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is confessedly inadcquatc, and the af- thought, ancl hcncc words and thoughts affairs thenlselves.I refer especinlly to
firnration of it as a fact rvould doubt- losc that close association which they those inquiries and inspections that pre-
less challenge dispute at the hands of are accustonred to nraintain with those cede the conring-out of an enterprise
psychologists of the olcl school; but I rvhose silent as rvell as spoken thoughts ra(her than to its actual execution. The
address myself to naturalisrs who I n¡n in linear verbal courscs. There is nrethods that are superior in scientific
think can respond to its verify fronr therefore a certa¡n predisposition on investigation should likewise be su-
their own experience. the part of thc practitioner of this pcrior in those invcstigatiQns that are
nlethod to tacíturnity. the necessary antecedents to an in-
We encounter an analogous dim- telligent conduct of affairs. But f can
Drarvbacks of tl¡e Method culty in the use of the method with drvell only briefiy. on this phase of
young students. It is far easíer, and I the subjsct.
The nrethod has, howevcr, its dis- think in general more interesting, for In education, as in investigation, it
advantages. No good thing is without thenr to argue a theory or accept a has bcen nruch the practice to work
its drawbacks; and this 'vcry habit of simple intérpretation than to rccognize a theory. The search for instructional
nrind, while an invaluable acquisition and evaluate the several factors which nrethods has often proceeded on the
for purposes of investigation, intro- the true elucidation may require. To presurnption that there is a definite
duces difficulties in exprcssion. It is illustrate: it is n¡ore to their taste to patent process through which all stu-
obvious, upon considerat¡on, that this be taught lhat the Great Lake basíns dents nright be put and conre out with
nrethod of thought . is inrpossiblc of were scoopcd out by glaciers .th¡o to rcsutts of nraxímum exccllence; and
vcrbal expression. We cannot put into be urged to conceive of thrce or nlore hence pedagogical inquiry in the past
words more than a single line of great agencies working successively or has very largely concerned itself with
thought at the same lime; and evcn in sinrullaneously, and to est¡mate how the inquiry, "What is the best nrethd?"
that tbe order of expression ntust be nruch was occonrplished by each of rather than with the inquiry, "V/hat
confoimed to the idiosyncrasíe! 'of the these agencies. The complcx and the 'are the spccial values of different
language, and the raté nluit be rela- quantitative do not fascinate the young methods, snd what are their 'several
tively slow. When the habit of eómplex student as they do the veternn invcsti- advantageous applicabilities in the var-
thought is not highly developed, there gator. ied work of instruction?" The P85t
is usually a leaüng line to which bthers doctrine has bee'n largely the doctrine
are subordinafi and the 'difficulty of of pedagogical . uniformitarianism. But
expression does not rise to serious pro- Multiple Hypothescs ond the facultieS hnd'functions of the mind
portions; but when the method of Practic¡l Affairs are almost, if not quite, as varied a¡
simultaneous vision along different the proporties and fuuctions of nat-
Iines is developed so .that the thoughts It has not been ourrcustom to think ter: and it is pcrhaps not less absu¡d
nrnning in differenf channels are of tl¡e method of working hypotheses to assume that any cpectffc method
ncarly cquiúalent, there is an obvious as applicable to instruction or to tl¡e of instn¡ctional proccdure is more ef-
embarrassment in selection and a dis-. 'practical affain of life. We have uzu-. fective tban all others, under any and
lnclination to make the attempt. Fur- ally rcgarded it as but a method of . all circumstanccs, than to assumc that
thcrmore, the impossibility of cxpres- scicncc. But I believc its application one principle of interprctation ls
'ing thc mcntal opcration ln.words'lcads
to practlcal affalrs has a value co- equally applica.blc to all tho phenom-
to thcir disuso in thc ¡ilent proccss of ordinatc with thc importancc of thc cna of naturc. As thcrc ls an endless
? MiY te65
1:,':
to recognize correctly the one which There is another and closely allied
var¡ety of mental processes and combi-
does appear. The method has a further danger in the aPPlication of the
natioos and an indefioite number of
good effect. The mind, having antici- method. In its highest development it
orders o{ procedure, the advantage of
pated the possible phases which may presumes a rnind supremely sensitive
dlfferent methods under different con'
arise, has prepared itself for action to every grain of evidence. Like a pair
ditions is almost axiornatic. This being
granted, there is Presented to the under any one that rnay come uP, and of delicately poised scales, every added
it is therefore ready-armed, and is pre' particle on the one side or the other
teacher the problem of selection and
disposed to act in the line appropriate próduces its' effect in oscillation. But
of adaptation to meet the needs of such a pair of scales may be altogether
any specific issue that rnay present to the event. It has not set itself rigidly
in a fixed purPose, which it is Pre- too sensi(ive to be .of practical value
itself. It is inrportan!, therefore, that in the rough affairs of life. The balances
the teacher shall have in mind a full disposed to follow without regard to
array of possible conditions and states contingencies. It has not nailed down of the exact chemist are too delicate
of mind which maY be Presented, in the helm and predeternrined to run a for the weighing-out of coarse com-
specific course, whether rocks lie in modities. Despatch maY be more im-
order that, when anY one of these portant than accuracy. So it is possible
shall become an actual case, he maY the path or not; but, with the helm
recognize it, and be readY for the in hand, it is readY to veer the shiP for the mind to be too much con-
according as danger or advantage tlis- cerned with the nice balancings of evi-
ernergency.
covers itself, dence, and to oscillate too much and
Just as the investigator arnred with
is It is true, there are often advantages too long in th9 endeavor to reach
many working hYPotheses nrore
exact results. It may be better, in the
likely to see the true nature and sig- in pursuing a fixed Predetermined
course rvithout regard lo obstacles or gross affaírs of life, to be less precise
nificance of phenonrena when theY and more prompt. Quick decisions,
present thenrselves, so the instrttctor adverse conditions. Simple dogged res'
' of olution is sonretinres. the salvation of though they maY contain a grain of
equipped with a full panoPlY hY-
an enterprise; but, while glorious sttc' error, are oftentimes better than pre-
potheses ready for application nlore
cise decisions at the expense of time.
readily recognizes the actuality'of the cesses have been thus snatched fronl
the very brink of disaster, overwhelm- The method has a sPecial beneficent
situatioo, more accurately nreasures its application to our social and civic re-
significance, and more appropriately ing calamity has in other cases fol-
lowecl upon tltis course, when a rea- lations. Into these relations there enter,
applies the methods which the case as great factors, our judgment of oth-
calls for. sonable regard for the unanticiPated
elenrents would have led to success. ers, our discernment of the nature of
The application of the nrethod of their acts, and our interpretation of
multiple hypotheses to the va¡ied a f- So there is (o be set over against the
great achievements that follow on their motives and purposes. The meth-'
fairs of life is almost as Protean as od of nlultiple hypotheses, in its ap-
the phases of that life itself' but cer- dogged adherence great disasters which
are equally its result, plication here, stands is decided con-.
tain general aspects may be' taken as trast to the method of the ruling
typical of the whole' What I have just theory or of the simPle working
said respecting the application of the hypothesis. The prinritive habit is to
method to instruction may apply, with Dangcr of Yacillalion
interpret the acts of others on the
a simple change of ternrs, to alnlost basis of a theory' Childhood's uncon-
any other endeavor which we are The tenclencY of the nrind, accus'
to work through nlultiple hy- scious theory is that the good are good,
called uPon to undertake' We enter tonred
and the bad are bad. From the good
upon an enterprise in nrost cases with- potheses, is to sway to one line of pot-
of all the factors i"y or another, according as the the child exPects nothing but good;
out futl knowledge from the bad, nothing but bad' To ex-
that will enter into it, or all of the balance of evidence shall incline' This
is the soul and essence of the method' pect a good act from the bad, or a
possible phases which it nray develop'
It is in general the true method. Never' bad act fronr the good, is radically at
It is therefore of the utmost impor- variance with childhood's rnental meth-
tance to be prepared to rightly conlPre- theless thbre is a danger that this yield'
ing to evidence may degenerate into ods. Unfortunately in our 'social and
hend the nature, bearings, and influ- civic aftairs too many of our fellow-
' ence of such unforeseen elements when unwarranted vacillation. It is not al-
ways possible for the mind to balance citizens have never outgrown the rul-
they shall definitely Present thenrselves ing theory of their childhood.
as actualities. If our vision is nat- evidencc with exact equipoise, and to
determine, in the rnidst of the execu- ManY have advanced a steP farther,
rowed bY a Preconceived theory as to and emploY a . method analagous to
what will happe¡/ we are alnrost cer- tion of an enterPrise, what is the
' of probability on the one side that of the working hypothesis' A cer-
tain to misinterpret the facts and to measure
tain presumption is made to attach to
misjudge the issue. If, on' the other or.the other: and as difficulties Present
the acts of their fellow-beings, and that
hand, we have in mind hYPothetical thenrsetves, there:is a danger of being
biased by them and of swerving from which they see is seen in the light of
forecasts of the various contingencies
the course that was reallY the true that presumption, and that which they
that maY arise, we shall be the more construe is construed in the light of
likelY to recognize the true facts one. Certain Iimitations are therefore
when they do present themselves. In' to be placed upon the application of that presumPtion. TheY do not go to
stesd of being biased by the anticipa- .the method, for it must be remembered
the lengths of childhood's method by
assuming positively that the good are
üon of .a given phase, the mind is that a poorer line of policy consistcntly
wholly good, and the bad wholly bad;
rendered open and alert by the anti- adhered .to may bring better 'results
cipation .of any one of manY Phases, than a vacillation between better poli'
but there is a strong presumption in
and is free not only, but is predisposed, cies. their minds that he concerning whom
SCTENCS VoL 1,18
they have an ill opinion will act from fairly, and to accept that intcrpreta- The total outcome is greater care in
corresponding nrotivcs. It requires pos- tion to which the weight of cvidence ascertain¡ng the facts, and greater dis-
itive evidence to overthrow the influ. inclines, not that rvhich sinrply fits our crimination and caut¡on in drawing
cnce of thc working hypothesis. working hypothesis or ot¡r dominant conclusions. I am confident, thereforé,
The method of multiple hypotheses theory. The outconre, thcrcfore, is rhat the general application of this
assumes broadly that the acts of a better and truer obscrvation ond juster nrethod to the afiairs of social and civic
fellow-being may be diverse in their and nrore righteous interpre(alion. life would go far. to remove those
nature, tbeir moves, their purposes, misuncJerstandings, misjudgments, and
and hence in their whole moral char- misrepresentations which constitute so
acter; that they may be good though fmperfections of Knowlcdge pervasive an evil in our social snd our
the dominant character be bad; that political atmospheres, the source of im-
they may be bad though the dominant There is a third rcsult of great im- nreasurable suffering to. the best and
character be good; that they may be portaDce. The imperfections of our most sensit¡ve souls. The misobserva-
partly good and partly bad, as is the knowledge are n'¡ore likely to be de- tions, the rnisstatements, the misinter-
fact in the greater nunrber of the tected, for there will be less confidence pretat¡ons, of life may cause less gross
complex activities of a human being. in its conrpleteness in proportion as suffering than some other evils; but
Under the method of multiple hypothe- theie is a broad comprehension of the they, being nrore universal and more
ses, it is the first effort of the mind to possibilities of varied action, under subtle, pain. The remedy lies, indeed,
see.truly what the act is, unbeclouded similar circumstances and with sinlilar partly in charity, but more largely in
by the presumption that this or that appearances. So, also, the imperfec- correct intellectual habits, in a pre-
it accords with
has been done because tions of evidence as to the nlotives donrinnnt, ever-present disposition to
our ruling theory or our working and purposes inspiring thc action will see things as they are, and to judge
of sinr-
hypothesis. Assunring that acts beconre nrore discernible in proportion rhcnr in the full light of an unbiased
ilar general aspect nray rcadily take to thc of our concep(ion of
fulness rvcighing of evidencc applied to all
any one of sevcral differcnt phases, what the evidence should be to dis- possible constructions, accompanied by
the nrind is freer to see accurately tinguish between action fronr the one a withholding of judgnrent when the
what has actually been done. So, again, or the other of possible nrotives. The evidence is insufficient to justify con-
in our interpretations of nrotives ancl necessary result will be a less disposi- clusions.
purposes, the nlethod nssunres that tion to reach conclusions upon inr- I bclieve that one of the greatest
these nray have been any one of nrany, perfect grounds. So, also, there rvill moral refornrs that lies inrntediately
and the ñrst duty is to ascertain which be a less inclination to nrisapply evi- before us consists in the generaI in-
of possible motives and purposes ac- dence; for, several constructions be- troduction ínto social and civic life of
tually prompted this individual action. ing definitely in nrind, the indices of that habit of mental Procedure which
Coing with this effort there is a pre- the one nrotive are less liable to be is known in investigation as thc method
disposition to balance all evidence místaken for the indices of nnother. of. multiple working hypotheses.
g:j.,::*1::l:J
wor¡.ng lrypotheses
sood science. Have we forgotten thc concept of nruttipte
l:. introdu.ld in lg90 by T. c. chamberlin f Too *"r,y
modern scientists have,.accordingto pratt (z)- chamberün',,"i.r,tinl
- "- insight
.\ is enrplrasized by reptrblication oi Iri. articli y'j years
later (Z) . ih
. .A*gng-l!. many ttrousht?:gugkils points-made ty püti (Z) is his quo_
tation.of a 1958 statenrent in rvñich Szira-rá pleads with ;g;;;;
oi úioitryri.iltr,
"But if y.or¡ stop doing oiperiments for o rrtir. rhfkir;;--"ií'oro,.¡n,
E].IPHASIS can possrbly "nd
be syntrresized, there are only 5 wayl, not 50, an¿ it w¡lítake
only
a.ferv experiments to distinguish these.'í Thi; i; ;n¿u.i¡u.
I'HOIíAS W. MITCHAM ;ni.r..ü
illustrates Plau's mai¡r thesñ. Expressed simpry, *h;;;il;;ti-^fiiy ""¿
;a
thinking (strong infere'ce-) in-setting the courses for their investigations,
g*u
the tast 1S.years,.i'creas.ing emphasis has bee, placed on laborarory dis-
, ,D.uríng
of geologic study át the expense of fun<tamental research into
covery rates increase. 1'lris poinf possibl¡r explains why
some .*pll.otiorr.nr.r,
leg\niqt¡es- seem to have more of the mysterious "toúch óf dít.ou.fo"
relationships which the nerr techniques .are supposedly serving. So
he¡-d- trt"" oit.ir.-
much talent is tangentially oriented tbat basic problemi of the eartlr nri b"ing In a re¡l sense, each nerv orebody is ¿n original cóncept, a geo-economic
seriously neglected. concept. orebodies are not Jiket¡r to be found d=irectry by Liy
aita-g"¡ttr.r;ng
techniqtre. when data, *orking hypotheses, irductiá iír.áü-ln?'¿.¿u",
.'This paper on scientihc philosophy is piesented in tr.re belief that a science tive analysis are in constant inter-pla)" ,ue should ñ;d
witlou¡ its philosophy is without áiiection. The purpose is to pror.oke the
geologist to a éritical revielv of pcrspective and to inciti him to a n.r"
of techniques "; Jim.ffil, iii. .t "i..
.."liro-
tion of the-ütal importance of -his icience, per se. The paper ¡t áir..t"¿ to EIIPHASIS ON MAPPING
colleagues in industry, in government, and in the universities, to ne\. rnen in .
the field, and to students. $-allinr is a method of orderly recording of scientiñc data whictr is
-The es-
sential to the science of geology. natuñ of geologic ¿ot" i, ,ii.l, t¡nt
their tabulation withor¡t coordinátion is usually meaninglei.
E¡IPHASIS ON T,EASON¡NG AND WORKING IIYPOTTTESES
Good observation is the most basic of science. As geologists, we
In secking concise mectranical solutio¡rs and procedures, our attcntions sometimes to ignore this sirnplc"rp."t
fict, especially as it
are easily focused. away fronr reasoning toward meihodology. For soure pur- lppgar
places-to held observation. Some geologists, who aie ottrerwise .fl
"'ool-i.!__ot
exceilent
¡roses, thismay bc a healthy trait for the scientist, contributlng to his efficiency, scientific observers, appear to rerax iheir icientific roles
in tn. n.ta. r¡.y
but it can become a serious problen of emfhasis. The creatfve scientist must app:ar reluctant to stay on an outcrop tong enough to make
gooJ obsÁations.
be- probtcm-oricnted. This-appties not o.nly to the geotogist who i,
" p,r."is
apparently fccl tl¡a.t most- of ttr. has ai.cady bccn donc.
scientist but átsó directly to the exptoraticin geologisl beciuse exploration -,.,!"1" -"pping
rrrs, or course, ¡s rar from thc trrrtl¡ bccarrse only generalizations
iesea-rch (l), not a routine sequence of steps. llr.oll-.uor.en (4) 'lras are offerccl
.urrned by nrapping o¡r various scares rvithin vast regions, o.,r. r,no*l.Jg.
i,
u¡ of the futility of nrisusing jnstmments as mechanical crutcirós. Inragina-
1o:: :i-jl".r to apologies for ignoranc. tÍ"n to enlightenm"ent. "i -r,¡"r,
This is
tion and creative thinking arc dcmandcd. Partrcutarty true rvlren o'e considers the critical, all-imporánt geologic features
|IP-the¡cs are exptanaticjns or correlations of groups of facts. After the rclated to ore scarch. Atso, as anyonc who activcly ui", g.oio?i"-;;;;i.o*,
testing of a hypothesis proves it to be useful in making-prediitions, it can be very rvell, a truly Fnished .1p i, rare even in cárefullfm"pi.A,rior.
r¿ised to the level of a theory. As. soo¡'¡ as the ñrsf imall group of facts progressive sciences have-vital issues, both great and
All
is accumulated, constnrction of hypotheses should be initirted, rr"refciablv nrr¡l- .í."il. i'n fact, tlrese is-
stes are basic to scienti6c advance¡ and górogy is no exception. -'Er.r,
tiplc w.orking hypo!hcscs-(2)-. flü nccd for fornruration ot rrypotrici.r áppri., is.not a static rhirrgl On-ihe *nt-.y,'ii;r'tiLJy to ",,
.
:"T:.^tt:::,*":toqic.map -tlre lc _
sciencJ itself. -
' as well to- each region, district, or próspect undei. study as ít'does to funda- arrve \\'rth rocal issues, in paraltel to the great issues
nrentals of geolory. of
Laboratory and instrurpentil studies may
we perhapf nlace too mui:h stresi on techniq'ue. Techniqrres, of course, ireatly contribute to resotution of
the issues, bur urtimatery they can ¡e i.sál.,ed-onry
are im¡rc_rtant in data-g'athering, but wé shoutd not bcconre captives of tech- by
mapping. "á¿iu"*i'g.ologic.
n¡qu9.- Instead, we should'aggresslvcly use techniques tó serve us i¡r con-
struction and.testing of liy¡rotheles. rnitiál periods óf ainrtess ctata gathering , ^'t:.ou geologic map might be more scientific and originat, because of the
rnvestigations, and
.are olten'necessary, but otherwise the. aimless gathering of data is neithei .:,".T,:Ir_"il- ing áecessarily i nvolved in i ts produc-
r'on, tnan the machind output of-reason
éhenrical irnaryses or computer comDarisons
421 of ten tlrousánd saurples noi nreauingfuily rehtáto g.Jgiip"r¡t,*."-n.,,..
F
424 SC I EN TI F I C CO MM U N I C ATIOTV.S
is quantitative."
-IIowever, ';. . . -"ny-perhaps nrost--of the great issues of
scienc'e are qualit¡tive, not quantitative, even in physics and chenristry."
Platt.emphasizes logic by stating, ". .. you.can catch phengmena in a logical
box or a mathematical box. The logical box is coarse but strong. The mathe-
matical box is fine grained but ffimb). The mathematical box is a beautiful
yay oj rrrapping up a problem, but it will not hold the phenomena unless they
have been caught in a logical box to begin with." The rvriter concurs witir
Platt, and.this is not to oppose tlre furthcr quanti6cation of gcology wherc
applicable and useful in increasing our undeistanding of tlre eartl.r but rather
to place ihe emphasis on reasoning.
Quantification appeais to be treated by some geologists today as an end
in itself, to rnake geology 'more "scientific.'r \Vhat they actually seenr to
mean is that geology should be more like physics or more like cheuristry.
Geology is a solid science in itself, and the writer rvould urge stronger focús
. on tlte great ttttsolved ¡rroblenrs invotlcd in overconling our ignorarrcc :tbout
tlrc earth on rvhiclr we live. . .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
.
.The thoughtful revicws of this paper úy Mr. Paul I. Eimon, Dr. Jotrn C. iii
. Wilson, and D¡ C_. Malcolm . Wright of the Geologic Research Division,
i1j
Kennecott C.opper Co¡poátion are gratefulty acknowledged, btit this does noi
necessarily imply their cotrcurrence witlrthe vicu's exprcssed. Also, the
writer is grateful to the I(ennecott Copper Corporation for pcrnrission io
publish the papcr.
Gnolocrc R¡sr.*cr¡ Drvrsrou,.
'K¡xxrcorr Có¡reR ConrourroN,
Se¿r Lexr CrrY, Ur,tx,
. . January j7,7967
' REFERENCES
l. Boyd, Jamcs, 1954. Explontion: Eng. Mining Jour., v. t55, p. ll8-¡t9, l3Z.
2. Chembcrlin, T..C.. f965,-Xhc,qr9t\od of nrultiplc rrorking hypothcscs: Scicncc, v. l{8.
. p. 751-759: (Also, Soicna, Fcb.7,1890.) :
3. Fcnton, C,L, enil Fcn!9á, Itf. A., f952, Giahts of Gcology: Gardcn City, Ncw york,
Doubledey, SlS p.; . .._
{. Lcv-or:cn, rL'I.r 1913. Dkcovcry-thlnt<lng-: Am. ,Aisoc. Pcttotcunr Gcologists, v. 27,. p.tg16.
fotS, Augurtus, 1921, T}.c.profcrcl_on of.orc hunting: Ecox. Gror., v. te, p. 243-27g.
- l.
6. 1926, Orc 6ndirig:.I$ining ¡nd Mct¡ll. Diccmbcr, g. 5?3..
=-, J. &,,.1964. Strgng.lnfcrcncc: Science. ú. 146,.p.3{Z-3S3.
7. ?latl