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DIFFERENCIATE AMONG TERMS USED IN INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

Information Systems is an academic study of systems with a specific reference to information and the
complementary networks of hardware and software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process,
create and also distribute data.

A database is a collection of data on a subject such as customers, products, or incident reports. A database can
contain many elements and features. In this seminar, you will learn about database tables, records, fields, forms,
queries, filters, and reports. The illustrations in this seminar were created using Microsoft Access. If you use
another database program, the menus, menu items, commands, and toolbars will be different.

Features/Terms:

A relational database contains tables which are linked together. Each table contains records which contain
fields. A query can filter your records to show just the ones that meet certain criteria or to arrange them in a
particular order.

A flat database contains files which contain records which contain fields

A Database model defines the logical design and structure of a database and defines how data will be stored, accessed and
updated in a database management system. While the Relational Model is the most widely used database model, there are
other models too:

 Hierarchical Model
 Network Model
 Entity-relationship Model
 Relational Model

Hierarchical Model
This database model organises data into a tree-like-structure, with a single root, to which all the other data is linked. The
heirarchy starts from the Root data, and expands like a tree, adding child nodes to the parent nodes.

In this model, a child node will only have a single parent node.
This model efficiently describes many real-world relationships like index of a book, recipes etc.

In hierarchical model, data is organised into tree-like structure with one one-to-many relationship between two different
types of data, for example, one department can have many courses, many professors and of-course many students.
Network Model
This is an extension of the Hierarchical model. In this model data is organised more like a graph, and are allowed to have
more than one parent node.

In this database model data is more related as more relationships are established in this database model. Also, as the data
is more related, hence accessing the data is also easier and fast. This database model was used to map many-to-many data
relationships.
This was the most widely used database model, before Relational Model was introduced.

Entity-relationship Model
In this database model, relationships are created by dividing object of interest into entity and its characteristics into
attributes.
Different entities are related using relationships.

E-R Models are defined to represent the relationships into pictorial form to make it easier for different stakeholders to
understand.
This model is good to design a database, which can then be turned into tables in relational model(explained below).

Let's take an example, If we have to design a School Database, then Student will be an entity with attributes name, age,
address etc. As Address is generally complex, it can be another entity with attributes street name, pincode, city etc, and
there will be a relationship between them.

Relationships can also be of different types. To learn about E-R Diagrams in details, click on the link.

Relational Model
In this model, data is organised in two-dimensional tables and the relationship is maintained by storing a common field.

This model was introduced by E.F Codd in 1970, and since then it has been the most widely used database model, infact,
we can say the only database model used around the world.

The basic structure of data in the relational model is tables. All the information related to a particular type is stored in
rows of that table.
Hence, tables are also known as relations in relational model.

In the coming tutorials we will learn how to design tables, normalize them to reduce data redundancy and how to use
Structured Query language to access data from tables.
 Fields: field is a named unit of information. Each entry in a database can have multiple fields of multiple types
e.g. a text field called 'favorite color' which allows you to type in your favourite shade, or a menu called 'Parish' that lets
you choose one from a list of the parishes that make up the country. By combining several fields with appropriate names
and types you should be able to capture all the relevant information about the items in your database.
 Records: In the context of a relational database, a row—also called a record or tuple—represents a single,
implicitly structured data item in a table. In simple terms, a database table can be thought of as consisting of rows and
columns or fields. Each row in a table represents a set of related data, and every row in the table has the same structure.
 Tables: a collection of several records that are related each other. Table information are normally arranged in a
logical manner. The Personal Table in a Database might contain the fields: Person ID, Surname, Christian Name, Street
Address, Town, Date of Birth, Registration Fee, etc. and this contains several related fields that communicate information
about a set of records when looked at as one picture.

Forms

A database form shows all or selected fields for one record. Forms show field names and data in an attractive
and easy-to-read format. Record 1 of the database is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Database Form

You can enter data in fields in a form just as you can in a table. Data has been entered in three fields in the form
shown in Figure 6. Navigation buttons for moving from record to record are displayed at the bottom of the
form.
Figure 6 Use navigation buttons to move from record to record.

Filters

A filter displays records in a database according to criteria you select. Although the database used as an
example in this seminar is small, a database can contain a large amount of data. You might want to filter the
data, hiding some records and displaying others. For example, you might want to display records for Operator
CS1 only. A filter allows you to do so easily.

Figure 7 shows the Complaints table. CS1 is selected in the Operator field and the arrow is pointing to the Filter
by Selection button. Clicking the Filter by Selection button will display only records with CS1 in the Operator
field, as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 7 Complaints Table

Figure 8 Complaints Table with Filter Applied

The other records are still in the table even though they are not displayed. The filter can be removed to display
all the records in the table.
Queries

A query finds records in a database according to criteria you specify. Sometimes working with all the data in a
large database is not practical. You might wish to work with just a small part or subset of the data. For example,
you might want to find records for unresolved customer support incidents. A query can be used to display these
records. You could construct the query to display only selected fields, such as Log ID and Resolved. A query
displays only the data you request.

The table in Figure 9 shows all data that has been entered in the database. An empty checkbox in the resolved
field indicates the incident has not been resolved.

Figure 9 Tables Displaying All Data

Figure 10 shows the results of a query. Only the Log ID and Resolved fields for unresolved incidents are
displayed.

Figure 10 Data from a Query

Reports

A report presents data in an attractive format and is especially suitable for printing. Reports can display data
from tables or queries. All or selected fields can be included in a report. Data can be grouped or sorted and
arranged in a variety of ways.

Figure 11 shows a report containing data from the Complaints table. The data is grouped by resolved and
unresolved incidents. The Log ID field is sorted in ascending order. Compare the format of the data in this
report to the database table shown in Figure 12.
Figure 11 Database Report

Figure 12 Database Table

A database management system (DBMS) is system software for creating and managing databases. The DBMS provides
users and programmers with a systematic way to create, retrieve, update and manage data.

A DBMS makes it possible for end users to create, read, update and delete data in a database. The DBMS essentially
serves as an interface between the database and end users or application programs, ensuring that data is consistently
organized and remains easily accessible.

Both spreadsheets and databases can be used to handle much the same information, but each is optimized to
handle a different type most efficiently. The larger the number of records, the more important the differences
are.

Examples of databases: MS Access, dBase, FoxPro, Paradox, Approach, Oracle, Open Office Base.

Advantages of a DBMS

Using a DBMS to store and manage data comes with advantages, but also overhead. One of the biggest advantages of
using a DBMS is that it lets end users and application programmers access and use the same data while managing data
integrity. Data is better protected and maintained when it can be shared using a DBMS instead of creating new iterations
of the same data stored in new files for every new application. The DBMS provides a central store of data that can be
accessed by multiple users in a controlled manner.
Central storage and management of data within the DBMS provides:

 Data abstraction and independence


 Data security

 A locking mechanism for concurrent access

 An efficient handler to balance the needs of multiple applications using the same data

 The ability to swiftly recover from crashes and errors, including restart ability and recoverability
 Robust data integrity capabilities

 Logging and auditing of activity


 Simple access using a standard application programming interface (API)
 Uniform administration procedures for data

Another advantage of a DBMS is that it can be used to impose a logical, structured organization on the data. A DBMS
delivers economy of scale for processing large amounts of data because it is optimized for such operations.

A DBMS can also provide many views of a single database schema. A view defines what data the user sees and how that
user sees the data. The DBMS provides a level of abstraction between the conceptual schema that defines the logical
structure of the database and the physical schema that describes the files, indexes and other physical mechanisms used by
the database. When a DBMS is used, systems can be modified much more easily when business requirements change.
New categories of data can be added to the database without disrupting the existing system and applications can be
insulated from how data is structured and stored.

Of course, a DBMS must perform additional work to provide these advantages, thereby bringing with it the overhead. A
DBMS will use more memory and CPU than a simple file storage system. And, of course, different types of DBMSs will
require different types and levels of system resources.

EXPLAIN HOW FILES AND DATABASES ARE USED IN ORGANISATION

Uses: including store, organise, search, retrieve; eliminate redundancies; data mining, data marts and data warehouses.

The data mart is a subset of the data warehouse and is usually oriented to a specific business line or team.
Whereas data warehouses have an enterprise-wide depth, the information in data marts pertains to a single department.

Data Mining

Generally, data mining (sometimes called data or knowledge discovery) is the process of analyzing data from
different perspectives and summarizing it into useful information - information that can be used to increase
revenue, cuts costs, or both. Data mining software is one of a number of analytical tools for analyzing data. It
allows users to analyze data from many different dimensions or angles, categorize it, and summarize the
relationships identified. Technically, data mining is the process of finding correlations or patterns among dozens
of fields in large relational databases.

There are several types of benefits and advantages of data mining systems. One of the essential matters of these mining
creates a complete structure of analysis of mining techniques.
1. It is helpful to predict future trends:

Most of the working nature of the data mining systems carries on all the informational factors of the elements and their
structure.One of the common benefits that can be derived with these data mining systems is that they can be helpful while
predicting future trends. And that is quite possible with the help of technology and behavioral changes adopted by the
people.

2. It signifies customer habits:

For example, while working in the marketing industry one can understand all the matters of customer behaviour and their
habits. And that is possible with the help of data mining systems.As these data mining systems handle all the information
acquiring techniques. It is helpful in keeping the track of customer habits and their behavior.

3. Helps in decision making:

There are some people who make use of these data mining techniques to help them with some kind of making. Nowadays,
all the information about anything can be determined easily with the help of technology and similarly, with the help of
such technology one can make a precise decision about something unknown and unexpected.

Data mining technology is something which helps one person in their decision making and that decision making is a
process where in which all the factors of mining is involved precisely.And while involvement of these mining systems,
one can come across several disadvantages of data mining and they are as follows.

1. It violates user privacy:

It is a known fact that data mining collects information about people using some market-based techniques and information
technology. And these data mining process involves several numbers of factors. But while involving those factors, data
mining system violates the privacy of its user and that is why it lacks in the matters of safety and security of its users.
Eventually, it creates Mis-communication between people.

2. Additional irrelevant information:

The main functions of the data mining systems creates a relevant space for beneficial information.But the main problem
with these information collection is that there is a possibility that the collection of information process can be little
overwhelming for all. Therefore, it is very much essential to maintain a minimum level of limit for all the data mining
techniques.

3. Misuse of information:

As it has been explained earlier that in the data mining system the possibility of safety and security measure are really
minimal. And that is why some can misuse this information to harm others in their own way.Therefore, the data mining
system needs to change its course of working so that it can reduce the ratio of misuse of information through the mining
process.

Data

Data are any facts, numbers, or text that can be processed by a computer. Today, organizations are
accumulating vast and growing amounts of data in different formats and different databases. This includes:

 operational or transactional data such as, sales, cost, inventory, payroll, and accounting
 nonoperational data, such as industry sales, forecast data, and macro economic data
 meta data - data about the data itself, such as logical database design or data dictionary definitions

Information

The patterns, associations, or relationships among all this data can provide information. For example, analysis
of retail point of sale transaction data can yield information on which products are selling and when.

Knowledge

Information can be converted into knowledge about historical patterns and future trends. For example, summary
information on retail supermarket sales can be analyzed in light of promotional efforts to provide knowledge of
consumer buying behavior. Thus, a manufacturer or retailer could determine which items are most susceptible
to promotional efforts.

Data Warehouses
Dramatic advances in data capture, processing power, data transmission, and storage capabilities are enabling
organizations to integrate their various databases into data warehouses. Data warehousing is defined as a
process of centralized data management and retrieval. Data warehousing, like data mining, is a relatively new
term although the concept itself has been around for years. Data warehousing represents an ideal vision of
maintaining a central repository of all organizational data. Centralization of data is needed to maximize user
access and analysis. Dramatic technological advances are making this vision a reality for many companies. And,
equally dramatic advances in data analysis software are allowing users to access this data freely. The data
analysis software is what supports data mining.

EXPLAN HOW DATA STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL HAVE CHANGED OVER TIME

Formats of Data: Text Based --------------- Audio Based, Video Based, Signal Based

ACCESS METHODS
An access method defines the way processes read and write files. We study some of these below.

 File organization refers to the way data is stored in a file. File organization is very important because it determines the
methods of access, efficiency, flexibility and storage devices to use. There are four methods of organizing files on a
storage media. This include:

 sequential,
 random,
 serial and
 indexed-sequential
1. Sequential file organization

 Records are stored and accessed in a particular order sorted using a key field.
 Retrieval requires searching sequentially through the entire file record by record to the end.
 Because the record in a file are sorted in a particular order, better file searching methods like the binary search technique
can be used to reduce the time used for searching a file .
 Since the records are sorted, it is possible to know in which half of the file a particular record being searched is located,
Hence this method repeatedly divides the set of records in the file into two halves and searches only the half on which the
records is found.
 For example, of the file has records with key fields 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and the computer is searching for a record with key
field 50, it starts at 40 upwards in its search, ignoring the first half of the set.

Advantages of sequential file organization

 The sorting makes it easy to access records.


 The binary chop technique can be used to reduce record search time by as much as half the time taken.

Disadvantages of sequential file organization

 The sorting does not remove the need to access other records as the search looks for particular records.
 Sequential records cannot support modern technologies that require fast access to stored records.
 The requirement that all records be of the same size is sometimes difficult to enforce.

1. Random or direct file organization

 Records are stored randomly but accessed directly.


 To access a file stored randomly, a record key is used to determine where a record is stored on the storage media.
 Magnetic and optical disks allow data to be stored and accessed randomly.

Advantages of random file access

 Quick retrieval of records.


 The records can be of different sizes.

1. Serial file organization

 Records in a file are stored and accessed one after another.


 The records are not stored in any way on the storage medium this type of organization is mainly used on magnetic tapes.

Advantages of serial file organization

 It is simple
 It is cheap

Disadvantages of serial file organization

 It is cumbersome to access because you have to access all proceeding records before retrieving the one being searched.
 Wastage of space on medium in form of inter-record gap.
 It cannot support modern high speed requirements for quick record access.

1. Indexed-sequential file organization method


 Almost similar to sequential method only that, an index is used to enable the computer to locate individual records on the
storage media. For example, on a magnetic drum, records are stored sequential on the tracks. However, each record is
assigned an index that can be used to access it directly.

EXPLAIN THE ADVANTAGES OF USING DATABASE APPROACH COMPARED TO USING


TRADITIONAL FILE PROCESSING

What are Traditional File Processing systems?

Traditional file based system is basically a file based system, in which we manually or through computer
handle the database such as updating, inserting, deletion or adding new files to database, etc.

There are several advantages of TFBS (Traditional File Based System):

1. No need of external storage


2. No need of highly technical person to handle the database.
3. Processing speed is high as compare to DBMS.

TFBS has also some disadvantages:

1. Provide less security.


2. Redundancy is high
3. Less integrity
4. High complexity in updating of database records

Some of the advantages of data independence, integration and centralized control are:

1. Redundancies and inconsistencies can be reduced (Efficiency)

In conventional data systems, an organization often builds a collection of application programs often created by different
programmers and requiring different components of the operational data of the organization. The data in Conventional
Data Systems (Traditional File Management System) is often not centralised. Some applications may require data to be
combined from several systems. These several systems could well have data that is redundant as well as inconsistent (that
is, different copies of the same data may have different values). Data inconsistencies are often encountered in everyday
life. For example, we have all come across situations when a new address is communicated to an organization that we deal
with (e.g. a bank, or Telecom, or a gas company), we find that some of the communications from that organization are
received at the new address while others continue to be mailed to the old address. Combining all the data in a database
would involve reduction in redundancy as well as inconsistency. It also is likely to reduce the costs for collection, storage
and updating of data.

2. Cost of developing and maintaining systems is lower (Cost)

It is much easier to respond to unforeseen requests when the data is centralized in a database than when it is stored in
conventional file systems. Although the initial cost of setting up of a database can be large, one normally expects the
overall cost of setting up a database and developing and maintaining application programs to be lower than for similar
service using conventional systems since the productivity of programmers can be substantially higher in using non-
procedural languages that have been developed with modern DBMS than using procedural languages.

3. Standards can be enforced (Data Quality)

Since all access to the database must be through the DBMS, standards are easier to enforce. Standards may relate to the
naming of the data, the format of the data, the structure of the data etc. This might not be so when using Traditional File
Storage Systems.
4. Security can be improved

In conventional systems, applications are developed in an ad hoc manner. Often different systems of an organization
would access different components of the operational data. In such an environment, enforcing security can be quite
difficult.

Setting up of a database makes it easier to enforce security restrictions since the data is now centralized. It is easier to
control that has access to what parts of the database. However, setting up a database can also make it easier for a
determined person to breach security. We will discuss this in the next section.

5. Integrity can be improved (Validity)

Since the data of the organization using a database approach is centralized and would be used by a number of users at a
time, it is essential to enforce integrity controls.

Integrity may be compromised in many ways. For example, someone may make a mistake in data input and the salary of a
full-time employee may be input as $4,000 rather than $40,000. A student may be shown to have borrowed books but has
no enrolment. Salary of a staff member in one department may be coming out of the budget of another department.

If a number of users are allowed to update the same data item at the same time, there is a possibility that the result of the
updates is not quite what was intended. For example, in an airline DBMS we could have a situation where the number of
bookings made is larger than the capacity of the aircraft that is to be used for the flight. Controls therefore must be
introduced to prevent such errors to occur because of concurrent updating activities. However, since all data is stored only
once, it is often easier to maintain integrity than in conventional systems.

6. Enterprise requirements can be identified (Data Handling)

All enterprises have sections and departments and each of these units often consider the work of their unit as the most
important and therefore consider their needs as the most important. Once a database has been set up with centralized
control, it will be necessary to identify enterprise requirements and to balance the needs of competing units. It may
become necessary to ignore some requests for information if they conflict with higher priority needs of the enterprise.

7. Data model must be developed (Data Handling)

Perhaps the most important advantage of setting up a database system is the requirement that an overall data model for the
enterprise be built. In conventional systems, it is more likely that files will be designed as needs of particular applications
demand. The overall view is often not considered. Building an overall view of the enterprise data, although often an
expensive exercise is usually very cost-effective in the long term.

8. Faster response to query processing – provision of results of searches (Timeliness)

Databases today allows users to retrieve information stored across many database tables, doing this by creating
relationships between tables and allow multiple sets of criteria to be used to search field (s) in tables and extract the
results. Databases over their conventional filing systems allows for quicker updating of multiple records based on a
criteria or set of criterias based on the use of Update Queries.

Speed: Databases allows records to be retrieved at high speed allowing for greater information retrieval. With
Databases, the database can be powered with several criterias that can be executed together (compulsory criteria
selection) or separately (hierarchical criteria selection). Database criterias can extract data from several huge database
tables consisting of thousands of records, and return the specific data required quickly in order to make decisions.
Completeness:

With databases, information regarding to one item can be pulled together from several database tables using joins
(relationships) and create a move satisfying view of all information about that item. With this feature, databases are able
to give a better cross sectional view of data. Data can be combined from a Customer table, the Orders table, the Billings
table and the Delivery table.

Consistency:

With Databases, changes made in the main tables are automatically reflected across all queries and reports and Database
allows for greater consistency in data entry. With the use of drop list in database allows you to more accurately enter the
same group of data (i.e. Model of Cars – Toyota, Suzuki, Ford, Honda, BMW, Mercedes, etc.).

Confidentiality, Privacy and Security

When information is centralised and is made available to users from remote locations, the possibilities of abuse are often
more than in a conventional data processing system. To reduce the chances of unauthorised users accessing sensitive
information, it is necessary to take technical, administrative and, possibly, legal measures.

Most databases store valuable information that must be protected against deliberate trespass and destruction.

Data Quality

Since the database is accessible to users remotely, adequate controls are needed to control users updating data and to
control data quality. With increased number of users accessing data directly, there are enormous opportunities for users to
damage the data. Unless there are suitable controls, the data quality may be compromised.

Data Integrity

Since a large number of users could be using a database concurrently, technical safeguards are necessary to ensure that the
data remain correct during operation. The main threat to data integrity comes from several different users attempting to
update the same data at the same time. The database therefore needs to be protected against inadvertent changes by the
users.

Enterprise Vulnerability

Centralising all data of an enterprise in one database may mean that the database becomes an indispensible resource. The
survival of the enterprise may depend on reliable information being available from its database. The enterprise therefore
becomes vulnerable to the destruction of the database or to unauthorised modification of the database.

The Cost of using a DBMS

Conventional data processing systems are typically designed to run a number of well-defined, preplanned processes. Such
systems are often "tuned" to run efficiently for the processes that they were designed for.

Additional Issues:
Centralization: That is use of the same program at a time by many users sometimes lead to loss of some data; High cost of
software.
DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENT TYPES AND ORGANISATION OF FILES AND DATABASES

FILE TYPES

Master File

Transaction File

A data file is an organized area of memory (disk) that contains information of a similar nature.

Master files contain the essentially permanent information about customers, inventory items, salesmen, vendors, and
general ledger accounts.

The transaction files contain more changeable things such as sales orders, purchase orders, cash receipts, and accounts
payable invoices--things that are constantly changing from day to day.

FILE ORGANIZATION

Serial

Sequential

Random (or Direct)

Indexed Sequential

DATABASE TYPES

Personal

Workgroup

Department

Enterprise

DATBASE ORGANIZATION

Hierarchical

Relational

Network

Object-oriented
USE DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS TO DOCUMENT THE FLOW OF INFORMATION WITHIN AN
ORGANISATION

Data flow diagrams present the logical flow of information through a system in graphical or pictorial form. Data flow
diagrams have only four symbols, which makes it useful for communication between analysts and users. Data flow
diagrams (DFDs) show the data used and provided by processes within a system. DFDs make use of four basic symbols.

Create structured analysis, information flow, process-oriented, data-oriented, and data process diagrams as well as
data flowcharts.

External Entity
An external entity is a source or destination of a data flow which is outside the area of study. Only those entities which
originate or receive data are represented on a business process diagram. The symbol used is an oval containing a
meaningful and unique identifier.

Process
A process shows a transformation or manipulation of data flows within the system. The symbol used is a rectangular box
which contains 3 descriptive elements:

Firstly an identification number appears in the upper left hand corner. This is allocated arbitrarily at the top level and
serves as a unique reference.

Secondly, a location appears to the right of the identifier and describes where in the system the process takes place. This
may, for example, be a department or a piece of hardware. Finally, a descriptive title is placed in the centre of the box.
This should be a simple imperative sentence with a specific verb, for example 'maintain customer records' or 'find driver'.

Data Flow
A data flow shows the flow of information from its source to its destination. A data flow is represented by a line, with
arrowheads showing the direction of flow. Information always flows to or from a process and may be written, verbal or
electronic. Each data flow may be referenced by the processes or data stores at its head and tail, or by a description of its
contents.

Data Store
A data store is a holding place for information within the system:

It is represented by an open ended narrow rectangle. Data stores may be long-term files such as sales ledgers, or may be
short-term accumulations: for example batches of documents that are waiting to be processed. Each data store should be
given a reference followed by an arbitrary number.
EXPLAIN HOW THE GROWTH OF THE INTERNET IMPACT ON DATA HANDELING AND DATA
PROCESSING

Growth of the Internet since its introduction have affected the way in which data is stored and retrieved across several File
Servers that is used to process and support Network Management (network traffic). With the Internet being so developed
to well over 5000 Servers, many users find that their requests for documents and information needed can be accessed
quickly. In reality, local processing is done at the nearest Web Server and then other contact is made to several other
servers located across the world.

 Rapid employment growth is expected in web search portals and data processing, hosting, and related services, while
 employment in internet service providers is expected to decline.
 Telecommunications includes voice, video, and Internet communications services.
 Employment will grow because technological advances will expand the range of services offered.
 With rapid technological changes in telecommunications, those with up-to-date technical skills will have the best job
opportunities. Average earnings in telecommunications greatly exceed average earnings throughout private industry.

Many Servers have been commissioned to store the vast amount of documents that exists on the Internet since 1993 when
only a few Servers existed. As such with more and more information being loaded daily, the processing power of the
Internet to facilitate user request would lower significantly. As such, daily or monthly, operators of the Internet keeps
loading more Servers to the Internet Backbone, so as to ensure that the processing power and response time of the Internet
does not fail. We must consider that with so many hundreds of websites and web applications to run, massive and
powerful Severs are going to be needed if we are to ensure that the Internet can be used to support business functionality –

 E-Business, Web Business


 Web Transactions, Web Application development;
 and even support Telecommuting, Video Conferencing, Web Conferencing, etc.

Many users might argue that the Internet takes care of itself during the unpredicted expansion of its services to areas it
was not originally designed for. This includes:

 Voice Over IP, Web Video transmission


 Support of Information Systems of businesses (Business Catalogue – JC Penny, Walmart, etc.)
Internet Reading:

The ability to quickly transmit information over long distances has become an important part of modern life. The Internet
has changed the way people find and use information to communicate, work, shop, learn, and live.

Goods and services: Internet Service Providers, Web Search Portals, and data processing services are the backbone of
the Internet and provide the infrastructure for it to operate smoothly. By processing and storing data, and allowing people
to access and sort these data, they facilitate the flow of information that has become vital to the economy.

Industry organisation: Internet Service Providers (ISPs) directly connect people, businesses, and organizations to the
Internet by routing data from one location to another. ISPs develop and maintain the physical, technical, and contractual
connections and agreements needed for the internet to function. In order to maintain the necessary flow of data, ISPs use
peering points—physical connections to the computer equipment of other ISPs—to share networks. These connections
provide a nearly unlimited number of potential pathways through which information can travel.

In addition to forming the infrastructure of the Internet, service providers must also connect with clients. These clients
may range from individual homes to large office buildings. To allow end users to access their networks, establishments in
the industry may provide them with proprietary software, user identification names, e-mail addresses, or equipment. Like
telephone or electric service, ISPs offer access to customers on a subscription basis. They may also provide related
services beyond Internet access, such as Web hosting, Web page design, and consulting services related to networking
software and hardware.
While ISPs connect clients to the Internet by routing data, the physical connections that carry the information to end users
are often the wires or cables of telecommunications establishments.

Web search portals canvas the Web to create databases of web pages and their corresponding Internet addresses. These
databases can then be searched by typing key words into a prompt on the search portal’s Web site. These sites, commonly
called “search engines,” enable users to sort through the huge amount of information on the Internet quickly. In order to
find as much information as possible, search engines automatically follow every link on a Web page, catalogue each new
page found, and store their location along with text that can be searched at a later point. Because the Internet offers such a
vast array of sites, advanced algorithms must be developed to rank the results of a search according to their relevance.
Some Web search portals also offer additional services, such as news, e-mail, maps, and local business directories. The
key distinction of Web search portals is that the information is gathered automatically from across the Web, rather than
manually edited and entered into a predetermined directory.

Data processing, hosting, and related services are involved primarily in handling large amounts of data for businesses,
organizations, and individuals. Data hosting often takes the form of Web hosting, in which Web site content is placed on
a server that allows it to be accessed by users over the Internet. While establishments in this industry host Web sites, the
content is typically produced by someone else and then made accessible through the Web hosting service. Other data
hosting services allow clients to place electronic data, such as streaming music and video or company databases, onto
servers that can be accessed directly through specialized computer programs. An additional service provided by this
industry is to store old data for archival purposes with no Internet access to it.

Data processing covers a broad range of data services, including data entry, conversion, and analysis. Organizations with
large quantities of data on paper may turn to data processing services to enter the data, either by hand or with optical
scanners, into a computer database. Similarly, clients may want old data files or several databases converted to a single,
more easily accessible format. Aside from converting data to another format, data processing services also produce
reports that summarize the data for better analysis by their clients. While most data hosting companies sell subscription
services, data processing services companies often work on projects of defined scope.
Recent developments: The Internet is constantly expanding and evolving, and so are the industries associated with it.
Many firms in the telecommunications and broadcasting industries now provide Internet Service. Technology is
constantly changing and companies also are frequently upgrading their existing services, since most new services involve
relatively low additional cost, and offering new services can attract or retain customers.

Telecommunications and the Internet

Goods and services: The telecommunications industry delivers voice communications, data, graphics, television, and
video at ever increasing speeds and in an increasing number of ways. Whereas wire line telephone communication was
once the primary service of the industry, wireless communication services, Internet service, and cable and satellite
program distribution make up an increasing share of the industry.

Industry organization: The largest sector of the telecommunications industry continues to be made up of wired
telecommunications carriers. Establishments in this sector mainly provide telecommunications services via wires and
cables that connect customers’ premises to central offices maintained by telecommunications companies. The central
offices contain switching equipment that routes content to its final destination or to another switching center that
determines the most efficient route for the content to take. These companies also maintain the cable network that
connects different regions of the country as well as foreign countries, and forms the backbone of the industry. While
voice used to be the main type of data transmitted over the wires, wired telecommunications service now includes the
transmission of all types of graphic, video, and electronic data mainly over the Internet.

These new services are made possible through the use of digital technologies that provide much more efficient use of the
telecommunications networks. One major technology breaks digital signals into packets during transmission. Networks
of computerized switching equipment route the packets. Packets may take separate paths to their destination and may
share the paths with packets from other users. At the destination, the packets are reassembled, and the transmission is
completed. Because packet switching considers alternate routes, and allows multiple transmissions to share the same
route, it results in a more efficient use of telecommunications capacity as packets are routed along less congested routes.

The transmission of voice signals requires relatively small amounts of capacity on telecommunications networks. By
contrast, the transmission of data, video, and graphics requires much higher capacity. This transmission capacity is
referred to as “bandwidth.” As the demand increases for high-capacity transmissions—especially with the rising volume
of Internet data—telecommunications companies have been expanding and upgrading their networks to increase the
amount of available bandwidth.

Cable and other program distribution is another sector of the telecommunications industry. Establishments in this sector
provide television and other services on a subscription or fee basis. These establishments do not include cable networks.

Distributors of pay television services transmit programming through two basic types of systems. Cable systems transmit
programs over fiber optic and coaxial cables. Direct broadcasting satellite (DBS) operators constitute a growing segment
of the pay television industry. DBS operators transmit programming from orbiting satellites to customers’ receivers,
known as Mini Dishes. Establishments in the cable and other program distribution industry generate revenue through
subscriptions, providing Internet access, providing phone service, and advertising sales. They also charge fees for pay-
per-view or video-on-demand programs.

Wireless telecommunications carriers, many of which are subsidiaries of the wired carriers, transmit voice, graphics, data,
and Internet access through the transmission of signals over networks of radio towers. The signal is transmitted through
an antenna into the wire line network. Increasing numbers of consumers are choosing to replace their home landline
phones with wireless phones. Other wireless services include beeper and paging services.

Resellers of telecommunications services are another sector of the telecommunications industry. These resellers lease
transmission facilities, such as telephone lines or space on a satellite, from existing telecommunications networks, and
then resell the service to other customers. Other sectors in the industry include message communications services such as
e-mail and facsimile services, satellite telecommunications, and operators of other communication services ranging from
radar stations to radio networks used by taxicab companies.

Recent developments: Telecommunications carriers are expanding their bandwidth by replacing copper wires with fiber
optic cable. Fiber optic cable, which transmits light signals along glass strands, permits faster, higher capacity
transmissions than traditional copper wire lines. In some areas, carriers are extending fiber optic cable to residential
customers, enabling them to offer cable television, video-on-demand, very high-speed Internet, and conventional
telephone communications over a single line.

However, the high cost of extending fiber to homes has slowed deployment. In most areas, wired carriers are instead
leveraging existing copper lines that connect most residential customers with a central office, to provide digital subscriber
lines (DSL) Internet service. Technologies in development will further boost the speeds and services available through a
DSL connection.

Changes in technology and regulation now allow cable television providers to compete directly with telephone companies.
An important change has been the rapid increase in two-way communications capacity. Conventional pay television
services provided communications only from the distributor to the customer. These services could not provide effective
communications from the customer back to other points in the system due to signal interference and the limited capacity
of conventional cable systems. Cable operators are implementing new technologies to reduce signal interference and
increase the capacity of their distribution systems by installing fiber optic cables and improving data compression. This
allows some pay television systems to offer two-way telecommunications services, such as video-on-demand and high-
speed Internet access.

Cable companies are increasing their share of the telephone communications market by using high-speed Internet access
to provide VoIP (voice over Internet protocol). VoIP is sometimes called Internet telephony, because it uses the Internet
to transmit phone calls. While conventional phone networks use packet switching to break up a call onto multiple shared
lines between central offices, VoIP extends this process to the phone. A VoIP phone will break the conversation into
digital packets and transmit those packets over a high-speed Internet connection. Cable companies use the technology to
offer phone services without building a conventional phone network. Wire line providers’ high-speed Internet
connections also can be used for VoIP and cellular phones are being developed that use VoIP to make calls using local
wireless Internet connections. All of the major sectors of the telecommunications industry are or will increasingly use
VoIP.

Wireless telecommunications carriers are deploying several new technologies to allow faster data transmission and better
Internet access that should make them more competitive with Wire Line Carriers. With faster Internet connections
speeds, wireless carriers are selling music, videos, and other exclusive content that can be downloaded and played on
cellular phones. Wireless equipment companies are developing the next generation of technologies that will allow even
faster data transmission. The replacement of landlines with cellular service should become increasingly common
because advances in wireless systems will provide ever faster data transmission speeds.

EXPLAIN HOW THE ABSENCE OF DATA QUALITY, ACCURACY AND TIMELINESS WILL IMPACT AN
ORGANISATION

Lack of Data Quality and its impact on organizations

Data inputted into computer should at all times be close to accurate and that the quality should be good or high if we
are to trust the data that is stored in these Information Systems. But what are the concerns when data quality in
Information Systems stored is deemed to be of poor quality:
 Affect organizational operations: customers/clients who are presented with wrong information stored on the stock
market performance, can be caused to make inaccurate decisions, leading to loss of income. With data stored
inaccurately, this can lead to poor decision making and lead to the problems of decisions causing short fall or over
expenditure and this can lead to organizational loss or embarrassment.
 Poor Data Quality = missed opportunities: when clients are not provided with accurate data, but provided with estimated
data, then they might miss out on sales being offered by stores or not being able to ascertain when is the best time to make
large purchases or purchase from a particular vendor so as to get savings.
 Poor Data Quality leads to poor problem solving results: imagine that mangers are trying to ascertain how much
materials are going to be needed to repair the road way that was damage by a recently passing hurricane. Just walking and
looking at the surface will not give a true estimate of the damage done, as damage might be done to the under surface
area, or wall areas of the road way. Just not taking the time to use the appropriate strategies to undertake a careful review
of the area, would lead the government to send out tenders for repairs or carry out repair on a surface and only to realise
that the work cannot be completed with the funding approved for spending leading to incomplete projects.

Lack of Data Accuracy and its impact on organizations

Accurate entry of data is important in organization as it is said that Garbage In, Garbage Out (GIGO). Once
inaccurate data is stored then inaccurate decisions are made leading to other problems. With many organizations, efforts
are made to ensure that data stored is always accurate. At times, companies have their customer service staff contacts
clients and customers to verify data (addresses, telephone#, etc.) to ensure that in the event of emergencies these can be
used as contact. Imagine if the school records are outdated and a parent needs to be contacted if incorrect data was
stored? Inaccurate data can lead to social problems – being contacted for something which you have no knowledge about.
Or being sent mail or messages if someone’s address or number was stored as yours!

Lack of Timeliness (Data) and its impact on organizations

When data is not stored in a timely manner or use or updated in a timely manner, several mishaps can result from
this. As it relates to not being stored in a timely manner, data can become corrupted or miss its input for further system
process. Imagine, that as you enter the room, you are allowed 60 seconds to deactivate the alarm system. The correct
code not being entered in 60 seconds, could lead the police and security officials to take action; as such this can lead to
others being alerted.

The government can collect data or an organization from a market research and having not applied the findings of
the data to the current market situation, can lead to missed opportunities or just lead to loss of sales, etc. Such ignorance
to use data within a timely manner can lead to embarrassment or force us not to have taken the right action as would be
required. Imagine being told that the water level is rising in the upper part of a river, and this was communicated across
the radio stations and television stations but persons in the lower section failed to use this data until a few minutes before
the pending threat of large rush of water?

As it relates to competitive advantage, we should always realise that if we fail to use data in the quickest times, our
competitors would gain the edge as they became more proactive in their actions to use the data that we are. Suppose, you
know that the money market is going to suffer a decline from the trends seen and from reports given by experts. You fail
to advise your customers and they end up losing their investments. Had another company have this information, they
could advise their customers and sought permission to make quick and more prudent decisions to move the money so as to
prevent against market lost.

EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF NORMALIZATION

Database Normalisation, sometimes referred to as Canonical Synthesis, is a technique for designing Relational
Database tables to minimize duplication of information and, in so doing, to safeguard the Database against certain types
of logical or structural problems, namely Data Anomalies.

Higher degrees of normalization typically involve more tables and create the need for a larger number of joins, which can
reduce performance. Accordingly, more highly normalized tables are typically used in database applications involving
many isolated transactions (e.g. an automated teller machine), while less normalized tables tend to be used in database
applications that need to map complex relationships between data entities and data attributes (e.g. a reporting application,
or a full-text search application).

Database theory describes a table's degree of normalization in terms of normal forms of successively higher degrees of
strictness. A table in third normal form (3NF), for example, is consequently in second normal form (2NF) as well; but the
reverse is not necessarily the case.

Problems addressed by Normalisation

Many common design problems are a result of violating one of the normal forms. Common problems include:

 Repeating data groups


 Multiple use of the same attribute
 Multiple occurrences of the same fact
 Conflicting facts
 Derived attributes
 Missing information

Ideally, a relational database table should be designed in such a way as to exclude the possibility of Update, Insertion,
and Deletion Anomalies. The Normal Forms of Relational Database theory provides guidelines for deciding whether a
particular design will be vulnerable to such anomalies. It is possible to correct an unnormalised design so as to make it
adhere to the demands of the Normal Forms: this is called normalization. Removal of redundancies of the tables will
lead to several tables, with Referential Integrity restrictions between them.
Normalisation typically involves decomposing an unnormalized table into two or more tables that were they are to
be combined (joined), would convey exactly the same information as the original table.

Referential Integrity in a Relational Database is consistency between coupled tables. Referential Integrity is usually
enforced by the combination of a primary key or candidate key (alternate key) and a foreign key. For Referential Integrity
to hold, any field in a table that is declared a foreign key can contain only values from a parent table's primary key or a
candidate key. For instance, deleting a record that contains a value referred to by a foreign key in another table would
break referential integrity. The Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) enforces referential integrity,
normally either by deleting the foreign key rows as well to maintain integrity, or by returning an error and not performing
the delete. Which method is used would be determined by the referential integrity constraint, as defined in the Data
Dictionary.

Background to Normalisation

Functional dependency is a relationship that exists when one attribute uniquely determines another attribute.

If R is a relation with attributes X and Y, a functional dependency between the attributes is represented as X->Y, which
specifies Y is functionally dependent on X. Here X is a determinant set and Y is a dependent attribute. Each value of X is
associated with precisely one Y value.

Functional dependency in a database serves as a constraint between two sets of attributes. Defining functional dependency
is an important part of relational database design and contributes to aspect normalization.
It is not possible to determine the extent to which a design is normalized without understanding what functional
dependencies apply to the attributes within its tables; understanding this, in turn, requires knowledge of the problem
domain. Primary key: Most DBMSs require a table to be defined as having a single unique key, rather than a number of
possible unique keys. A primary key is a key which the database designer has designated for this purpose.

 Primary key: Most DBMSs require a table to be defined as having a single unique key, rather than a number of possible
unique keys. A primary key is a key which the database designer has designated for this purpose.
 Super key: A super key is an attribute or set of attributes that uniquely identifies rows within a table; in other words, two
distinct rows are always guaranteed to have distinct super keys. {Employee ID, Employee Address, Skill} would be a
super key for the "Employees' Skills" table; {Employee ID, Skill} would also be a super key.
 Candidate key: A candidate key is a minimal super key, that is, a super key for which we can say that no proper subset of
it is also a super key. {Employee Id, Skill} would be a candidate key for the "Employees' Skills" table.
 Non-prime attribute: A non-prime attribute is an attribute that does not occur in any candidate key. Employee Address
would be a non-prime attribute in the "Employees' Skills" table.
NORMAL FORMS

The Normal Forms (abbrev. NF) of Relational Database theory provide criteria for determining a table's degree of
vulnerability to logical inconsistencies and anomalies. The higher the normal form applicable to a table, the less
vulnerable it is to inconsistencies and anomalies. Each table has a "highest normal form" (HNF): by definition, a table
always meets the requirements of its HNF and of all normal forms lower than its HNF; also by definition, a table fails to
meet the requirements of any normal form higher than its HNF.

The Normal Forms are applicable to individual tables; to say that an entire database is in Normal Form n is to say that all
of its tables are in Normal Form n.

First Normal Form

First normal form (1NF or Minimal Form) is a normal form used in database normalization. A relational database table
that adheres to 1NF is one that meets a certain minimum set of criteria. These criteria are basically concerned with
ensuring that the table is a faithful representation of a relation and that it is free of repeating groups.

The concept of a "repeating group" is, however, understood in different ways by different theorists. As a consequence,
there is not universal agreement as to which features would disqualify a table from being in 1NF. Most notably, 1NF as
defined by some authors (for example, Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe, following the precedent established by
Edgar F. Codd) excludes relation-valued attributes (tables within tables); whereas 1NF as defined by other authors (for
example, Chris Date) permits them.

According to Date's definition of 1NF, a table is in 1NF if and only if it is "isomorphic to some relation", which means,
specifically, that it satisfies the following five conditions:

1. There's no top-to-bottom ordering to the rows.


2. There's no left-to-right ordering to the columns.
3. There are no duplicate rows.
4. Every row-and-column intersection contains exactly one value from the applicable domain (and nothing else).
5. All columns are regular [i.e. rows have no hidden components such as row IDs, object IDs, or hidden timestamps].

Violation of any of these conditions would mean that the table is not strictly relational, and therefore that it is not in 1NF.

Examples of tables (or views) that would not meet this definition of 1NF are:

 A table that lacks a unique key. Such a table would be able to accommodate duplicate rows, in violation of condition 3.
 A table whose definition mandates that results be returned in a particular order, so that the row-ordering is an intrinsic
and meaningful aspect of the view. This violates condition 1. The tuples in true relations are not ordered with respect
to each other.
 A table with at least one null able attribute. A nullable attribute would be in violation of condition 4, which requires
every field to contain exactly one value from its column's domain. It should be noted, however, that this aspect of
condition 4 is controversial. It marks an important departure from Codd's original vision of the relational model,
which made explicit provision for nulls.

Date's fourth condition, which expresses "what most people think of as the defining feature of 1NF", is concerned with
repeating groups. The following example illustrates how a database design might incorporate repeating groups, in
violation of 1NF.

Example 1: Domains and values

Suppose novice designer wishes to record the names and telephone numbers of customers. He defines a customer table
which looks like this:

The designer then becomes aware of a requirement to record multiple telephone numbers for some customers. He reasons
that the simplest way of doing this is to allow the "Telephone Number" field in any given record to contain more than one
value:

Assuming, however, that the Telephone Number column is defined on some Telephone Number-like domain (e.g. the
domain of strings 12 characters in length), the representation above is not in 1NF. 1NF (and, for that matter, the RDBMS)
prohibits a field from containing more than one value from its column's domain.

Example 2: Repeating groups across columns

The designer might attempt to get around this restriction by defining multiple Telephone Number columns:
This representation, however, makes use of null able columns, and therefore does not conform to Date's
definition of 1NF. Even if the table is taken that null able columns are allowed, the design is not in keeping with
the spirit of 1NF. Tel. No. 1, Tel. No. 2., and Tel. No. 3. share exactly the same domain and exactly the same
meaning; the splitting of Telephone Number into three headings is artificial and causes logical problems. These
problems include:

 Difficulty in querying the table. Answering such questions as "Which customers have telephone number X?"
and "Which pairs of customers share a telephone number?" is awkward.
 Inability to enforce uniqueness of Customer-to-Telephone Number links through the RDBMS. Customer 789
might mistakenly be given a Tel. No. 2 value that is exactly the same as her Tel. No. 1 value.
 Restriction of the number of telephone numbers per customer to three. If a customer with four telephone
numbers comes along, we are constrained to record only three and leave the fourth unrecorded. This means that
the database design is imposing constraints on the business process, rather than (as should ideally be the case)
vice-versa.

Example 3: Repeating groups within columns

The designer might, alternatively, retain the single Telephone Number column but alter its domain, making it a
string of sufficient length to accommodate multiple telephone numbers:

This design is not consistent with 1NF, and presents several design issues. The Telephone Number heading
becomes semantically woolly, as it can now represent either a telephone number, a list of telephone numbers, or
indeed anything at all. A query such as "Which pairs of customers share a telephone number?" is more difficult
to formulate, given the necessity to cater for lists of telephone numbers as well as individual telephone numbers.
Meaningful constraints on telephone numbers are also very difficult to define in the RDBMS with this design.
A design that complies with 1NF

A design that is unambiguously in 1NF makes use of two tables: a Customer Name table and a Customer
Telephone Number table.

Repeating groups of telephone numbers do not occur in this design. Instead, each Customer-to-Telephone
Number link appears on its own record.

Newcomers to database design sometimes suppose that normalisation proceeds in an iterative fashion, i.e. a
1NF design are first normalized to 2NF, then to 3NF, and so on. This is not an accurate description of how
normalization typically works. A sensibly designed table is likely to be in 3NF on the first attempt; furthermore,
if it is 3NF, it is overwhelmingly likely to have an HNF of 5NF. Achieving the "higher" normal forms (above
3NF) does not usually require an extra expenditure of effort on the part of the designer, because 3NF tables
usually need no modification to meet the requirements of these higher normal forms.

Edgar F. Codd originally defined the first three normal forms (1NF, 2NF, and 3NF). These Normal Forms
have been summarized as requiring that all non-key attributes be dependent on "the key, the whole key and
nothing but the key".

A table is in first normal form (1NF) if and only if it represents a relation. Given that database tables embody
a relation-like form, the defining characteristic of one in First Normal Form is that it does not allow duplicate
rows or nulls. Simply put, a table with a unique key (which, by definition, prevents duplicate rows) and without
any null able columns is in 1NF.

By redefining 1NF to exclude null able columns in 1NF, no level of normalization can ever be achieved unless
all null able columns are completely eliminated from the entire database.

One requirement of a relation is that every table contains exactly one value for each attribute. This is sometimes
expressed as "no repeating groups". While that statement itself is axiomatic, experts disagree about what
qualifies as a "repeating group", in particular whether a value may be a relation value; thus the precise definition
of 1NF is the subject of some controversy. Notwithstanding, this theoretical uncertainty applies to relations, not
tables. Table manifestations are intrinsically free of variable repeating groups because they are structurally
constrained to the same number of columns in all rows.

Put at its simplest; when applying 1NF to a database, every record must be the same length. This means that
each record has the same number of fields, and none of them contain a null value.
Second Normal Form

The criteria for second normal form (2NF) are:

 The table must be in 1NF.


 None of the non-prime attributes of the table are functionally dependent on a part (proper subset) of a candidate key; in
other words, all functional dependencies of non-prime attributes on candidate keys are full functional dependencies. For
example, consider an "Employees' Skills" table whose attributes are Employee ID, Employee Name, and Skill; and
suppose that the combination of Employee ID and Skill uniquely identifies records within the table. Given that Employee
Name depends on only one of those attributes – namely, Employee ID – the table is not in 2NF.
 In simple terms, a table is 2NF if it is in 1NF and all fields are dependent on the whole of the primary key, or a relation is
in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-key attribute is fully dependent on each candidate key of the relation.
 Note that if none of a 1NF table's candidate keys are composite – i.e. every candidate key consists of just one attribute –
then we can say immediately that the table is in 2NF.
 All columns must be a fact about the entire key, and not a subset of the key.

Consider a table describing employees' skills:

EMPLOYEES' SKILLS
Employee Skill Current Work Location
Jones Typing 114 Main Street
Jones Shorthand 114 Main Street
Jones Whittling 114 Main Street
Roberts Light Cleaning 73 Industrial Way
Ellis Alchemy 73 Industrial Way
Ellis Juggling 73 Industrial Way
Harrison Light Cleaning 73 Industrial Way

The table's only candidate key is {Employee, Skill}.

The remaining attribute, Current Work Location, is dependent on only part of the candidate key, namely
Employee. Therefore the table is not in 2NF. Note the redundancy in the way Current Work Locations are
represented: we are told three times that Jones works at 114 Main Street, and twice that Ellis works at 73
Industrial Way. This redundancy makes the table vulnerable to update anomalies: it is, for example, possible to
update Jones' work location on his "Typing" and "Shorthand" records and not update his "Whittling" record.
The resulting data would imply contradictory answers to the question "What is Jones' current work location?"
A 2NF alternative to this design would represent the same information in two tables:

EMPLOYEES EMPLOYEES' SKILLS


Employee Current Work Employee Skill
Location Jones Typing
Jones 114 Main Street Jones Shorthand
Roberts 73 Industrial Jones Whittling
Way Roberts Light Cleaning
Ellis 73 Industrial Ellis Alchemy
Way Ellis Juggling
Harrison 73 Industrial Harrison Light Cleaning
Way

Update anomalies cannot occur in these tables, which are both in 2NF.

Not all 2NF tables are free from update anomalies, however. An example of a 2NF table which suffers from
update anomalies is:

TOURNAMENT WINNERS
Tournament Year Winner Winner Date of Birth
Des Moines Masters 1998 Chip Masterson 14 March 1977
Indiana Invitational 1998 Al Fredrickson 21 July 1975
Cleveland Open 1999 Bob Albertson 28 September 1968
Des Moines Masters 1999 Al Fredrickson 21 July 1975
Indiana Invitational 1999 Chip Masterson 14 March 1977

Even though Winner and Winner Date of Birth are determined by the whole key {Tournament, Year} and not
part of it, particular Winner / Winner Date of Birth combinations are shown redundantly on multiple records.
This problem is addressed by third normal form (3NF).

Third Normal Form

A table for which there are no partial functional dependencies on the primary key is typically, but not always, in
2NF. In addition to the primary key, the table may contain other candidate keys; it is necessary to establish that
no non-prime attributes have part-key dependencies on any of these candidate keys.

Multiple candidate keys occur in the following table:

ELECTRIC TOOTHBRUSH MODELS


Manufacturer Model Model Full Name Manufacturer Country
Forte X-Prime Forte X-Prime Italy
Forte Ultraclean Forte Ultraclean Italy
Dent-o-Fresh EZBrush Dent-o-Fresh EZBrush USA
Kobayashi ST-60 Kobayashi ST-60 Japan
Hoch Toothmaster Hoch Toothmaster Germany
Hoch Contender Hoch Contender Germany

Even if the designer has specified the primary key as {Model Full Name}, the table is not in 2NF.
{Manufacturer, Model} is also a candidate key, and Manufacturer Country is dependent on a proper subset of it:
Manufacturer.
Third Normal Form

The Third Normal Form (3NF) is a normal form used in database normalization. 3NF was originally defined
by E.F. Codd in 1971. Codd's definition states that a table is in 3NF if and only if both of the following
conditions hold:

 The relation R (table) is in second normal form (2NF)


 Every non-prime attribute of R is non-transitively dependent (i.e. directly dependent) on every key of R.

An example of a 2NF table that fails to meet the requirements of 3NF is:

TOURNAMENT WINNERS
Tournament Year Winner Winner Date of Birth
Indiana Invitational 1998 Al Fredrickson 21 July 1975
Cleveland Open 1999 Bob Albertson 28 September 1968
Des Moines Masters 1999 Al Fredrickson 21 July 1975
Indiana Invitational 1999 Chip Masterson 14 March 1977

The only candidate key is {Tournament, Year}.

The breach of 3NF occurs because the non-prime attribute Winner Date of Birth is transitively dependent on
{Tournament, Year} via the non-prime attribute Winner. The fact that Winner Date of Birth is functionally
dependent on Winner makes the table vulnerable to logical inconsistencies, as there is nothing to stop the same
person from being shown with different dates of birth on different records.

In order to express the same facts without violating 3NF, it is necessary to split the table into two:

TOURNAMENT WINNERS PLAYER DATES OF BIRTH


Tournament Year Winner Player Date of Birth
Indiana Chip Masterson 14 March 1977
1998 Al Fredrickson
Invitational Al Fredrickson 21 July 1975
Cleveland Open 1999 Bob Albertson Bob Albertson 28 September 1968
Des Moines
1999 Al Fredrickson
Masters
Indiana
1999 Chip Masterson
Invitational
APPLY NORMALIZATIONRULES TO REMOVE NORMAL FORM VIOLATIONS

Database Design & Normalization

Relational Database Normalization Process

Illogically or inconsistently stored data can cause a number of problems. In a relational database, a logical and efficient
design is just as critical. A poorly designed database may provide erroneous information, may be difficult to use, or may
even fail to work properly.

Most of these problems are the result of two bad design features called: redundant data and anomalies. Redundant data is
unnecessary reoccurring data (repeating groups of data). Anomalies are any occurrence that weakens the integrity of your
data due to irregular or inconsistent storage (delete, insert and update irregularity, that generates the inconsistent data).

Basically, normalisation is the process of efficiently organising data in a database. There are two main objectives of the
normalization process: eliminate redundant data (storing the same data in more than one table) and ensure data
dependencies make sense (only storing related data in a table). Both of these are valuable goals as they reduce the
amount of space a database consumes andensure that data is logically stored.

The process of designing a relational database includes making sure that a table contains only data directly related to
the primary key, that each data field contains only one item of data, and that redundant (duplicated and
unnecessary) data is eliminated. The task of a database designer is to structure the data in a way that eliminates
unnecessary duplication(s) and provides a rapid search path to all necessary information. This process of specifying and
defining tables, keys, columns, and relationships in order to create an efficient database is callednormalization.

Normalisation is part of successful database design.


Without normalisation, database systems can be inaccurate, slow, and inefficient and they might not produce the
data you expect.

We use the normalization process to design efficient and functional databases. By normalizing, we store data where it
logically and uniquely belongs. The normalization process involves a few steps and each step is called a form. Forms
range from the first normal form (1NF) to fifth normal form (5NF). There is also one higher level, called domain key
normal form (DK/NF). However, we will cover the first 3 forms.

When normalising a database you should achieve four goals:

1. Arranging data into logical groups such that each group describes a small part of the whole
2. Minimizing the amount of duplicated data stored in a database
3. Building a database in which you can access and manipulate the data quickly and efficiently without
compromising the integrity of the data storage
4. Organising the data such that, when you modify it, you make the changes in only one place

NOTE: Sometimes database designers refer to these goals in terms such as data integrity,referential integrity, or keyed
data access.
Normalization is a complex process with many specific rules and different intensity levels. In its full definition,
normalization is the process of discarding repeating groups, minimizing redundancy, eliminating composite keys for
partial dependency and separating non-key attributes.

In simple terms, the rules for normalization can be summed up in a single phrase: "Each attribute (column) must be a
fact about the key, the whole key, and nothing but the key." Said another way, each table should describe only one
type of entity (information).

NOTE: ‘Data’ and ‘information’ are terms used interchangeably in everyday speech, but they do mean different
things. Data are row facts. Information is organised and processed data. When you associate the data with other data
items, you can create information.

A properly normalised design allows you to:

 Use storage space efficiently


 Eliminate redundant data
 Reduce or eliminate inconsistent data
 Ease the database maintenance burden

Bad database designs usually include:

 Repetition of information
 Inability to represent certain information
 Loss of information
 Difficulty to maintain information
When you normalise a database, you start from the general and work towards the specific, applying certain tests
(checks) along the way. Some users call this process decomposition. It means decomposing (dividing/breaking down) a
‘big’ un-normalise table (file) into several smaller tables by:

 Eliminating insertion, update and delete anomalies


 Establishing functional dependencies
 Removing transitive dependencies
 Reducing non-key data redundancy
As mention before, relational database theorists have developed a series of guidelines for ensuring that databases are
normalized. They have divided normalization into several rules called ‘normal forms’:

 Un-normalised data = repeating groups, inconsistent data, delete and insert anomalies.
 First Normal Form (1NF) = ELIMINATE REPEATING GROUPS (make a separate table for each set of related attributes,
and give each table a primary key). A table is in 1NF if there are no duplicated rows in the table, if data is atomic (each
cell is single-valued; there are not repeating groups or arrays), if entries in a column are of the same kind (type), and
if each row contains the same columns. The order of the rows is irrelevant. The order of the columns is irrelevant.
However, the requirement that there be no duplicated rows in the table means that the table has a primary key (singe
or composite).
1NF meets the following criteria:

1. Each table contains all atomic data items, no repeating groups, and a designated primary key (no duplicated rows)

SUMMARY: First normal form (1NF) is the "basic" level of normalization and generally corresponds to the definition
of any database, namely:

 It contains two-dimensional tables with rows and columns


 Each column corresponds to a sub-object or an attribute of the object represented by the entire table.
 Each row represents a unique instance of that sub-object or attribute and must be different in some way from any other
row (that is, no duplicate rows are possible).
 All entries in any column must be of the same kind. For example, in the column labeled"Student Names" only student
names are permitted.

Second Normal Form (2NF) = ELIMINATE REDUNDANT DATA (if an attribute depends on only part of multi-
valued key, remove it to a separate table). A table is in 2NF if it met all database requirements for 1NF, and if each
non-key attribute is fully functionally dependent on the whole primary key; data, which does not directly dependent
on table’s primary key must be moved into another table. To test for functional dependency you have to establish whether
primary key determines each non-key attribute. No subset of the key can determine the attribute’s value.
2NF meets the following criteria:

1. Each table contains all atomic data items, no repeating groups, and a designated primary key (no duplicated rows)
2. Each table has all non-primary key attributes fully functionally dependant on the whole primary key
3. SUMMARY: Second normal form (2NF) - At this level of normalization, each column in a table that is not a determiner
of the contents of another column must itself be a function of the other columns in the table. For example, in a table with
three columns containing customer ID, product sold, and price of the product when sold, the price would be a function of
the customer ID (entitled to a discount) and the specific product.

3NF meets the following criteria:

1. Each table contains all-atomic data items, no repeating groups, and a designated primary key
2. Each table has all non-primary key attributes fully functionally dependant on the whole primary key
3. All transitive dependencies are removed from each table
SUMMARY: Third normal form (3NF). At the second normal form, modifications are still possible because a change
to one row in a table may affect data that refers to this information from another table. For example, using the customer
table just cited, removing a row describing a customer purchase (because of a return perhaps) will also remove the fact
that the product has a certain price. In the third normal form, these tables would be divided into two tables so that product
pricing would be tracked separately.
EXPLAIN HOW NORMAL FOR RELATIONS IMPACT DATABASE

Accuracy and Performance

A poorly normalized database and poorly normalized tables can cause problems ranging from excessive disk I/O and
subsequent poor system performance to inaccurate data. An improperly normalized condition can result in extensive data
redundancy, which puts a burden on all programs that modify the data.

From a business perspective, the expense of bad normalization is poorly operating systems and inaccurate, incorrect, or
missing data. Applying normalization techniques to OLTP database design helps create efficient systems that produce
accurate data and reliable information.

DATA INTEGRITY

It is important that column data adhere to a predefined set of rules, as determined by the database administrator or
application developer.

For example, some columns in a database table can have specific rules that constrain the data contained within them.
These constraints can affect how data columns in one table relate to those in another table.

Data Integrity Rules

This section describes the rules that can be applied to table columns to enforce different types of data integrity.

Null rule: A null rule is a rule defined on a single column that allows or disallows inserts or updates of rows containing a
null (the absence of a value) in that column.

Unique column values: A unique value rule defined on a column (or set of columns) allows the insert or update of a row
only if it contains a unique value in that column (or set of columns).

Primary key values: A primary key value rule defined on a key (a column or set of columns) specifies that each row in the
table can be uniquely identified by the values in the key.

Referential integrity rules: A referential integrity rule is a rule defined on a key (a column or set of columns) in one table
that guarantees that the values in that key match the values in a key in a related table (the referenced value).

Referential integrity also includes the rules that dictate what types of data manipulation are allowed on referenced values
and how these actions affect dependent values. The rules associated with referential integrity are:

 Restrict: Disallows the update or deletion of referenced data.


 Set to null: When referenced data is updated or deleted, all associated dependent data is set to NULL.
 Set to default: When referenced data is updated or deleted, all associated dependent data is set to a default value.
 Cascade: When referenced data is updated, all associated dependent data is correspondingly updated. When a referenced
row is deleted, all associated dependent rows are deleted.
 No action: Disallows the update or deletion of referenced data. This differs from RESTRICT in that it is checked at the
end of the statement, or at the end of the transaction if the constraint is deferred. (Oracle Database uses No Action as its
default action.)

Complex integrity checking: A user-defined rule for a column (or set of columns) that allows or disallows inserts, updates,
or deletes of a row based on the value it contains for the column (or set of columns).
The Performance Cost of Integrity Constraints
The advantages of enforcing data integrity rules come with some loss in performance. In general, the cost of including an
integrity constraint is, at most, the same as executing a SQL statement that evaluates the constraint.

Types of Integrity Constraints


You can use integrity constraints to impose restrictions on the input of values in both normal and virtual columns. You
can use the following constraints:
 NOT NULL Integrity Constraints
 UNIQUE Key Integrity Constraints
 PRIMARY KEY Integrity Constraints
 Referential Integrity Constraints
 CHECK Integrity Constraints

NOT NULL Integrity Constraints

By default, all columns in a table allow nulls. Null means the absence of a value. A NOT NULL constraint requires a
column of a table contain no null values.

For certain types of tables and column data types, when adding a column that has both a NOT NULL constraint and a
default value, the database can optimize the operation and reduce the amount of time that the table is locked for DML.
The database stores metadata in the table that describes the default value in the added column. As a result, the database
does not need to populate every row with the default value when you add the column, thereby minimizing the time that
the table is locked.

You can only add a column with a NOT NULL constraint if the table does not contain any rows or if you specify a default
value.

UNIQUE Key Integrity Constraints

A UNIQUE key integrity constraint requires that every value in a column or set of columns (key) be unique—that is, no
two rows of a table have duplicate values in a specified column or set of columns.

This section includes the following topics:

 Unique Keys
 Combining UNIQUE Key and NOT NULL Integrity Constraints

Unique Keys

The columns included in the definition of the UNIQUE key constraint are called the unique key. If the unique key consists
of more than one column, then that group of columns is called a composite unique key.

Unique key is often incorrectly used as a synonym for the term UNIQUE key constraint or UNIQUE index.
However, key refers only to the column or set of columns used in the definition of the integrity constraint.

For example, the UNIQUE key constraint might let you enter an area code and telephone number any number of times,
but the combination of a given area code and given telephone number cannot be duplicated in the table. This eliminates
unintentional duplication of a telephone number.
Combining UNIQUE Key and NOT NULL Integrity Constraints

Columns with both unique keys and NOT NULL integrity constraints are common. This combination forces the user to
enter values in the unique key and also eliminates the possibility that any new row's data will ever conflict with an
existing row's data.

Note:

Because of the search mechanism for UNIQUE constraints on more than one column, you cannot
have identical values in the non-null columns of a partially null composite UNIQUE key constraint.

Table 21-1 Referential Integrity Constraint Terms

Term Definition

Foreign key The column or set of columns included in the definition of the referential integrity
constraint that reference a referenced key.

Referenced key The unique key or primary key of the same or different table that is referenced by a
foreign key.

Dependent or The table that includes the foreign key. Therefore, it is the table that is dependent on the
child table values present in the referenced unique or primary key.

Referenced or The table that is referenced by the child table's foreign key. It is this table's referenced
parent table key that determines whether specific inserts or updates are allowed in the child table.

A referential integrity constraint requires that for each row of a table, the value in the foreign key matches a value in a
parent key.

Foreign keys can be defined as multiple columns. However, a composite foreign key must reference a composite
primary or unique key with the same number of columns and the same datatypes. Because composite primary and
unique keys are limited to 32 columns, a composite foreign key is also limited to 32 columns.

CONSTRUCT A DATABASE

What is a Database Management System (DBMS)?

A DBMS is the term for programs that handle the storage, modification and retrieval of data, as well as controlling who
has access to the information. E.g. Microsoft Access, Lotus Approach, FileMaker Pro and Corel Paradox.

Functions of a DBMS:

 Data storage, retrieval and updates. The DBMS must allow its users to store, retrieve and update data.
 Backup and recovery. The DBMS should allow you to recover the most recent contents of the database in the event of
system failure.
 Security. The DBMS must handle password allocation and checking, and allow access to the data that a user is authorized
to use.
 Managing facilities for sharing a database. The DBMS has to ensure that no two users can access the same record at the
time in order to modify it.
What is a Database?

A database is a part of a DBMS that is used for organizing and storing data in a useful and efficient manner on the
computer.

Terms Associated with a Database:

Table (File or relation): Collection of records that belong together

Field (Column or attribute): the smallest piece of data that can be stored.

Record (row or tuple): a row of data in a table that contains information about a particular individual item or entity.

Entity: anything or person that has characteristics.

e.g. A ball may be big, red and soft; A car has a make , model, colour and number of doors; A student has a
Christian name, surname, gender and date of birth. Ball, Car and student are examples of an entity.

Attribute: Characteristic of an entity.

e.g. Make, sale price, colour are all examples of attributes.

Primary key: A field whose values are unique so can be used be used to access each record individually.

Candidate key: A field that is considered a possibility for becoming the primary key. However, only one field must be
chosen as the primary key. Candidate keys are entirely optional, so a table may contain none, one, or several of them.

Alternate key: Any candidate field that was not used as the primary key.

Foreign key: a field in one table, but it is a primary key in another table. (Appears in a table where it doesn’t really
belong but it enables two tables to be linked.)

Composite key: a primary key that is made up of two or more fields.


Advantages and disadvantages of a computerized database

Advantages Disadvantages

Can save enormous amounts of paper as well as filing The computer(s) and peripherals required can cost a
space lot

Data can easily be entered by keyboard or scanners If the computer, or computer network, is not working,
then the database cannot be used

Speed- data can be found, calculated and sorted very Security is very important as some people may
quickly attempt to get access to confidential information.
Sometimes this may involve illegally hacking into the
program or data

Data can easily be changed and updated The database file can become corrupted or infected by
a computer virus. This can lead to file not working
properly. In some cases, the database may not work at
all. Making a back-up copy of the database is therefore
essential

Data needs to be entered only once, yet can be There is often a limit to the size of a database file
represented in many different ways. A whole range of
different queries and reports can be produced

Data can be checked on entry Some databases can be complicated to use

Passwords can be set to allow access only to those Data stored about people may be incorrect
with permission to use the database

The data structure of a database can be changed, with Some databases require much time to be spent on
new fields added, even after the database has been staff training, which can be costly
created. A paper-based system would have to be
restarted from scratch

Data can be imported and exported to other programs

A database file can be automatically linked to others

Databases can be shared with other users if the


computer is a part of a local or wide area network. This
includes the internet.
SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

What is SQL?

 SQL stands for Structured Query Language


 SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
 SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard

What Can SQL do?

 SQL can execute queries against a database


 SQL can retrieve data from a database
 SQL can insert records in a database
 SQL can update records in a database
 SQL can delete records from a database
 SQL can create new databases
 SQL can create new tables in a database
 SQL can create stored procedures in a database
 SQL can create views in a database
 SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

SQL Statement Syntax

AND / OR SELECT column_name(s)


FROM table_name
WHERE condition
AND|OR condition

ALTER TABLE ALTER TABLE table_name


ADD column_name datatype

or

ALTER TABLE table_name


DROP COLUMN column_name

AS (alias) SELECT column_name AS column_alias


FROM table_name

or

SELECT column_name
FROM table_name AS table_alias

BETWEEN SELECT column_name(s)


FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
CREATE DATABASE CREATE DATABASE database_name

CREATE TABLE CREATE TABLE table_name


(
column_name1 data_type,
column_name2 data_type,
column_name3 data_type,
...
)

CREATE INDEX CREATE INDEX index_name


ON table_name (column_name)

or

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name


ON table_name (column_name)

CREATE VIEW CREATE VIEW view_name AS


SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition

DELETE DELETE FROM table_name


WHERE some_column=some_value

or

DELETE FROM table_name


(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)

DELETE * FROM table_name


(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)

DROP DATABASE DROP DATABASE database_name

DROP INDEX DROP INDEX table_name.index_name (SQL Server)


DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name (MS Access)
DROP INDEX index_name (DB2/Oracle)
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX index_name (MySQL)

DROP TABLE DROP TABLE table_name

EXISTS IF EXISTS (SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE id = ?)


BEGIN
--do what needs to be done if exists
END
ELSE
BEGIN
--do what needs to be done if not
END

GROUP BY SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)


FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name

HAVING SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)


FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value

IN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
IN (value1,value2,..)

INSERT INTO INSERT INTO table_name


VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)

or

INSERT INTO table_name


(column1, column2, column3,...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)

INNER JOIN SELECT column_name(s)


FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name

LEFT JOIN SELECT column_name(s)


FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name

RIGHT JOIN SELECT column_name(s)


FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name

FULL JOIN SELECT column_name(s)


FROM table_name1
FULL JOIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name

LIKE SELECT column_name(s)


FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern

ORDER BY SELECT column_name(s)


FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC]

SELECT SELECT column_name(s)


FROM table_name

SELECT * SELECT *
FROM table_name

SELECT DISTINCT SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)


FROM table_name

SELECT INTO SELECT *


INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_table_name
or

SELECT column_name(s)
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_table_name

SELECT TOP SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)


FROM table_name

TRUNCATE TABLE TRUNCATE TABLE table_name

UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1


UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2

UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1


UNION ALL
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2

UPDATE UPDATE table_name


SET column1=value, column2=value,...
WHERE some_column=some_value

WHERE SELECT column_name(s)


FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
MODULE 2

EXPLAIN REASONS FOR THE USE OF IT TOOLS

Benefits (Reason for the use) of Information Technology


 Enhance speed – eg. Information systems can perform calculations or process paperwork much faster than people.
 Increase accuracy – eg. When calculation is done it can give one a more accurate figure than human.
 It is more reliable- can get the same result using the same input all the time.
 It is more efficient- books compare to hard drive
 It is more flexible
 Enhance presentation of information
 Assist in a more objective decision making.
 It enable storage and retrieval of large volumes of data
 Allow for multitasking.
 Information systems can help companies learn more about the purchase patterns and preferences of their customers.
 Information systems provide new efficiencies through services such as automated teller machines (ATMs), telephone
systems, or computer-controlled airplanes and air terminals.
 Information systems have made possible new medical advances in surgery, radiology and patient monitoring
 Better communication - The internet distributes information instantly to millions of people across the world.

Negative (Problems) Impact of Information System


 By automating activities that were previously performed by people, information systems may eliminate jobs.
 Information systems may allow organizations to collect personal details about people that violate their privacy.
 Information systems are used in so many aspects of everyday life that systems outages can cause shutdown of businesses
or transportation services, paralyzing communities.
 Heavy users of information systems may suffer repetitive stress injury, techno stress, and other health problems.
 The internet can be used to distribute illegal copies of software, books, articles, and other intellectual property.
 Can be expensive to set information system.
 Sometimes there are issue with training personnel to use system
 Information system rapidly changing therefore increase therefore there is problems with obsolescence.
 There might be resistance to changes.

EXPLAIN THE FUNCTIONS AND USE OF THE MAJOR TYPES OF SOFTWARE TOOLS

Productivity tools

 Word processing – produce documents such as letters, memos, newsletter and reports

 Spreadsheet – process numerical data and formulae to produce tabulated information or graphs.

 Desktop publishing – combine text and graphics such as photographs and line drawings to create visually appealing, high
quality pages for books, magazines etc. Example of DTP include PageMker, Ms. Publisher, Pageplus
 Presentation packages and DBMS – prepare great looking visual such as slide show for presentation, especially to large
audience.

 Financial or accounting packages – track income and expenses and produce financial reports and statements. Examples of
this type of software include ACPAC and Quicken

 Software development tools

 Statistical tools – perform statistical function of variance, regression, correlation and distribution. Examples of this type of
software include SPSS, RATS

Spreadsheet

A spreadsheet is a program that is designed to create tables and financial schedules by allowing you to enter data into rows and
columns arranged as a grid.

Function

Spreadsheets can do more than perform simple arithmetic calculations. A spreadsheet can translate complicated data and
reports into a combination of numbers and graphs. Modern versions include an extensive list of financial calculators, such
as interest calculations, loan amortization, even calculations for Treasury bill rates. Statistical functions from common
calculations (Chi Square, Pearson Coefficient of Correlation and Standard Deviation) to abstruse functions like the
Hypergeometric Distribution and the Poisson distribution return needed values with no pain. There are at least 100 of
these formulas included in contemporary spreadsheets.

Features

Spreadsheets can function as basic databases. By inserting data and number in different columns, the results can be sorted,
searched or filtered. What-if analysis can run using data from cells in a spreadsheet. There are mathematical and
trigonometric functions as well. A user can create a simplified mailing list in a spreadsheet by entering names and
addresses in individual columns. There are even word processing features offering control over fonts, bold or italic
typeface, size, color and page formatting.

What Are the Pros of Spreadsheets?

1. It makes it easy to create instant calculations.


Using equations and coding, you can set cells to calculate data for you in a number of ways. This makes it a lot easier to
create totals and tallies that can be used to create metrics, monitor them, or determine other data points that are necessary.
2. They are easy to change.
To create new data, all you need to do is add, delete, or change the data in the cells that are being measured. This allows
spreadsheets to quickly adapt to changes that may be occurring within your business or home.
3. It keeps data organized efficiently.
You can keep a large amount of data organized in an orderly way when a spreadsheet is being used. Visual representations
can also be included to help understand the data better, including graphs and charts, so that more time can be spent using
the data instead of trying to figure it out.
4. Most spreadsheets offer third-party support.
Most spreadsheet files will work with other apps and software options. Microsoft Excel files, for example, can be read in
Open Office. You can save an Open Office spreadsheet in an Excel format so it can be read in MS Excel.
5. There are integration options.
Many spreadsheet programs will work with other productivity apps and programs to create dynamic presentations or
reports. In Office 365, Excel can work with Word and PowerPoint so that spreadsheets can be used in other data formats
for more purposes than data organization and storage.
6. You can create multiple spreadsheets within one file.
If you wanted to keep track of sales receipts, for example, you could create a running record in a spreadsheet for an entire
month worth of transactions. You could then put all 12 months of the year into one overall spreadsheet file, letting you tab
through individual monthly spreadsheets. This makes it a lot easier to access all of the data that may be needed.

What Are the Cons of Spreadsheets?

1. It takes time to learn the formulas.


Many of the more complicated formulas that a spreadsheet might use can save time from a long-term perspective. It also
takes time to learn these formulas and to properly input them into each cell. If immediate results are needed and a user
doesn’t know all of the functions of the spreadsheet, then it may not be a useful tool.
2. Calculation errors may not be recognized by the app or software.
Some of the automatic calculation functions that are provided in modern spreadsheet apps and software have no way of
checking for human errors. You must manually check each equation in each cell to make sure it has been entered
correctly. Assuming the automatic functions are correct can create serious data integrity issues.
3. It takes time to enter data into each cell.
If you must manually enter data into a spreadsheet, then the process can become very time consuming. It may also lead to
user boredom, which further inhibits the amount of productivity of the individual inputting the data. Boredom also tends
to lead to inattentiveness, which can add to the risk of an error in the formulas or data occurring.
4. Some spreadsheet files may be incompatible.
If you save an Open Office spreadsheet file, it may not be read by Excel or another app or program. There are some
spreadsheets which are proprietary in their file extensions and can only be read by the program or app that created them.
This can make it difficult for some users to receive the information they need.
5. Spreadsheet programs can sometimes be costly.
If you’re using Open Office for spreadsheets, then there is no cost. That could be considered an advantage. Other apps and
programs, however, may be a fairly high charge. Excel is part of the Office 365 suite of products, which means users must
pay a monthly subscription fee of $6.99-$14.95 depending on the needs that they have.
What Are the Main Parts of a Spreadsheet?
A spreadsheet is a grid, like a paper ledger, made up of columns and rows. But unlike a paper ledger, spreadsheets are on
the computer and have more components and functions.

Row

1. The horizontal strips of the spreadsheet are called rows. They are identified by number at the
far left hand side of the spreadsheet. This is called the row header.

Columns

2. The vertical strips of the spreadsheet are columns. They are identified by letters across the top
of the spreadsheet. This is called the column header.

Cell

3. The point where the rows and columns intersect is called a cell. To activate a cell, simply click
on it.

Formula Bar

4. Data or formulas can be entered directly into the active cell or entered into the formula
bar. If you click on a cell that already has data in it, the formula used will show in this bar.

Name Box

5. The name box is located at the upper left corner before the formula bar and lists the
location of the active cell you are working on.

Software development tool

A programming tool or software development tool is a program or application that software developers use to create,
debug, maintain, or otherwise support other programs and applications. The term usually refers to relatively simple
programs that can be combined together to accomplish a task, much as one might use multiple hand tools to fix a physical
object.
Categories

Software development tools can be roughly divided into the following categories:

 performance analysis tools


 debugging tools
 static analysis and formal verification tools
 correctness checking tools
 memory usage tools
 application build tools
 integrated development environment

Word processor and Desk Top Publishing

Both packages assist you in creating documents; but end result and the way you get there can be quite different. WP is
designed for textual document processing i.e you first enter the text, then added images, border and shading around the
text. In DTP you first task is to determine the layout followed by the text and graphics. The page layout capabilities,
combined with its precision make the DTP ideal for professionally printed documents such as books and magazines.

Spreadsheet and DBMS

Both packages allow you to work with data in rows and columns. The SS uses worksheets and the DBMS uses tables,
which consist also of rows and columns. Both packages are also used for storing and analyzing data. SS give greater
flexibility in building formulae, performing what if analysis, generating charts and graphs, and in the manipulation of
rows and columns of data. DBMS are ideal for data entry, building queries, generating formatted reports and developing
information systems.

Word processor

This package allows the user to produce documents of various types. It can produce reports, letters, essays, and so on.
Modern word processors have all the features necessary to produce newspapers and magazines. Typical features of a word
processor are:

• Type and correct text, delete text, move text.

• Produce various layouts, set margins, organise into columns, and so on.

• Set fonts and special effects, italic, bold, underline.

• Insert pictures and diagrams.

• Create indexes and table of contents.

• Find and replace text.

• Check spelling and grammar.

• Automatically produce personalised letters (mail merge).

• Charts of various types.


Advantages of usingword processing

1. Much more professional results can be obtained by everyone and not just those who are experienced typists, because typing
mistakes are easily altered on the screen before printing out.

2. Fewer resources are used, provided that material is carefully proofread on the screen before finally printing. Since we can
edit and correct mistakes before printing, this reduces the amount of paper used. Most large companies now send all their
internal letters and memos using electronic mail. The widespread use of electronic mail will help to conserve valuable
resources.

3. More people are able to produce their own documents rather than pass them to someone else to type. This can save both
time and money.

4. More word processors are becoming like simple desktop publishing packages. These extra facilities enable people to produce
notices, posters, tickets, etc. with very little training.

What can you do with word processing software?

Word-processing software is software that is able to store, edit and manipulate text. All word-processing software allows
you to enter text then edit and rearrange it before storing it and printing it out. Some word processor are 'WYSIWYG' ('what
you see is what you get'). This means that you are able to see on the screen exactly what the page will look like when it is
printed out.

Most word processors allow you to change the fonts (type styles and sizes).

Spell checkers

Nearly all word processors have a dictionary against which the words in a document canj compared to check their spelling.
Most allow you to add words to the dictionary which is useful if you use special terms in subjects such as law or medicine. It is
important to note that spell checking a document will not remove all the errors. For instance, if you intended to type 'the' and
typed 'he' instead, then the spell checker will not detect this since 'he' as a word is spelt correctly. After using a spell checker it
is still necessary to of read a document.

Thesaurus

A thesaurus is useful for creative writing (perhaps for English GCSE coursework). It allows you to highlight a word in a
document and the computer lists words with similar meanings (called synonyms)

Mail merge

Merging involves combining a list of say, names and addresses, with a typed letter, that a series of similar letters is
produced, each addressed to a different person. The list is either created using the word processor or by importing data
from a database of names and addresses. The letter is typed, using the wordprocessor, with blanks where the data the list is
to be inserted.

Indexing

It allows you to highlight words that you would like to use in an index. The wordprocessor keeps a record of the words, and
creates an index when instructed to.
Macros

Macros allow you automatically to produce a sequence of keystrokes so that, for example, you can just press one key or a
combination of keys and have your name and address printed at the top of the page. You can also insert dates just by
pressing a couple of keys. Macros are very useful for things that need to be done repetitively.

Grammar checkers

Some of the more sophisticated word processors have a feature called a grammar checker. This is useful if your English is
not so good. If the word processor you use does not have this facility, then you can buy a separate grammar checking
package to use with it. Figure 28.5 shows a grammar checker being used. Because of the complexities of the English
language, grammar checkers do have their limitations. As yet they find only a few faults and do tend to provide an incorrect
analysis of the grammar of writing. You need to exercise care when using them.

Print preview - using the print preview you can see the whole page (as a smaller version) before you print it out. This can
save time and paper.

Templates and wizards - here the framework of the document (fonts, sizes, headings, etc.) is laid out for you. You do not
need to worry about the layout. All you have to do is supply the text.

Save in different file formats - this means you can transfer your wordprocessed material to almost any other package.

Word-count - this counts the number of words in a document or part of a document. This is useful if you have to write
essays or course work of a certain number of words.

On-line help - you can search for help by entering a keyword or by selecting a topic from a list. Good on-line help is
particularly important as a lot of software is supplied without manuals.

Drawing tools - these tools allow you to produce arrows, shapes, boxes, etc. without having to use a special graphics
package.

Zooming in and out - particularly useful if you have difficulty seeing small text on the screen.

Tables - rather than use a spreadsheet you can use the tables function in the wordprocessor. If there are numbers in the tables
you can even perform simple calculations on them.

Ability to import clip art/other files - documents can be made much more attractive by importing pictures (clip art) or
photographs from pre-stored files.

The word processor was one of the first applications to appear on early PCs, displaying words as they were tapped out
on the keyboard. Today's word processors are far more advanced and stylish, but the underlying principle remains the
same: These applications are used to input and output large amounts of text, with some processing and editing along the
way, if required.

Key Purposes

The central purpose of a word processor, as the name suggests, is to process words. Text is typically entered via a
keyboard or dictation program, and the word processor handles formatting and pagination. Most word processors offer
tools for changing the font size and style, for creating headings and sub-headings, for adjusting the text alignment and for
controlling how the document appears on screen and on the printed page. You will usually find a word count tool included
totally the number of words, characters and other variables entered into the program.
Other Features

More advanced word processors include additional features, such as the ability to insert images into a document. Tables
and columns can be used in some programs to take more control over the layout of the text on the page. Support for
headers, footers, document bookmarks, a table of contents and footnotes may also be available. Many word processors
include a stylesheet feature, enabling you to standardize text formatting across a lengthy document.

Examples of Use

Word processors can be used to produce any document containing text and (in most programs) a selection of images.
They are suitable for writing novels, reports, user manuals, letters and to-do lists. They are less suitable for documents
requiring more advanced layouts or interactive elements, and while some word processors include an HTML export
option they are not ideal for producing Web pages to any advanced standard.

Word Processor Programs

WordPad is a basic word processor included with Microsoft Windows, while the industry standard Microsoft Word is
available as part of the Microsoft Office Suite. Alternative freeware office suites include LibreOffice and Apache
OpenOffice. A number of online browser-based word processors are available as well, including Google Document, the
word processor offered as part of Google Drive. Desktop publishing (DTP) applications offer more flexibility in terms of
layouts, and are more suitable for working with newsletters, magazines, flyers, posters and other similar documents
beyond the reach of the standard word processor.

Presentation software is a category of application program used to create sequences of words and pictures that tell a
story or help support a speech or public presentation of information. Presentation software can be divided into business
presentation software and more general multimedia authoring tools, with some products having characteristics of both.
Business presentation software emphasizes ease- and quickness-of-learning and use. Multimedia authoring software
enables you to create a more sophisticated presentation that includes audio and video sequences. Business presentation
software usually enables you to include images and sometimes audio and video developed with other tools.

Some very popular presentation software, such as Microsoft's PowerPoint and Lotus's Freelance Graphics, are sold stand-
alone or can come as part of office-oriented suites or packages of software.

Storing and Organizing Data

Spreadsheets hold any form of numbers. For a range of cells, you define how many decimal points the numbers will have
and the kinds of numbers they are, such as date, time, currency, percentages and phone numbers. For example, within an
employee expense claim spreadsheet, you may have a row for each employee in which the cells include the employee's
name, employee number, phone number, the date of the expense claim and the dollar amount. Spreadsheets provide the
ability to sort this data, so you can order the expense claim spreadsheet by name, by employee number or perhaps by
dollar amount. Another option is to filter the data to remove certain rows or columns.

Calculations

You can set up spreadsheets to automatically do any calculations you want. It doesn't matter what numbers are in the
spreadsheet as you specify the range of cells on which to perform the calculation. Spreadsheet users usually place the
result of the calculation at the end of the row or column being worked on. You can choose from a ready-made range of
formulas provided in your spreadsheet or write your own from scratch. As well as simple sums and averages, it's possible
to develop extremely complex, layered formulas in which the results of one calculation are put into the next calculation.
Presenting Data

While spreadsheets are an essential tool for all areas of data recording and business planning, the dense rows and columns
of numbers can look intimidating and might only be understandable by those who developed the spreadsheet.
Spreadsheets provide the ability to view the data in a variety of graphical formats. Bar graphs highlight the ups and downs
of data over time and are useful for comparing different elements at a given time; pie charts clearly depict the varied
proportions of different elements. Other graphical representations of data often include line and scatter charts as well as
surface and area graphs.

Gaining Insight
Once you have your data set stored within a spreadsheet program and optionally displayed within a chart, you can use it to
gain insight into your business operation. Charts are commonly used within internal management meetings, as a
visualized data set is often easier to understand than a table full of numbers. You can use spreadsheets to give you very
specific data sets, filtering the information you are most interested in. For example, you can see how your income and
expenditure varies throughout the year, or focus on the budgets for particular parts of the business. Spreadsheets allow a
high level of control over the data you present, so are often used in presentations and reports.

Planning
The insights gained from a spreadsheet can form the basis of future planning processes within your business. Any
effective decision-making activity is informed by a thorough grasp of how a business has performed in the recent past.
Spreadsheet tables and charts often appear within business plans for this reason. Within a spreadsheet, you can also carry
out tests to estimate the impact of particular decisions on your business, using the existing data together with variable data
items representing your potential choices.

Most modern applications utilize database management systems (DBMS) to create, store, and manage business data.
The DBMS software enables end users or application programmers to share data. It provides a systematic method of
creating, updating, retrieving and storing information in a database. DBMSs also are generally responsible for data
integrity, data access control, and automated rollback, restart and recovery.

When using a DBMS though, database administration is required to ensure the efficient and proper care of the data in the
database. The most popular DBMS products include Oracle, IBM DB2, Microsoft SQL Server, and Sybase Adaptive
Server. Each is a complete, full-function DBMS. An organization can install and use the DBMS as delivered, but the
functionality needed to support large-scale database development is not provided adequately by the DBMS alone.

Recovery tools simplify the process of creating backups and recovering from those backup copies. Most DBMS products
provide basic backup and recovery utilities, but recovery tools help by automating complex processes, simulating
recovery, and implementing disaster recovery procedures. Additionally, some recovery tools can examine database logs to
perform online SQL-based recoveries.

Data Movement Tools

Once data is populated in a database it is not likely to remain dormant, just sitting there. Most organizations need to move
data from platform to platform, synchronize data between different DBMSs, and archive old or infrequently referenced
data.

Data synchronization tools are used to keep data accurate and up-to-date across multiple servers. For example, a
production DB2 database might be used as the source for synchronizing data to a target Oracle data warehouse. Once the
rules for extraction, transformation, and loading are set up, the tool can keep the data synchronized across the different
DBMSs and platforms.

Data archiving is another type of data movement that is conducted for entirely different reasons. Over time, databases
tend to grow in size. Depending on the business requirements, older data may not be accessed as frequently as newer data
– if it is accessed at all anymore. To improve efficiency, infrequently accessed data can be archived. Modern data archival
tools are active. This means they can be set up with rules to trigger the archival process, as well as to automatically
retrieve the data if it is accessed again by a query.
Database Security and Integrity

The security and integrity of data in production databases is also a prime concern that can be addressed with data
management tools. Knowing what, exactly, is being done to data and who is doing it is next to impossible without a tool.
Implementing auditing and database usage reporting software can help to track down changes made to database privileges,
changes to database structures, changes to data, and access to data. Database log analysis tools are useful for security as
well because they can be used to examine log entries and format them in a readable fashion to show who did what when to
specific pieces of data.

Modern database auditing though requires much more than simple log analysis. Tools are available that can inspect all
database operations and produce reports for assuring compliance with governmental and industry regulations such as
HIPAA, Sarbanes Oxley, and PCI DSS.

Another consideration for database security is the ability to monitor and report on user behavior. Studies show that
internal users are a bigger threat to security than external hackers. Database security tools that can maintain a baseline of
standard user behavior and report on anomalies are quite useful for exposing potential internal threats.

Of course, database security is a much deeper topic and tools can help to thwart SQL injection attacks and expose and
patch potential DBMS vulnerabilities.

Another useful category of data management tool provides data profiling capabilities. Profiling your data is a
methodology for gaining insight into your business data and refining your processes for improving data quality. A data
profiling tool is used to discover structure, data, and relationship anomalies in your data. Profiling techniques help you to
uncover instances of improper data where the data does not match the metadata definition, patterns do not match, values
are inaccurate, and occurrences of redundant data. Armed with such information a concerted clean-up effort can be
exacted on the data.

USE IT TOOLS TO SOLVE REAL-LIFE PROBLEMS

 It is unclear where to place computers to make sure they are used most efficiently There is very little research on the
most appropriate placement of computers in schools, or in the community, used to achieve various learning objectives.
 Multi-channel learning is a useful concept The emerging practice of ‘multi-channel learning’, which focuses on
enriching the educational experience by engaging all resources that are available to help effect incremental change by
coordinating the various ways to connect learners with information, knowledge, and stimulation, and to mediate those
interactions, provides valuable insight into how blended learning approaches can be delivered and tailored in areas of
great resource scarcity.
 Satellite is much hyped, but under-studied While satellite broadcasting of electronic educational resources is thought to
hold much promise, there are few case studies of successful implementation of satellite broadcasting to small LDCs.
 New Internet technologies hold promise, but are not yet operational Emerging Internet technologies, especially recent
and emerging wireless protocols (including 802.11, and shortly WiMax), are thought to hold much promise for providing
connectivity to remoter areas, but projects utilizing such technologies are for the most part in pilot or planning stages, and
face many regulatory hurdles.
 Mobile Internet centres (vans, etc.) are being deployed as a way to reach rural areas A number of educational
initiatives utilizing mobile Internet centres have been piloted in the past decade, but little cost and impact data has
emerged from such projects.
 Community telecentres are a hot topic, but successful, replicable models have not yet emerged Community
telecentres (sometimes based in schools) have be touted as important tools to provide access to learners (including
teachers engaged in personal enrichment and professional development opportunities) to ICTs outside of formal school
settings.
 The use of handheld devices is just now receiving serious widespread attention Little research has been done on uses
of handheld devices (including personal digital assistants and mobile phones) in education.
ComboFix
ComboFix : ComboFix also looks for and removes most rootkits and trojans. In order to use this tool, you must
completely disable all antivirus solutions (you should completely remove AVG). Caution: If ComboFix is not used
properly, it can could wreak havoc on the machine you're trying to fix.

ProduKey
ProduKey will help you get product keys from installed applications so that when you need to migrate to a new machine,
you can continue using those costly licenses. ProduKey will recover keys from more than 1,000 software titles, including
Microsoft Office, Adobe, and Symantec. When you use this tool, you will have both the product ID and the product key;
the ID is important because it will tell you which version of the software is installed.

Hiren's BootCD
Hiren's BootCD is a one-stop-shop Linux boot disk that can help you pull off a number of small miracles. Some of the
tools included are: Antivir, ClamWin, ComboFix, Clonedisk, Image for Windows, BIOS Cracker, 7-Zip, Bulk Rename,
Mini Windows XP, CCleaner, Notepad++, and much more. This single, bootable disk could easily be the only tool you
need.

Microsoft Security Essentials


Microsoft Security Essentials is one of the better free antivirus tools available. Its tagline—"The anti-annoying, anti-
expensive, anti-virus program"—is true. When the firm I work with was looking for a new free solution, we tested
Microsoft Security Essentials against AVG Free and Avast Free and found Microsoft Security Essentials to be superior,
less intrusive, and less resource intensive.

WinDirStat
WinDirStat is the program you need to have when you must know what is taking up the space on a hard drive. When C
drives begin to fill up, performance degrades rapidly. It's a must to have a tool to help you discern what is gobbling up the
precious space on a machine, and WinDirStat is the foremost app for getting this information quickly.

CCleaner
CCleaner gets rid of temporary files and Windows Registry problems faster than any other tool. When a machine is
having problems, this is almost always the tool I use first. CCleaner also helps to ensure privacy by getting rid of traces
left behind (such as cookies) by web browsers.

Defraggler
Defraggler blows away the built-in defragmenting application in all Windows operating systems; it's faster, more reliable,
and more flexible than the built-in tools. With Defraggler, you can defrag a single file or an entire drive. Defraggler
supports NTFS and FAT32 systems.

7-Zip

7-Zip is the best file archiver/compression tool (outside of Linux command line tools). It's open source and works on
multiple platforms. Once installed, you will find 7-Zip has Explorer support and a simple to use GUI tool that any level of
user can manage.

SyncBack
SyncBack is a simple to use and reliable backup utility. No, you won't be recovering from bare metal, but you can save
your precious data. SyncBack can synchronize data to the same drive, a different drive or medium (CDRW,
CompactFlash, etc.), an FTP server, a network, or a zip archive.
FileZilla
FileZilla reminds you that the cloud has not made FTP useless. There are plenty of times and reasons why you would need
FTP, so why not use one of the best and most cost effective FTP clients? Also, if you need an easy to use FTP server to
slap up on your Windows machines, FileZilla has a handy FTP server.

Foxit PDF Reader


Once you use Foxit PDF Reader, it will remind you how bulky and bloated Adobe Reader has become. Adobe is the
industry standard, but that shouldn't prevent anyone from switching to Foxit. Unless you need to create PDF documents,
you don't need all the heft of Adobe. So, uninstall Reader and give Foxit a try.

JUSTIFY THE USE OF IT TOOLS TO SOLVE REAL-LIFE PROBLEMS

The Process of Selecting an IT Solution

The process of selecting an IT solution for your business started when you developed your business case. It was at that
stage that you identified the issues that you want to be addressed, the business objectives you want to achieve and the
budget you anticipate having to spend. After identifying your business requirements, this next stage involves investigation
and review of the product options available.

Step One: Market Scan

The first step involves undertaking a market scan – understanding and identifying the products and vendors in the market
that are relevant to your search. This involves:

Researching the Internet

Talking to your business peers

Researching relevant trade magazines

This is also a useful education process for you. While it is initially a very steep learning curve, it helps builds your knowledge,
which will better equip you to talk to vendors down the track.

Step Two: Identify Selection Criteria


In selecting an IT solution you must to be clear about what you need and the parameters that will shape your decision.
Suggestions for the scope of criteria to consider are listed overleaf.

Criteria relevant to the solution:

The functional scope and features of the solution and the extent to which these match your Business Requirements

The implementation models on offer, for example your preference for an onsite client server or cloud implementation of your
software (see below)

The type of licensing model applied by the vendor, and if ongoing access to the product is dependent on payment of an annual
license fee

Cost relative to the budget identified in the Business Case

Overall value for money balancing functionality, cost, ongoing support and license fees
Assurance that there are no 'hidden costs'

Training and support options, for example access to help desk and support tools and the training services available, including
access to online training options

Ongoing product development and enhancement - how often and how are these passed on to the customer

The ability of the solution to integrate with other systems and infrastructure

Supporting infrastructure requirements such as servers, PCs etc. and this impacts your intended investment

User friendliness

Ability to customise the solution

The extent to which the product supports a paperless solution

Criteria relevant to the vendor:

The size and longevity of the vendor company

Has the product been developed in Australia and does it incorporate specific compliance or regulatory features required by the
business

Is the vendor Australian based and/or does it have a distribution network in Australia

The reputation of the vendor

The extent to which the vendor is prepared to offer reference sites and/or the opportunity for you to talk to their other
customers to gauge their satisfaction with the product or service you are interested in purchasing

Step Three: Develop an Evaluation Framework


Developing a simple evaluation framework will help you assess the products you identify and compare them with each
other. The simplest approach is a two-stage process, which evaluates each product individually followed by a comparative
analysis based on the same criteria.

Stage One involves evaluating a solution against the selection criteria.


Stage Two involves a comparative analysis of solutions against the same evaluation criteria.

Step Four: Shortlist the Top Contenders

Using the criteria and evaluation framework you have developed, shortlist the solutions that achieve the highest scores.
These are the ones that best meet your requirements according to your evaluation criteria.

Step Five: Test and Trial the Solutions of Most Interest

Step Five can be done in parallel with Steps Three and Four and might be done a second time when you are close to
making your decision. It involves testing and trailing the products you shortlist for closer consideration. This enables you
to:

test that the solution fully meets your business requirements


identify gaps in functionality and/or additional features you can leverage

assess how well the solution fits with your business processes (and where these may need to change)

identify the areas you may need to customise to your business

Step Six: Request Reference Sites and Referees from the Vendor

Before you make your final decision, it is advisable to ask vendors for reference sites where they have implemented a
similar solution for a customer. Ideally this is a business that is in the same broader industry, is similar to yours or has
experienced similar issues. When following up reference sites it is useful to check their experience with (i) the product,
and (ii) the vendor.

Solution Deployment Options


These days there is much greater variety in terms of how IT solutions can be deployed. Solutions can be deployed:
(i)on a server controlled by the business and located on their premises;
(ii)on a server that is hosted by a third party; or
(iii)as a cloud based service. In this instance the business effectively ‘rents’ the solution, which is hosted and maintained by a
third party provider.

Cloud based solutions are increasing in popularity. They offer some real advantages for small to medium sized business
including:
no or significantly reduced up front capital costs for hardware and software infrastructure;

fast deployment;

no requirement for in-house support expertise to keep the solution operational and up to date;

ability to scale up capacity as and when needed.

USE THE MOST APPROPRIATE FORMAT TO DISPLAY OR PRESENT INFORMATION

There are many useful ways to present your research data to editors, referees, and readers. Tables and figures are
particularly effective when large amounts of information have to be presented and discussed in an effective way. In fact,
many journal editors and reviewers take a quick look at all the figures and tables in a manuscript before they actually start
to review it.

In some cases, using too much text can be confusing and exhausting, so summarizing your data in a visual form—
including tables, line graphs, pie charts, scatter plots, and others—can be very helpful. It allows you to present your
results in a consolidated manner and helps readers to get an overview of the most important findings of your work without
having to go through the entire manuscript. However, too many visuals can interrupt the flow of the text, so it is important
to include tables and figures prudentially, without overusing them. The best scientific papers are always a good
combination of written and visual information.

Deciding When to Use Visuals

There are a few points that can help you decide when to use tables and graphics. The main reason for introducing visuals
in a manuscript is clarity: some information can be better understood if explained visually. The information, thus, has to
be qualitatively or quantitatively measurable to be included in a table or a graph.
Other reasons are summarization (great amount of information can be compiled in a single graphic or table)
and comparison (diagrams, tables, and graphics are an excellent way to expose the differences between various
parameters or subjects).

Which Format Works Best?

In general, large sets of numerical data should not be included in the text of a manuscript but rather summarized in tables
or graphics. While tables are an excellent tool for giving structured numerical information, graphics are more appropriate
for demonstrating trends and relationships or making comparisons.

Different formats that can be used to represent data:

 Pie charts can be created to show parts of the whole data and are suitable for emphasizing general findings. This format
works well to summarize percentage results, including those obtained in geographical studies or surveys, or to
communicate simple ideas such as market shares.
 Bar graphs can display non-continuous (discrete) data and are a great tool for direct comparisons. They are often used to
present frequency observations, such as the preferred mode of transportation or the most popular university course. They
are also good for displaying financial information or illustrating any breakdown of data over time —for example, the
number of products sold by the month. For continuous random variables, a different kind of graph —called a histogram—
is required.
 Line graphs are commonly used to display time series data. They are more effective than bar graphs in presenting five or
more data points, but less effective in emphasizing differences over few periods of time.
 Scatter plots are used to show the correlations between two sets of data, for example, between height and weight, costs
and production, or advertising and sales.
 Tables are the best way to present data for reference purposes and can include very complex information. This type of
information can be presented clearly by using an appropriate label and displaying the data in suitable groups (sorted in
columns and rows).

JPEG (or JPG) - Joint Photographic Experts Group

JPEGs might be the most common file type you run across on the web, and more than likely the kind of image that is in
your company's MS Word version of its letterhead. JPEGs are known for their “loss” compression, meaning that the
quality of the image decreases as the file size decreases.You can use JPEGs for projects on the web, in Microsoft Office
documents, or for projects that require printing at a high resolution. Paying attention to the resolution and file size with
JPEGs is essential in order to produce a nice looking project.

PNG – Portable Network Graphics

PNGs are amazing for interactive documents such as web pages, but are not suitable for print. While PNGs are "lossless",
meaning you can edit them and not lose quality, they are still low resolution.
USE APROPRIATE INFORMATION SOURCES TO RETRIEVE AND DISSEMINATE INFORMATION FOR
A PARTICULAR TASK

Types of Information Sources

1. Primary sources are original materials on which other research is based, including:

 original written works – poems, diaries, court records, interviews, surveys, and original research/fieldwork, and
 Research published in scholarly/academic journals.

2. Secondary sources are those that describe or analyze primary sources, including:

 reference materials – dictionaries, encyclopedias, textbooks, and


 Books and articles that interpret, review, or synthesize original research/fieldwork.

3. Tertiary sources are those used to organize and locate secondary and primary sources.

 Indexes – provide citations that fully identify a work with information such as author, titles of a book, artile, and/or
journal, publisher and publication date, volume and issue number and page numbers.
 Abstracts – summarize the primary or secondary sources,
 Databases – are online indexes that usually include abstracts for each primary or secondary resource, and may also
include a digital copy of the resource.

JUSTIFY THE ACCEPTANCE OR REJECTION OF A PIECE OF INFORMATION

Evaluation Criteria

Authority

Ask the Questions Determine the Answers

 Who is the author?  Most common places to find authors'


names listed:
o Title page (book or report)
o Title information at top of first page
(articles, book chapters)
o End of the article (encyclopedias)
o Top or bottom of page (web pages)

 What are the author's credentials?  Examine the item for information about the
o Relevant university degree author
o Institutional affiliation (where does  Look in biographical dictionaries
he or she work?)  Look in directories, e.g.
o Relevant field or employment o Who's Who
experience o Canadian Who's Who
o Past writings  Search the web for the author's home page
 Search article databases and the online
catalogue for other works by the author
 What is the author's reputation among  Look in annual reviews (many are also
his/her peers? included in Academic Search Premier),
o Cited in articles, books or e.g.
bibliographies on the topic 
o Mentioned in your textbook or by o Annual Review of Anthropology
your professor o Annual Review of Biochemistry
o Annual Review of Sociology
 Use citation indexes to find articles citing
your author
o Social Science Citation Index
o Science Citation Index
o Arts & Humanities Citation Index

 Who is the publisher?


o Commercial, trade, institutional,  Look in directories, e.g.
other o Literary Market Place
o Known for quality and/or scholarly o Hoover's Handbooks
publications  Search the web for the publisher's web site
o Basic values or goals  Look for editorial guidelines or author
o Specialization instructions in journals or on the publisher's
o Editorial board web site
o Blind review process

 Is the author associated with a reputable  Search the web for the organization's web
institution or organization? site
o Organizational mission  Look in directories, e.g.
o Basic values or goals o The Encyclopedia of Associations
o National or international
o Membership

Objectivity

Ask the Questions Determine the Answers

 Does the author state the goals for this  Read the foreword, preface, abstract and/or
publication? introduction
o Inform, explain, educate
o Advocate
o Persuade or dissuade
o Sell a product or service
o Serve as a soapbox

 Does the author exhibit a particular bias?  Read the abstract and/or introduction
o Commitment to a point of view  Examine the work for
o Acknowledgement of bias o Inflammatory language
o Presentation of facts and arguments o Images or graphic styles (e.g., text
for both sides of a controversial in color or boldface type) to
issue persuade you of the author's point
o Language free of emotion-arousing of view
words and bias o Propaganda
o Author's arguments or supporting
facts
o Author's conclusions
o Bibliography that includes multiple
points of view
 Is the viewpoint of the author's affiliation  Search the web for the organization's web
reflected in the message or content? site
  Look in directories, e.g.
o Organization's (e.g., government, o The Encyclopedia of Associations
university, business, association)
point of view on the topic being
discussed
o Organization's mission and activities
o Advertising is clearly labelled
o Benefits to organization

 Does the information appear to be valid and  Verify facts and statistics with a reliable
well-researched? source
o Reasonable assumptions and  Examine cited sources for authority and
conclusions objectivity
o Arguments and conclusions
supported by evidence
o Opposing points of view addressed
o Opinions not disguised as facts
o Authoritative sources cited

Quality

Ask the Questions Determine the Answers

 Is the information well-organized?


 Look at the headings to indicate structure
o Logical structure
 Look for agreement among reviews
o Main points clearly presented
o Magazines for Libraries
o Main ideas unified by overarching
o Ulrich's International Periodicals
idea
Directory
o Text flows well (not choppy or
o Book reviews
stilted)
o Internet Scout Report
o Author's argument is not repetitive

 Has the author used good grammar?  Read carefully for errors
 Are there spelling or typographical errors?

 Are the graphics (images, tables, charts,  Consider other ways to present the
diagrams) appropriate and clearly information
presented?
o Clearly labelled
o Descriptive title
o Understandable without explanatory
text

 Is the information complete and accurate?  Verify facts and statistics with a reliable
o Facts and results agree with your source
own knowledge of the subject  Examine cited sources for authority and
o Facts and results agree with those objectivity
of other specialists in the field
o Documents sources
o Describes methodology
o Addresses theories and facts that
may negate the main thesis
Coverage

Ask the Questions Determine the Answers

 Does the work update other sources?  Compare publication dates and content to
other sources you have found

 Does it substantiate other materials you  You should seek out multiple points of view
have read, or add new information? and include a diversity of sources and ideas

 Have you found enough information to  Look for gaps in your arguments and
support your arguments? evidence
o Facts
o Statistics
o Evidence

Currency

Ask the Questions Determine the Answers

 When was it published?  Look for a publication or copyright date on


the
o Title page (books, journals)
o Reverse of the title page (books)
o Cover (journals, magazines,
newspapers)
o Table of contents (journals,
magazines)
o Bottom of the page (web sites)
 Dates on web pages may indicate
o When the page was created
o When the page was published on
the web
o When the page was last revised

 Is your topic one that requires current  Topic areas requiring the most up-to-date
information? information may include
o Science
o Medicine
o Current events

 Has this source been revised, updated, or  Search catalogs and other databases for
expanded in a subsequent edition? more recent editions
o Worldcat
o Books In Print
o Amazon
Relevance

Ask the Questions Determine the Answers

 Does the work address your research


 Review your research question and/or
question or meet the requirments of your
assignment
assignment?

 Is the content appropriate for your research  Check the table of contents or scan the
topic or assignment? subheadings
o Scholarly vs. popular  Read the preface, abstract, introduction,
o Fact vs. opinion and/or conclusion
o Format/medium (e.g., book, journal,  Look for footnotes or endnotes and/or a
government report, web site, etc.) bibliography
o Subject coverage  Look for reviews
o Language 
o Time period o Magazines for Libraries
o Geographical area o Ulrich's International Periodicals
o Audience Directory
o Primary (e.g., raw data, diaries, o Book reviews
literature, photographs, first-hand o Internet Scout Report
accounts of an event, research
reports, etc.) vs. secondary
(information that has been analyzed
and interpreted, e.g., literary
criticism, most books, review of an
art show or play, etc.) vs. tertiary
(sources that compile, analyze and
digest secondary sources, e.g.,
encyclopedias, textbooks)

WEBPAGE

HTML is a language for describing web pages.

 HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language


 HTML is not a programming language, it is a markup language
 HTML uses markup tags to describe web pages

HTML markup tags are usually called HTML tags

 HTML tags are keywords surrounded by angle brackets like <html>


 HTML tags normally come in pairs like <b> and </b>
 The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the second tag is the end tag
 Start and end tags are also called opening tags and closing tags
 You save the document ALWAYS with whatever name you chooses ending with “.html”
HOW TO MAKE A WEB PAGE

To make a web page you can type the following codes using note pad or any text editor of your choice

<html>
<body>

<h1>My First Heading</h1>

<p>My first paragraph.</p>

</body>
</html>

The code <html> </html> tells us that you want to create a web page. Please note a webpage must have an open and a
close tag.

The code <body></body> defines what will be shown on the web page. Please note the body must have an opening and a
closed tag

HTML headings are defined with the <h1> to </h1> code. Heading is what we call the title. You can change the number
to different sizes. <h1> is the largest while <h6> is the smallest. All header tags should have an opening and a closed tag.

HTML paragraphs are defined with the <p> tag.

Whenever you want to start a new paragraph <p> is what you can use. Paragraph tag should have an opening and a closed
tag.

HOW TO ALIGN THE TEXT

This is called text aligning where you can choose for the words to be left, right or centre. We can do this from within the
“h” tags. For instance if I wanted to centre the title I would use the following codes.

<h1 style="text-align:center">

Similarly if I wanted to centre the paragraph I would use the following codes.

<p1 style="text-align:center">

HOW TO GIVE THE PAGE SOME COLOUR

We use the following codes when we want to give the web page some life.

<body style="background-color:yellow">

We write the code within the body tag. Also noticed that the word colour is spelt the American way color as that is the
way the computer understands it.
HOW TO CHANGE THE STYLE OF THE FONT

We use the following codes to change the style of the writing. We do this in the <body> tag, the <p> tag or the <h>
wherever you would like to change the style of the writing.

<p style="font-family:courier new”>

<body style=”font-family:arial”>

<h1 style= “font-family:times new roman”>

Note that you must type the code “font-famly:” before the name of the font you would like to use.

HOW TO CHANGE THE COLOUR OF THE FONT

We use the following codes to change the colour of the writing. We do this in the <body> tag, the <p> tag or the <h>
wherever you would like to change the colour of the writing.

<p style="color:red”>

<body style=”color:blue”>

<h1 style= “color:green”>

Note that you must type the code “color:” before the name of the colour you would like to use. If you want a particular
paragraph to have a different colour you use the <p> tag or if you want the whole page to have a particular colour you use
the <body> tag and similarly if you want your title to have a different colour you use the <h> tag.

HOW TO CHANGE THE FONT SIZE

We use the following codes to change the size of the words. We do this in the <body> tag or the <p> wherever you would
like to change the side of the words.

<p style="font-size:10px”>

<body style=”font-size:15px”

Note that you must type the code “font-size:” before how big you would like your words to look. If you want a particular
paragraph to have a different size you use the <p> tag or if you want the whole page to have a particular font size you use
the <body> tag.

HOW TO MAKE A TABLE IN YOUR WEB PAGE

Tables are defined with the <table> tag. A table is divided into rows (with the <tr> tag), and each row is divided into data
cells (with the <td> tag). The letters td stands for "table data," which is the content of a cell. A data cell can contain text,
images, lists, paragraphs, forms, horizontal rules, tables, etc.
You use the following codes to make a table

<table>

<tr>

<th>Day</th>

<th>Subject</th>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Monday</td>

<td>Information Technology</td>

</tr>

</table>

The table has an opening and a closed tag. The rows and columns are defined within these tags <table> </table>

If you would like to make more rows and column simply copy the <tr> to </tr> code.

Notice in the code above there are some codes called <th></th>. Within this code is the table header or what gives the title
for each of the column.

HOW TO INSERT A PICTURE

A web page would not be a web page without pictures

To put pictures onto your webpage you write the following codes

<img src="mypicture.jpg"/>

You can place the image anywhere you prefer on your web page. However you must ensure that the picture and the web
page are in the same folder for the picture to show on the page. The name of the image must be the same as that in the
code.

DISCUSS TYPES OF WEB PAGES

Five Types of Web pages

Advocacy
An advocacy webpage is one sponsored by an organization to influence opinion. The URL address of this type of page
frequently ends in .org. Examples of advocacy pages: Democratic Party, Green Party, Human Rights Council, Amnesty
International.

Business and Marketing


A business or marketing webpage is one sponsored by a commercial enterprise that is typically trying to sell or market
their services/products. The URL address frequently ends in .com. Examples of business webpages are: Ford Motor Co.,
Hewlett Packard, Amazon.com.
News
A news webpage is one whose purpose is to provide timely information about current events and issues. The URL address
frequently ends in .com. For example: San Francisco Chronicle, CNN, MSNBC.

Informational
An information webpage's purpose is to present factual information. This includes reports, research findings, and general
topical information. The URL address frequently ends with .edu or.gov. For example: San Jose Sate University, State of
California, United States Department of Defense.

Personal
A personal webpage is created by an individual for his/her own personal need. The URL frequently has a tilde (~)
somewhere in the address.

Definition of Static Web Pages

Static web pages are simple and written in the HTML language and stored in web server. Whenever server receives a
request regarding a web page, it sends a response along with the requested web page to the client without performing any
additional processing. It just locates that page on its hard disk and adds HTTP headers, and replies back an HTTP
response. The peculiar thing in a static web page is that the content in these types of the web page does not change
depending on the request. They are always the same unless the content is changed physically on the server’s hard disk.
That is the reason these web pages are known as static web pages.

Definition of Dynamic Web Pages

Dynamic web pages provide a solution for the static web pages. The dynamic web page content can vary depending on
the number of parameters. As it is discussed above that dissimilar to static web age, it not just simply send HTML page in
response. The web server calls a program located on the hard disk which can access a database, perform transaction
procedure, etcetera. If the application program produces HTML output, this is used to construct an HTTP response by the
web server. The web server sends the HTTP response thus created, back to the web browser.

The dynamic web pages are employed where the information changes very often such as stock prices, weather
information, news and sports updates. Let’s assume a person has to physically change the Web page every 10 seconds to
show the latest update of the stock prices which is impractical to physically alter the HTML pages very often, so in this
case, a dynamic web page can be used.

BASIS FOR
STATIC WEB PAGES DYNAMIC WEB PAGES
COMPARISON

Basic Static web pages will Dynamic web pages are

remain same for the time behavioral and have the

until and unless someone capacity to produce

changes it manually. distinctive content for

different visitors.
BASIS FOR
STATIC WEB PAGES DYNAMIC WEB PAGES
COMPARISON

Complexity Simple to design. Complicated to construct.

Application and web HTML, JavaScript, CSS, CGI, AJAX, ASP, ASP.NET,

languages used to etc. etc.

create web pages

Information change Occurs rarely Frequently

Page loading time Less comparatively More

Use of Database Doesn't use databases A database is used.

EXPLAIN HOW EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES CAN BE USED FOR A PARTICULAR TASK

New technologies, in their diverse forms, are revolutionizing the world of work, how organizations function, change and
evolve and the nature of leadership, managerial roles and professional careers. They have become integral elements of
business, industry and commerce throughout the world, driving the growth of the two most powerful forces in the global
economy—cyberspace and computing power. However, while these are creating formidable new challenges for all
organizations, they are merely the most gentle precursors to even more powerful and radical technologies (cyber, nano,
bio, molecular and quantum) whose potential impact few business leaders or academics truly understand. The article
describes these, and looks at the ongoing effects of emerging technologies on organizations. It then describes the impact
these will have on traditional leadership, management and business practices in the near future. It also suggests ways in
which business leaders can anticipate and plan for the effects of these new technologies on their organizations and
leadership/management practices in the future. The article then speculates about the impact that new technologies are
likely to have on humanity during the 21st century, with a warning about the potential dangers these may pose in future.
MODULE 3

DESCRIBE WAYS IN WHICH INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IMPACTS THE SOCIETY

Telecommuting

Telecommuting, also known as teleworking, is the act of working from a remote location, usually one's
home. This is made simple with the use of various telecommunications technologies such as a telephone,
fax machine and the internet. Many telecommuters are also set up with web conferencing capabilities
allowing them to sit in on office meetings via modem and webcam, or at the very least, a conference
call. Telecommuting not only enables an employee the convenience of working at home, it also allows
the employer to save money on certain overhead expenses such as utilities. In addition, since
telecommuters are happier, they're often more productive; they may spend more time working than their
office working counterparts who tend to spend more time on lunch breaks or chit-chatting around the
coffee maker. Absenteeism is down among telecommuters because sick workers still work at home and
they put in longer hours because they never leave their office.

Online shopping is the process consumers go through to purchase products or services over the Internet.
An online shop, eshop, e-store, internet shop, webshop, webstore, online store, or virtual store evokes
the physical analogy of buying products or services at a bricks-and-mortar retailer or in a shopping mall.

Webshop

The term "Webshop" also refers to a place of business where web development, web hosting and other
types of web related activities take place (Web refers to the World Wide Web and "shop" has a
colloquial meaning used to describe the place).

advantages of Shopping Online Disadvantages of Shopping Online

Negative Environmental Impact of


Convenience
Packaging and Gas

Better Prices Shipping Problems and Delays

More Variety Risk of Fraud

Easy to Send Gifts Less Contact With Your Community

More Control Spending Too Much Time Online

Easy Price Comparisons Returns Can Be Complicated

You Don't Know Exactly What You're


No Crowds
Getting

Unfriendly, Scammy, or Complicated


No Sales Pressure
Websites

Access to Used or Damaged Inventory No Sales Assistance

Privacy for Discreet Purchases No Support for Local Retailers


Gaming is the running of specialized application s known as electronic games, especially on machines designed for such
programs and, in a more recent trend, using personal computers on the Internet in which case the activity is known as
online gaming.

What is knowledge management (KM)?


KM is the efficient handling of knowledge or information and related resources within an organization. It is considered a
scientific discipline because it deals with information in its many forms. KM approaches vary depending on the author
and the organization. But as the discipline matures, people are coming to a better understanding and some perspectives of
the theories and practice of KM have emerged:

 Organizational - focuses on the organization and how KM can be designed to facilitate knowledge processes to achieve
organizational goals.
 Techno centric - this perspective focuses mainly on the technology concerned with the gathering, storing and sharing of
knowledge.
 Ecological - this focuses on the interaction of people, knowledge, identity and other factors that make it into a complex
adaptive system.

The core components of KM include people, processes, technology, organizational culture, structure and technology.
There are now different schools of thought which includes "lenses" through which KM can be viewed and explained and
even designed around:

 Social network analysis


 Community of practice
 Intellectual capital
 Complex science
 Information theory
 Constructivism

What constitutes intellectual or knowledge-based assets?

Not all information is valuable. Therefore, it's up to individual companies to determine what information qualifies as
intellectual and knowledge-based assets. In general, however, intellectual and knowledge-based assets fall into one of two
categories: explicit or tacit. Included among the former are assets such as patents, trademarks, business plans, marketing
research and customer lists. As a general rule of thumb, explicit knowledge consists of anything that can be documented,
archived and codified, often with the help of IT.

A virtual organization is an organization involving detached and disseminated entities (from employees to entire
enterprises) and requiring information technology to support their work and communication.[1] Virtual organizations do
not represent a firm’s attribute but can be considered as a different organizational form.
Situations that are driving many organizations to examine and implement VOs include:

 A need for process innovation--This is often motivated by competitive pressures, stakeholder demands and other factors to
achieve increased productivity and quality. There is typically a 30 to 50 percent increase in productivity as result of
implementing VOs.
 Sharing of core competencies--VOs help address the voids in an organization resulting from starting up, turnover and
retirements.
 Globalization--Many organizations are finally realizing there is a vast pool of untapped skills, knowledge and abilities
throughout the world.
 Mobile workers--VO concepts can help the numerous companies employing mobile workers such as auditors, consultants,
salespersons and service technicians.
 Cost reduction--Improving efficiency often means reducing overhead, such as physical assets used to support traditional
work environments or redistributing costs over several physical locations.
 Changes in employee values and attitudes toward work--Quality of life is a major factor particularly in attracting and
retaining quality employees. Employers have realized that a balance of work and personal life, family requirements,
personal fulfillment and flexibility are important considerations among employees.
 Costs and problems of traveling--VOs address transportation issues, such as unproductive commute time, traffic hassles,
the cost of fuel and environmental impact of commuting vehicles.

Typical approaches in implementing VOs include:

 Telecommuting--Employees work at a location away from the usual workplace, but not necessarily at home. Computers
and telecommunications equipment are used to maintain contact between the telecommuter and the home office.
 Telecenters--These satellite offices typically are located in communities outside of major cities and provide space and
equipment for employees commonly not available in the telecommuter's home.
 Mobile working--This refers to the working environment of mobile workers who require tools such as cell phones, e-mail
wireless devices, pagers and laptops.
 Hot desking--This arrangement is for offices in which staff members spend a significant amount of time on customer
premises. It involves the removal of permanently assigned desks to all or some of the employees. When they arrive, they
are assigned a computer workstation where they can access their documents, files, applications and e-mail.
 Hoteling--This is when the client provides a hot desk for the VO's employees.
 Virtual teams--Employees collaborate from remote locations using e-mail, groupware, the Intranet and/or video
conferencing.

KM technologies supporting VOs include:

 Collaborative technologies
 Extensible markup language (XML)
 Intranets and extranets
 Personal devices
 Wireless technologies
 Virtual reality (VR)
 Portals

Collaborative technologies are divided into two groups--asynchronous and synchronous. Asynchronous collaboration
tools include document sharing software, group calendaring and newsgroups. Synchronous tools include virtual meeting
rooms (group support systems), shared whiteboards, application sharing and video/audio conferencing.

An interesting combination of both can be found in what is called integrated collaboration. An example is MITRE's
Collaborative Virtual Workspace (CVW), which provides a persistent virtual space within which applications, documents
and people are directly accessible in rooms, floors and buildings. To a user, a CVW is a building divided into floors and
rooms, where each room provides a context for communication and document sharing. CVW allows people to gather in
rooms to talk through chat or audio/video conferencing and to share text and URLs with one another. For privacy, users
can lock rooms and communicate privately within and between rooms. Rooms are also used for document sharing. Users
can place different documents into a room, allowing anyone else in that room to read the document. Examples of
documents include whiteboards, URLs, notes and other documents edited through the user's local applications.

Extensible markup language (XML) is meta-markup language for describing structured data in that environment, whereas
hypertext markup language (HTML) is for displaying data and graphics over the web. XML is evolving to be the common
structure for data interchange among disparate heterogeneous systems. It will have a tremendous impact in the sharing of
data and for supporting increased functionality (e.g., searching for information).

Intranet is a network of networks contained within an enterprise and protected from outside intrusion through firewalls.
Intranets permit the sharing of company information and computing resources among managers and employees. Examples
of intranet applications include manuals, procedures, internal job offerings, documents, employee information, schedules
and calendars, databases and project management.

Extranets permit further accessibility. In an extranet, the intranet is extended to external stakeholders such as customers,
suppliers and trading partners. Examples of extranet applications include collaboration, data sharing, project management,
news and training.

Personal devices include personal digital assistants, cell phones, e-mail wireless devices and Internet appliances. These
devices enable employees to have an office anywhere and an expanded reach to both management and clients. There is a
growing trend toward a convergence of functionalities onto one device.

Wireless technologies include Bluetooth, which is a computing and telecommunications specification that describes how
mobile phones, computers and personal digital assistants can seamlessly connect with each other using a short-range (10-
meter) wireless connection via a radio frequency. The technology requires that a low-cost transceiver chip be included in
each device.
There are various types of virtual reality:

 Immersive experience--The user visits a world through a wearable device (e.g., head tracker and helmet, glasses, goggles
or a data glove) and interacts with that world as though he/she were actually a part of it. This form of VR is the most
popular version and the one with the most exposure.
 Desktop systems--They are at the lower end of the spectrum in terms of cost and are worlds that are not immersive and
that run on regular personal computers without additional hardware. These worlds still allow the user to be interactive
within the world, but not immersive.
 Mirror world or second person experiences--The user is represented by a figure or avatar inside the computer. The user
manipulates this avatar within the world and interacts indirectly with the world. By controlling this electronic image of his
or herself, the user can interact extensively within the world.
 Telepresence technology--The user remotely controls a mechanical manipulator to perform some action or explore some
aspect of a world. For example, the user might steer the Mars rover across the terrain, explore under Antarctica or perform
surgery remotely. Most of the time the user is wearing some sort of headset to project him or herself into the mechanical
manipulator in an immersive manner.
 CAVE (cave automatic virtual environment)--It consists of a multiple screen environment, which surrounds the user.
Many CAVE setups have multiple users involved. The user steps into the CAVE and enters a virtual world on all sides.
Although probably the most expensive type of VR setup, the CAVE is growing in popularity rapidly because of the ability
to project a realistic experience for multiple users at once.

Portals are starting web sites for users to access the knowledge content they need and want. Examples of information
resources that can be consolidated and accessed via a portal include search engines, e-mail, web links, databases from
disparate sources, forms, documents and task lists.
Technical and Managerial Issues

Several key technical issues surround VOs:

 The capability of the communications network--For example, the potential limitations on bandwidth for transmission.
This has the impact of slowing down the necessary information flow and interactivity between the entities in a VO.
Related to this problem is the reliability of the network and its servers. If the network is down frequently, it can have
profound effects on the productivity of a VO.
 Hardware and software compatibility issues--For example, in a telecommuting scenario, home computers range in the
type of hardware characteristics, such as processing power and memory. These inconsistencies often result in common
applications being slow, difficult to use or even inoperative across the different computers.
 Computer security--Due to the multiple clients in a web-based architecture, there are many points of possible intrusion
into the centralized applications and data sources of an organization.
 The dynamic nature of technology--This makes managing hardware and software upgrades a difficult task for any
information technology manager in a VO.

Communication Issues

The communication issues are not necessarily technical in nature, but related to human factors. Members in a virtual team
may find it frustrating that messages are misunderstood or not received by other members thereby resulting in
inefficiencies. Areas causing these difficulties include e-mail slang and informalities, technical jargon, confusion over
teleconferencing protocols and outdated distribution lists.

There is the problem regarding ambiguity about whom to include in the communications. To be conservative, a virtual
team member may send messages to everyone on the team, which contributes to mailbox overload. On the other end of
the spectrum, team members may inadvertently leave out important constituents in the communication loop, thereby
leading to situations where critical information was not received in a timely manner.

The lack of face-to-face interaction and the absence of body language or vocal inflections tend to reduce the quality of the
message delivered. Moreover, a receiver can misinterpret the tone of the message because of the way the message was
constructed (e.g., use of capital letters, e-mail slang and icons, setting the level of importance as urgent).

Finally, there is a problem with store-and-forward asynchronous communication systems in that it often takes time to
communicate. There is the delay in waiting for a response after a message is delivered. This may be an issue when critical
information must be passed on in a timely manner.

Managerial Issues

Managers new to a VO need to realize a new managerial style is required because of the special issues one must face in a
distributed work environment:

 Potential abuse and wasted time--The lack of face-to-face interaction may result in the employee focusing on nonwork
activities.
 Security--Organization resources may be open to intruders and hackers.
 Managing and controlling at a distance--Traditional managers do not feel secure particularly in a crisis when their
employees are working remotely.
 Ensuring employee self-motivation and self-discipline--Keeping the employee focused on the job can be challenging when
there is limited managerial oversight.
 Defining goals and limits of responsibility--This must be done in a virtual team to prevent duplicating an effort or missing
a key job requirement.
 Loss of personal contact--Employees may miss the camaraderie of a traditional office environment.

There are organizational and market conditions that would prevent employees from taking part in a VO. There may be a
lack of strategic fit for the company. For example, the company wants to focus on face-to-face customer interaction as
opposed to using communication technologies. Also, there may be cultural resistance particularly in an organization
where trust and sharing are difficult to achieve. Furthermore, a VO cannot be successful where knowledge cannot be
readily shared, perhaps because of security restrictions. Finally, the lack of computing and communications technologies
can hold back the implementation of a VO.

Technical and Managerial Trends

Technological Changes

There have been a number of recent developments and efforts likely to help in supporting VOs in the future.

Advances in telecommunications particularly in support of broader bandwidths are evident today. The Internet2 project is
headed by a consortium of more than 180 universities working in partnership with industry and government aimed at
accelerating the creation of tomorrow's Internet. Its primary goals include: creating a leading-edge network capability for
the national research community, enabling revolutionary Internet applications and ensuring the rapid transfer of new
network services and applications to the broader Internet community.

Significant improvements in wireless technologies are on the horizon. For example, third-generation (3G) wireless
networks will offer high-speed, packet-switched mobile voice/data networks. The 3G standards, which are being defined
by working groups within the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), will be deployed to support significantly
higher bandwidth over wireless communications. This increased mobile bandwidth will open up a whole new generation
of applications to wireless subscribers such as collaborative and multimedia services.

Gartner Group predicts that the era of contextual computing is coming--there will be a proliferation of devices in the
home, office, car and on the person, and these devices will have different interfaces optimized for the environment where
the person resides. As an example, a driver could use commute time to catch up on e-mail and personalized news through
an in-car system with built-in speech synthesis and intelligent agents. Within the context of VO, this era will be
characterized by anytime, anywhere access to constituents on the virtual team.

Organizational Trends

Organizational trends are summarized below:

 More telecommuting--With energy costs rising and environmental concerns growing, governments have been heavily
promoting the concept of telecommuting and other forms of VO.
 Outsourcing--Many organizations are turning to outsourcing to fulfill their business requirements, particularly when these
requirements are outside their core mission. Application service providers are one type of outsourcing where specific
applications, data and support are located off-premises and accessible typically via the Internet. VOs can be the
foundation for outsourcing activities such as these.
 24-hour-a-day storefronts--Growth of the Internet has been fueled by consumer desire to have convenient access to
products and services. VOs must support this requirement.
 Partnerships and strategic alliances--The number of partnerships and interorganizational alliances among different firms
has grown steadily and is expected to increase as part of need to gain competitive edge and new customers. These
collaborative efforts can be facilitated via the VO structure.
 Growth in virtual intermediaries--Examples include education brokers, market organizers and personalized service
providers.

People Trends

Employee expectations are expected to change. The following trends are anticipated in the upcoming years:

 No set schedule or workplace


 Greater focus on own initiative and responsibility, requiring more self-discipline and self-motivation
 More flexible guidelines and rules
 Higher mobility of individuals
 Potentially less job security for those not willing to participate in the VO approach

DISCUSS VARIOUS COMPUTER CRIMES

Computer crime is alternatively referred to as cybercrime, e-crime, electronic crime, or hi-tech crime. It is an act
performed by a knowledgeable computer user, sometimes referred to as a hacker that illegally browses or steals a
company's or individual's private information. In some cases, this person or group of individuals may be malicious and
destroy or otherwise corrupt the computer or data files.

PROPAGANDA

The word propaganda is often used in a negative sense, that is the spreading of information in support of a cause. It’s not
so important whether the information is true or false or if the cause is just or not — it’s all propaganda.
COMPUTER FRAUDS

Computer fraud is the act of using a computer to take or alter electronic data, or to gain unlawful use of a computer or
system. Types of computer fraud include:

 Distributing hoax emails, that is a scam distributed via email form. A typical hoax is an email message warning recipient
of a non-existent threat, usually forging quotes supposedly from authorities such as Microsoft and IBM. In most cases the
payload is an exhortation to distribute the message to everyone in the recipient's address book.
 Accessing unauthorized computers
 Engaging in data mining via spyware and malware
 Hacking into computer systems to illegally access personal information, such as credit cards or Social Security numbers
 Sending computer viruses or worms with the intent to destroy or ruin another party's computer or system.

INDUSTRIAL SABOTAGE

Sabotage is defined as deliberate and malicious acts that result in the disruption of the normal processes and functions or
the destruction or damage of equipment or information.

COMPUTER VIRUSES

A computer virus is a type of malicious software that, when executed, replicates itself by modifying other computer
programs and inserting its own code. When this replication succeeds, the affected areas are then said to be "infected" with
a computer virus.

Virus writers use social engineering deceptions and exploit detailed knowledge of security vulnerabilities to initially infect
systems and to spread the virus. Most viruses target systems running Microsoft Windows, employing a variety of
mechanisms to infect new hosts, and often using complex anti-detection/stealth strategies to evade antivirus software.
Motives for creating viruses can include seeking profit (e.g., with ransomware), desire to send a political message,
personal amusement, to demonstrate that a vulnerability exists in software, for sabotage and denial of service, or simply
because they wish to explore cybersecurity issues, artificial life and evolutionary algorithms.

Computer viruses currently cause billions of dollars' worth of economic damage each year, due to causing system failure,
wasting computer resources, corrupting data, increasing maintenance costs, etc. In response, free, open-source antivirus
tools have been developed, and an industry of antivirus software has cropped up, selling or freely distributing virus
protection to users of various operating systems.

MALWARE

Malware (a portmanteau for malicious software) is any software intentionally designed to cause damage to a computer,
server, client, or computer network. Malware does the damage after it is implanted or introduced in some way into a
target's computer and can take the form of executable code, scripts, active content, and other software. The code is
described as computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware, spyware, adware, and scareware, among other terms.
Malware has a malicious intent, acting against the interest of the computer user—and so does not include software that
causes unintentional harm due to some deficiency, which is typically described as a software bug.
ELECTRONIC EARSDROPPING

Electronic eavesdropping, the act of electronically intercepting conversations without the knowledge or consent of at least
one of the participants. Historically, the most common form of electronic eavesdropping has been wiretapping, which
monitors telephonic and telegraphic communication

CYBER TERRORISM

Cyberterrorism is the use of the Internet to conduct violent acts that result in, or threaten, loss of life or significant bodily
harm, in order to achieve political or ideological gains through threat or intimidation. It is also sometimes considered an
act of Internet terrorism where terrorist activities, including acts of deliberate, large-scale disruption of computer
networks, especially personal computers attached to the Internet by means of tools such as computer viruses, computer
worms, phishing, etc.

HACKING

Hacking refers to gaining unauthorized access to data in a system or computer. A security hacker is someone who seeks to
breach defenses and exploit weaknesses in a computer system or network. Hackers may be motivated by a multitude of
reasons, such as profit, protest, information gathering, challenge, recreation, or to evaluate system weaknesses to assist in
formulating defenses against potential hackers. The subculture that has evolved around hackers is often referred to as the
computer underground.

IDENTITY THEFT

Identity theft is the act of a person obtaining information illegally about someone else. Thieves try to find such
information as full name, maiden name, address, date of birth, social security number, passwords, phone number, e-mail,
and credit card numbers. The thief can then use this information to gain access to bank accounts, e-mail, cell phones,
identify themselves as you, or sells your information.

SPOOFING

Spoofing is a type of scam where an intruder attempts to gain unauthorized access to a user's system or information by
pretending to be the user.

PLISHING

Pronounced like fishing, phishing is a term used to describe a malicious individual or group of individuals who scam
users. They do so by sending e-mails or creating web pages that are designed to collect an individual's online bank, credit
card, or other login information. Because these e-mails and web pages look like legitimate companies, users trust them
and enter their personal information.

HARDWARE THEFT AND VANDALISM

Hardware theft refers to the act of stealing computer equipment, whereas vandalism is the act of defacing or destroying
computer equipment. Computer vandalism is a process wherein there is a program that performs malicious function such
as extracting a user's password or other data or erasing the hard disk.
This differs from viruses which attaches itself to an existing executable program. The vandal is the full executing entity
itself which can be downloaded from the internet in the form of a ActiveX control, Java applet, browser plug-in or e-mail
attachment.

PRIVACY

Internet privacy is the privacy and security level of personal data published via the Internet. It is a broad term that refers to
a variety of factors, techniques and technologies used to protect sensitive and private data, communications, and
preferences.

Privacy is a term used to describe an individual's anonymity and how safe they feel in a location. Computer privacy refers
to information shared with visiting web pages, how that information is used, who that information is shared with, or if that
information is used to track users. Answers to these questions are commonly found on the company or website privacy
policy page.

INFORMATION THEFT

This is when an individual, that is a thief, gain unauthorized access to someone identity and uses their personal
information to gain access to bank accounts, e-mail, cell phones, or to identify themselves as the person, or sells their
information. Such personal information includes, full name, maiden name, address, date of birth, social security number,
passwords, phone number, e-mail, and credit card numbers.

SPAM

Spam alternatively referred to as mass email marketing, UCE (unsolicited commercial e-mail) and bulk e-mail, spam (not
the meat product) is slang commonly used to describe junk e-mail on the Internet. Spam is an e-mail sent to thousands and
sometimes millions of people without prior approval, promoting a particular product, service, or a scam to get other
people's money.

Explain how Information Technology System components can be threats, vulnerabilities, countermeasures, attacks
and compromises to organizations

Threat

This is defined as an expression of intention to inflect evil, damage or injury.

Vulnerable

In computer security, the term vulnerability is applied to a weakness in a system which allows an attacker to violate the
integrity of that system. Vulnerabilities may result from weak passwords, software bugs, a computer virus or other
malware, a script code injection, a SQL injection or misconfiguration.

Countermeasures

A defense counter measure used to prevent and exploit from being successful.
Counter Attacks

Counter attacks are techniques involving simultaneous blocking and retaliation, usually aimed at vulnerable pressure
points in your system.

Employees can expose the organization to lawsuits

Types of threat

Adware
Programs that secretly gather personal information through the Internet and relay it back to another computer, generally
for advertising purposes. This is often accomplished by tracking information related to Internet browser usage or
habits.Adware can be downloaded from Web sites (typically in shareware or freeware), email messages, and instant
messengers. A user may unknowingly trigger adware by accepting an End User License Agreement from a software
program linked to the adware.

Dialers
Programs that use a system, without your permission or knowledge, to dial out through the Internet to a 900 numbers or
FTP site, typically to accrue charges

Hack Tools

Tools used by a hacker to gain unauthorized access to your computer. One example of a hack tool is a keystroke logger --
a program that tracks and records individual keystrokes and can send this information back to the hacker.

Hoax

Usually an email that gets mailed in chain letter fashion describing some devastating, highly unlikely type of virus.
Hoaxes are detectable as having no file attachment, no reference to a third party who can validate the claim, and by the
general tone of the message.

Joke Programs

Programs that change or interrupt the normal behavior of your computer, creating a general distraction or nuisance.
Harmless programs that cause various benign activities to display on your (for example, an unexpected screen saver).

Remote Access

Programs that allow another computer to gain information or to attack or alter your computer, usually over the Internet.
Remote access programs detected in virus scans may be recognizablecommercial software, which are brought to the user's
attention during the scan.

Spy ware
These are stand-alone programs that can secretly monitor system activity. These may detect passwords or other
confidential information and transmit them to another computer.

Spy ware can be downloaded from Web sites (typically in shareware or freeware), email messages, and instant
messengers. A user may unknowingly trigger spy ware by accepting an End User License Agreement from a software
program linked to the spy ware.

Trojan Horse
A program that neither replicates nor copies itself, but causes damage or compromises the

security of the computer. Typically, an individual emails a Trojan horse to you-it does not email itself-and it may arrive in
the form of a joke program or software of some sort.

Virus
A program or code that replicates; that is, infects another program, boot sector, partition sector, or document that supports
macros, by inserting itself or attaching itself to that medium. Most viruses only replicate, though, many do a large amount
of damage as well.

Worm
A program that makes copies of itself; for example, from one disk drive to another, or by copying itself using email or
another transport mechanism. The worm may do damage and compromise the security of the computer. It may arrive in
the form of a joke program or software of some sort.

Describe legal and ethical considerations related to the handling and management of enterprise information assets

Law

This may be defined as a system of rules, usually enforced through a set of institutions. It shapes politics, economics and
society in numerous ways and serves as a primary social mediator in relations between people

Policies

A policy is typically described as a deliberate plan of action to guide decisions and achieve rational outcome(s). However,
the term may also be used to denote what is actually done, even though it is unplanned.

The term may apply to government, private sector organizations and groups, and individuals. Presidential executive
orders, corporate privacy policies, and parliamentary rules of order are all examples of policy. Policy differs from rules or
law. While law can compel or prohibit behaviors (e.g. a law requiring the payment of taxes on income) policy merely
guides actions toward those that are most likely to achieve a desired outcome.

Policy or policy study may also refer to the process of making important organizational decisions, including the
identification of different alternatives such as programs or spending priorities, and choosing among them on the basis of
the impact they will have. Policies can be understood as political, management, financial, and administrative Sechanisms
arranged to reach explicit goals.

Procedures

A procedure is a specified series of actions, acts or operations which have to be executed in the same manner in order to
always obtain the same result under the same circumstances (for example, emergency procedures). Less precisely
speaking, this word can indicate a sequence of activities, tasks, steps, decisions, calculations and processes, that when
undertaken in the sequence laid down produces the described result, product or outcome. A procedure usually induces a
change.

Policies and procedures are a set of documents that describe an organization's policies for operation and the procedures
necessary to fulfill the policies. They are often initiated because of some external requirement, such as environmental
compliance or other governmental regulations, such as the American Sarbanes-Oxley Act requiring full openness in
accounting practices. The easiest way to start writing policies and procedures is to interview the users of the policies and
procedures and create a flow chart or task map or work flow of the process from start to finish. This information can then
be represented in a written format. The policy users can then review this and confirm that the written word matches the
flow chart. Finally, a thoroughly edited version can be submitted to management for approval.

Policies and procedures have many names including but not limited to business policies and procedures, standard
operating procedures or SOP, or department operating procedures or DOP.

Guidelines

A statement or other indication of policy or procedure by which to determine a course of action: guidelines for the
completion of tax returns.
Misuse of information

Misuse of information technology systems may raise concerns about an individual's trustworthiness, willingness, and
ability to protect classified information and systems. It may be part of a more general pattern of inability or unwillingness
to follow rules that should also be evaluated under the Personal Conduct guideline.

Manipulation

 The act or practice of manipulating.


 The state of being manipulated

Information Manipulation Theory (IMT)

provides a way of looking at a unique part of the interpersonal communication process that deals with the way in which
information packages (in the form of messages) are put together when being transmitted from a sender to a receiver in
order to give an impression that is false from the perspective of the sender. Certain facts are placed in the message from an
available amount of information while other facts are omitted, altered or falsified entirely. The act of trying to get
someone to believe something which is not true is defined by Webster as deceit. The type of communication that is
created as a result of such deceitful intent is called a deceptive message. This management of given information by a
sender in order to provide a receiver with a perception of that same information believed to be false by the sender is
referred to as information manipulation. Departing from the focus on the communication mode found in Interpersonal
Deception Theory (IDT), IMT is more concerned with the content of the deceptive messages, the situational contexts that
bring them about, the degree to which the detection of such a message affects perception of deception and the relational
consequences associated with deceptive messages.

False representation

False representation of fact or circumstance, calculated to mislead.

Invasion of privacy

 The wrongful intrusion into a person's private activities by other individuals or by the government.
 The wrongful intrusion by individuals or the government into private affairs with which the public has no concern.

Pharming is a scamming practice in which malicious code is installed on a personal computer or server, misdirecting
users to fraudulent Web sites without their knowledge or consent. Pharming has been called "phishing without a lure."
Pharming is a hacker's attack aiming to redirect a website's traffic to another, bogus website. Pharming can be conducted
either by changing the hosts file on a victim’s computer or by exploitation of a vulnerability in DNS server software. DNS
servers are computers responsible for resolving Internet names into their real addresses — they are the "signposts" of the
Internet. Compromised DNS servers are sometimes referred to as "poisoned".

Explain the risks or threats associated with disasters or disruptions

Natural disaster is the effect of a natural hazard (e.g. flood, volcanic eruption, earthquake, or landslide) that affects the
environment, and leads to financial, environmental or human losses. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the
population to support or resist the disaster, and their resilience.

This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability." A natural
hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability, e.g. strong earthquakes in uninhabited
areas. The term natural has consequently been disputed because the events simply are not hazards or disasters without
human involvement.

Risks

 Loss of lives
 Property damage
 Infrastructure

Examine various other computer security, health and safety, and environmental risks and threats;

Health and safety risks including repetitive strain injury, carpal tunnel syndrome, computer vision syndrome, computer
addiction.

Environmental risks including energy consumption, environmental pollution, such as disposal of obsolete computer
equipment and storage media.

Network attack Maybe defined as any method, process or means used to maliciously attempt to compromise the security
of the network.

System Failure: A hardware or operating system malfunction

Defective device by definition is one that is made to a set of specifications, but for whatever reason, fails because of
some unforeseen and unintentional defect.

Software bug Is an error, flaw, mistake, failure, or fault in a computer program that prevents it from behaving as intended
(e.g., producing an incorrect or unexpected result). Most bugs arise from mistakes and errors made by people in either a
program's source code or its design, and a few are caused by compilers producing incorrect code. A program that contains
a large number of bugs, and/or bugs that seriously interfere with its functionality, is said to be buggy. Reports detailing
bugs in a program are commonly known as bug reports, fault reports, problem reports, trouble reports, change requests,
and so forth.

Software glitch A glitch is a short-lived fault in a system. The term is particularly common in the computing and
electronics industries, and in circuit bending, as well as among players of video games, although it is applied to all types
of systems including human organizations and nature. The term derives from the German glitschig, meaning 'slippery',
possible entering English through the Yiddish term glitsh. Normally, a glitch occurs once, but can also occur multiple
times in particular software.

Health and safety risks

These are very dangerous as they can lead to loss of life.

You can get:

 Tendonitis
 Corporal tunnel syndrome

Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS), or median neuropathy at the wrist, is a medical condition in which the median nerve
is compressed at the wrist, leading to parenthesis, numbness and muscle weakness in the hand. The diagnosis of CTS is
often misapplied to patients who have activity-related arm pain.
How to reduce (resolve) risks of CTS

 Rest pads for keyboard typing


 Alternative input devices, instead of using keyboard you could use touch screen, voice input or track ball to input data in
the computer, ergonomic keyboard and chairs (chairs that can be adjusted)
 Desks which can be adjusted.
 Take frequent breaks from the keyboard.
 Change your sitting posture.
 Avoid using the keyboard

CVS-Computer vision syndrome

Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS) is the complex of eye and vision problems related to near work which are experienced
during or related to computer use. CVS is characterized by visual symptoms which result from interaction with a
computer display or its environment. In most cases, symptoms occur because the visual demands of the task exceed the
visual abilities of the individual to comfortably perform the task.When you use the computer monitor for a long period of
time in a poor lit area

How to Reduce CVS

 Operate computers with protective screens


 Reduce time you spent in front the computer (take frequent breaks)
 Avoid using computer for long period of times

Computer addiction:

A disorder in which the individual turns to the Internet or plays computer games in an attempt to change moods, overcome
anxiety, deal with depression, reduce isolation or loneliness, or distract themselves from overwhelming problems. The
elderly, as well as children and adolescents, are particularly vulnerable because they may not realize the extent of their
dependency. In many instances, individuals with computer addiction may seek help for another condition, such as
depression, phobias or other addictions.

Environmental Risks

 High level of Energy consumption (not necessarily good because we are not really benefiting from it e.g. Leaving the
monitors on all night in the computer lab could result in a fire/ over heating of the computers, short-circuits.)
 Energy consumption -- The use of energy as a source of heat or power or as a raw material input to a manufacturing
process
 Environmental pollution is contamination of air, water and land from man-made waste. Pollution leads to depletion of the
ozone layer, global warming and climate change. Air pollution is the release of chemicals and particles into the
atmosphere. Water pollution includes surface runoff, leakage into groundwater, liquid spills, wastewater discharge and
littering. If toxins are spilled on the ground or if an underground storage tank leaks, soil can become contaminated. Well
known contaminants include herbicides and pesticides. Toxic waste is waste material, often in chemical form, which
pollutes the natural environment and contaminates groundwater.
 How you dispose ok diskettes and CDs

Preventing environmental effect

 Start a recycling campaign


 Provide an incentive to persons when they recycle (e.g. the more you recycle the more you get…)
 Provide legislation (acts of parliament/law) i.e. you could be sued by law.
Specify key mitigation strategies (mechanisms and measures) to counter risks

Copyright the exclusive and assignable legal right, given to the originator for a fixed number of years, to print, publish,
perform, film, or record literary, artistic, or musical material.

Patent a government authority or licence conferring a right or title for a set period, especially the sole right to exclude
others from making, using, or selling an invention.

 the difference between the two deals with what they are protecting
 patent deals with protecting invention while copyright protects literary or artistic work.

Trademark A trademark, trade mark, or trade-mark is a recognizable sign, design, or expression which identifies
products or services of a particular source from those of others, although trademarks used to identify services are usually
called service marks.In a nutshell, a company protecting their name and logo

Plagiarism the practice of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own.There are software that
is used to check see if anyone plagiarized a document.

Consequences of Plagiarism

Plagiarism can get you expelled from your course, college and/or university. Plagiarism can result in your work being
destroyed. Plagiarism can result in expulsion from you academic institution, in some cases permanent expulsion.
Plagiarism can result in legal action; fines and penalties etc.

The Effects of Software Piracy

A common view of software piracy portrays piracy as downloading commercial programs without payment, possibly from
sketchy websites filled with viruses. In fact, illegal downloads cover only one angle of piracy. Buying duplicated copies of
a program or sharing a program with a friend can count as piracy, as installing a program on multiple computers
simultaneously often violates the program's license agreement. Whether performed on an individual scale or across a huge
corporation, using unlicensed or improperly licensed programs can lead to civil or criminal punishment for copyright
infringement.

Security Risks

Pirated software can carry viruses and other types of malware that infect computers. According to the Harrison Group, 24
percent of pirated copies of Windows were either infected or they automatically downloaded malware as soon as they
connected to the Internet. Even if a piece of pirated software isn't infected itself, it can pose a security risk through a lack
of updates: Some copies of pirated software can't update properly, leading users to continue using old versions with
security holes.

Productivity Risks

Aside from security holes, using outdated pirated software can cause users to encounter bugs and glitches, leading to lost
work, lost time and frustration. The hacks used to run pirated software can also interfere with software operation, such as
preventing a program from accessing online features in order to avoid detection. In addition to problems with the software
itself, pirated programs lack a warranty and access to customer support, making it more difficult to get help when
problems occur.

Legal Risks

Using pirated software carries high penalties under copyright law for users caught in the act. In the United States,
copyright infringement can lead to up to five years in jail and a $250,000 fine. The owner of the software's copyright can
also sue for damages, which can run as high as $150,000 per copy. Although the idea of software piracy might evoke an
image of an a home computer user, piracy often occurs in businesses, putting entire companies at legal risk. Even the U.S.
Army was caught in 2013 for using over $180 million in pirated software, costing it a $50 million settlement. If you know
a company is using pirated software, you can report the crime anonymously to an industry association, such as BSA or
The Software & Information Industry Association.

Economic Risks

Pirated software takes away sales of legitimate software. According to BSA, piracy in 2011 was responsible for illegally
sharing $9.7 billion worth of software in the United States. Aside from the obvious effect on software development
companies, piracy also harms businesses completely outside the software industry: A 2011 study by Keystone Strategy
found that law-abiding companies are put at a $8.2 billion disadvantage over the course of five years, due to other
companies' willingness to pirate software to save money.

Malware, or malicious software, is any program or file that is harmful to a computer user.(software that is specifically
designed to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized access to a computer system.)

Types of Malware

Malware includes computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses and spyware.

Trojan Horses

any malicious computer program which misleads users of its true intent.

Trojans are also known to create a backdoor on your computer that gives malicious users access to your system, possibly
allowing confidential or personal information to be compromised. Unlike viruses and worms, Trojans do not reproduce by
infecting other files nor do they self-replicate.

A Trojan horse is not a virus. It is a destructive program that looks as a genuine application. Unlike viruses, Trojan horses
do not replicate themselves but they can be just as destructive. Trojans also open a backdoor entry to your computer which
gives malicious users/programs access to your system, allowing confidential and personal information to be theft.

Virus

A computer virus attaches itself to a program or file so it can spread from one computer to another, leaving infections as it
travels. Much like human viruses, computer viruses can range in severity: Some viruses cause only mildly annoying
effects while others can damage your hardware, software or files. Almost all viruses are attached to an executable file,
which means the virus may exist on your computer but it cannot infect your computer unless you run or open the
malicious program. It is important to note that a virus cannot be spread without a human action, (such as running an
infected program) to keep it going. People continue the spread of a computer virus, mostly unknowingly, by sharing
infecting files or sending e-mails with viruses as attachments in the e-mail.
Worms

A worm is similar to a virus by its design, and is considered to be a sub-class of a virus. Worms spread from computer to
computer, but unlike a virus, it has the capability to travel without any help from a person. A worm takes advantage of file
or information transport features on your system, which allows it to travel unaided. The biggest danger with a worm is its
capability to replicate itself on your system, so rather than your computer sending out a single worm, it could send out
hundreds or thousands of copies of itself, creating a huge devastating effect. One example would be for a worm to send a
copy of itself to everyone listed in your e-mail address book. Then, the worm replicates and sends itself out to everyone
listed in each of the receiver's address book, and the manifest continues on down the line. Due to the copying nature of a
worm and its capability to travel across networks the end result in most cases is that the worm consumes too much system
memory (or network bandwidth), causing Web servers, network servers and individual computers to stop responding. In
more recent worm attacks such as the much-talked-about .Blaster Worm., the worm has been designed to tunnel into your
system and allow malicious users to control your computer remotely.

Spyware

software that enables a user to obtain covert information about another's computer activities by transmitting data covertly
from their hard drive

antivirus doesn’t pick up spyware.

Keylogger this is a spyware that tracks the activities of a keyboard. Can be hardware or software.

Spam

irrelevant or unsolicited messages sent over the Internet, typically to a large number of users, for the purposes of
advertising, phishing, spreading malware, etc.

Explain how information technology system components can be threats, vulnerability, countermeasures attacks and
compromises to organisation

definition of threat: a statement of an intention to inflict pain, injury, damage, or other hostile action on someone in
retribution for something done or not done.

Effects: causes bad reputation for example nations, ransomware.

Explain the risk or threats associated with disasters or destruction

External risks: natural disasters, vandalism, theft

Internal risks:

Disasters: natural disasters

Use urge protector, stabilizers, battery backup, solar..

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that allows a computer to keep running for at least a short time when
the primary power source is lost. It also provides protection from power surges.

Having a fire: damage hardware

Get fire proof cabinets, back up.


How to deal with terrorism

the unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims.

Examine various other computer security, health and safety and environmental risk and threats.

Ergonomics

Computer vision syndrome

Specify key mitigation strategies to counter risks

 biometric devices, encryption (changing data into another form for security purposes), audit trails who last use the
system. Transaction laws (who enter data who doesn’t)
 theft detection
 company policy

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