternately covered with water and left exposed to the air is called the
intertidal zone. Only a very special group of plants and animals can live
under the unique environmental conditions present in the intertidal
zone. (See Figure 24-12.)
Moving into the ocean away from the shore, the water is quite shal-
low. Because light penetrates the water in this near-shore zone, a great
many organisms live here. Much of the abundant sea life caught for food
by humans inhabits the near-shore zone. Unfortunately, this important
part of the ocean is often mismanaged by humans. The near-shore zone
is where some of the greatest harm is being done to the ocean and the life
it supports. Pollution, mostly from human causes, and overfishing are
two major problems in this part of the ocean.
Finally, the great open areas of the ocean—where the water is tremen-
dously deep—make up another zone. This zone has its own conditions.
Because the bottom is far beyond the reach of sunlight, photosynthesis
occurs only in organisms that float near the surface of deep water. These
tiny photosynthetic floating microorganisms are called phytoplankton.
Chapter 24 / An Introduction to Ecology 523
Blue-green
bacteria
and algae
Upper
intertidal Snails
zone
Limpets
Barnacles
Dog whelk
Rockweed
Mid-
Mussels
intertidal
zone
Sea star
Lower
intertidal
Fish
zone
Sea urchin
Figure 24-12 The intertidal zone is home to a special group of plants and
animals.
■■ FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS
■■ LAND ECOSYSTEMS
For an interesting reason, life on land is much more diverse than life in
water. Conditions in water are fairly constant over wide areas. Conditions
in water also change little over time. When conditions do change in
water, they change slowly.
Chapter 24 / An Introduction to Ecology 525
Desert Grassland
32.2
Tropical forest
Temperature (°C)
Temperate forest
15.6
Coniferous
forest
–1.1
Arctic and Figure 24-14 The
alpine tundra temperature and
moisture in a biome
0
102 203 305 406 determine which plants
Mean annual precipitation (cm) will grow there.
Desert
Grassland
Tropical rain forest
Deciduous forest
Taiga
Tundra
Bright
light Emergent
Upper
canopy
Filtered
light
Lower
canopy
Understory
Figure 24-16 Conditions on the rain-forest floor are warm, moist, and dark; higher
up in the trees, it is cooler, windier, and brighter.
typical of trees in these areas. Dropping their leaves prevents trees from
losing water during cold weather. Deciduous forest animals include
wolves, gray foxes, deer, raccoons, squirrels, birds, and insects. The soil in
temperate deciduous forests is much richer than the soil in a tropical rain
forest.
Farther north of the equator are the great northern coniferous forests
of North America, Asia, and Europe. The main plants in these forests are
the needle-leaved evergreen trees, such as spruce, pine, fir, hemlock, and
cedar. These are called conifers, or coniferous trees, because they produce
their seeds in cones. In a coniferous forest, the winter is long; the warmer
Chapter 24 / An Introduction to Ecology 529
Figure 24-17
Wildebeest
migrate across
the grasslands, or
savanna, of Africa
in search of food.
530 Interaction and Interdependence
Large animals that eat grasses are native to grasslands. These include
bison and antelope. In many areas, domestic cattle and sheep have
replaced the native grazing animals. Grasshoppers, prairie dogs and other
small rodents, hawks, and snakes are also typical grassland animals.
Finally, our tour brings us to the driest places on Earth, which produce
the desert biomes. In a typical desert, temperatures may be very high dur-
ing the day. However, because of limited water vapor in the air, the heat
accumulated during the day is quickly lost at night. As a result, tempera-
tures fall dramatically at night. Plants include water-storing cactuses,
shrubs with roots that grow deep underground to reach water, and wild-
flowers and grasses that grow and mature in the short period of time after
the rare rain. Animals also show adaptations in this area of limited water
availability. The kangaroo rat lives underground for much of the day. It
gets its water from the tissues of green plants and by breaking down the
fat in dry seeds that it eats. Predators such as coyotes and foxes are often
active at night to avoid and survive the harsh desert conditions.
The table below lists the six major land biomes and their main
features.
Biome Features/Conditions
Tropical rain forests Found just north and south of equator; have more than 250 cm rain
per year; warm temperatures and stable day length all year; abun-
dant and diverse forms of plant of animal life.
Deciduous (temperate) Farther north and south of equator; definite seasons, from hot wet
forests summers to cold drier winters; compared to tropical rain forests,
have fewer tree and animal species, but richer soil.
Coniferous forests Farther north than deciduous forest; mostly needle-leaved evergreen
trees; winters are longer; growing season shorter; very little decay of
leaf litter (due to cold).
Arctic & alpine tundra Farthest north; temperatures and rainfall too low for trees; brief
growing season for mosses, lichens, grasses, shrubs; have resident
and migratory bird and mammal species.
Grasslands In interior of continents; warm temperatures, but less than 100 cm
rain per year; have rich soil; support large grazing animals (ante-
lope); produce most of world’s grain crops.
Deserts Driest places (lowest rainfall); temperatures high in day, low at
night; have plants that store water (cactus), and animals that stay
underground during day and are active at night.
EXTENDED LABORATORY INVESTIGATION 24
What Can We Learn by “Adopting” a Tree?
INTRODUCTION
Observations of a single organism in its environment over an extended
time period can provide important information. You can learn about the
relationship of an organism to the physical conditions in its surround-
ings. Common organisms in our environment are trees. Trees have an
amazing variety of ways to carry out such life functions as producing food
and producing more trees. In many parts of the United States, the best
time to observe trees is during the spring. At this time, deciduous trees
come out of their dormant winter state and begin active growth and
reproduction. In this investigation, you will “adopt” a deciduous tree and
make observations during the spring growing season. You can write your
observations in your science journal. (No laboratory materials required.)
PROCEDURE
1. During February or March, select a deciduous tree that you will be able
to observe daily. No leaves should be present at this time. Your tree
should have at least one branch close to the ground so that you can
observe the ends of the branches.
2. Begin a journal for your periodic observations. Describe the location
of your tree, including specific geographic references so that another
person reading your journal can locate your tree.
3. Describe the appearance of your tree as fully as possible. You can add
drawings or photographs to your description. In your written descrip-
tion include:
◆ overall appearance and shape
◆ the approximate size of your tree: height, spread of branches
◆ bark color and texture
◆ trunk diameter: make this measurement a standard distance from
the ground; 1.5 meters is a good height at which to measure the
diameter
◆ kind of branching
◆ appearance of buds and twigs
INTERPRETIVE QUESTIONS
1. In the library, study the sexual reproduction of trees. Explain how your
observations relate to this process.
2. Research the species of trees that commonly grow in your area. What
features are usually used to identify a species? To what genus and
species does your tree belong?
3. Relate the changes you observed on your tree to the changes in tem-
perature and daylight.
4. What have you learned about the process of observation by keeping
your tree journal?
■■ CHAPTER 24 REVIEW
VOCABULARY
The following list contains all of the boldfaced terms in this chapter. Define
each of these terms in your own words.
21. Explain the two methods that scientists had first thought kangaroo
rats used to survive in the desert.
22. State the research findings that challenge the traditional
explanation of how kangaroo rats stay cool.
23. Explain why scientists now doubt that kangaroo rats get their water
from the metabolism of seeds.