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What is academic writing?

Writing is a skill that is required in many contexts throughout life.
However, academic writing is quite different from personal writing
because it follows its own set of rules and practices:

 Ideas are usually organised in a formal order or structure.

 Ideas are supported by references from academic literature.

 In contrast to personal writing, academic writing is different because it deals with the theories and causes of a given

topic, as well as exploring alternative explanations for these theories or events.

 Academic writing follows a particular tone, which uses concise, formal, and objective language. Academic writing also

adheres to traditional conventions of punctuation, grammar, and spelling.

Structure
Some kind of structure is required, such as an introduction, essay body
paragraphs, and a conclusion. This simple structure is typical of
an essay format, as well as other assignment writing tasks, which may
not have a clearly articulated structure.
Academic writing structure [hide]
Typical university assignments follow a formal structure, which is often more formal than in personal writing.

Essays

 In an essay, the introductory paragraphtells the reader what the essay is about and what the following paragraphs

(called body paragraphs) will discuss.

 The introduction may also summarise very succinctly, in a sentence or two, your position on the issue (this is called

a thesis statement). An introduction is usually 10-15% of the total word limit.

 Your essay body paragraphs are used to support your thesis statement. The first sentence of each paragraph

(sometimes called a topic sentence) should tell the reader what the paragraph is about. The rest of the paragraph is

used to explain or develop this idea.

 The final paragraph, the conclusion, summarises the points made in your essay body paragraphs. You should not

introduce new information in the conclusion.

 Sometimes, you can use the concluding paragraph to broaden discussion to the implications or future advancements

surrounding the issues addressed. Usually a conclusion is about 10% of the total word limit.

Referencing
A significant difference between academic writing and other kinds of
writing is the use of citations and referencing of published authors.
Referencing and citation [hide]

 If you make claims, judgements or statements about something in academic writing, there is an expectation that you

will support your opinion by linking it to what a published author has previously written about the issue.

 Citing the work of other authors is central to academic writing because it shows you have read the literature,

understood the ideas, and have integrated these issues and varying perspectives into the assignment task.

 The importance placed on referring to other authors in your work can be reflected in the elaborate referencing

conventions that have been created within different disciplines, such as APA (American Psychological Association)

referencing, which is used in psychology, education, some social sciences, as well as for business.

Academic tone
Like all varieties of writing, academic writing has its own tone, which
dictates the choice of words and phrasing.
Academic tone [hide]
Academic writing typically aims to be:

 objective (e.g. using inclusive language)

 concise
 formal (e.g. avoiding slang, exclamation marks, contractions)
The tone of academic writing can also vary significantly depending on the subject-area and the academic discipline
you are writing for.

The readings, textbook, and study guide of your course show you what tone is expected in the paper, so study their
style carefully.

The audience
It is important to remember who you are writing for. Being conscious of
academic tone suggests that you are aware of your audience and
respect the formality normally associated with academic writing.
When writing academically, you must target a more general audience
than just your lecturer and/or marker. You should assume that your
readers will be intelligent thinking people, but they may not be
specifically informed of your topic. Do not presume that your reader
knows all the terms and concepts associated with your work. This may
mean you have to give concise definitions or explanations of key terms
and events.

Punctuation and grammar

In academic writing you should always follow rules of punctuation and
grammar. Punctuation and the conventions of grammar are universally
known systems (within individual languages) that maintain clarity and
avoid ambiguity in expression. It is important that the spelling and
grammar check software on your computer are turned on and set to the
correct language.

Writing objectively
Being objective suggests that you are concerned about facts and are not
influenced by personal feelings or biases. Part of being objective is being
fair in your work. Try to consider both sides of an argument and avoid
making value judgements by using words such as wonderful or
appalling. Being objective also makes your work more professional and
credible.
 Techniques for making your writing
more objective
Be explicit in expressing your ideas:
 several ⇒ 10

 most of the population ⇒ 70%

 some time ago ⇒ three years ago; or in 2006

Avoid intensifiers which can tend to exaggerate

your writing in an imprecise, subjective way:
 For example, awfully, very, really.

Part of being objective is being balanced in your

work, professional and believable:
 Try to avoid making value judgements through use of words such as amazing or dreadful.

First vs. third person

Pronouns are a set of words that replace nouns. They can be used to
make your work less complicated and less repetitive. Examples of
pronouns include:

 First person: I, we, me, us

 Second person: you

 Third person: he, she, it, they, him, her, them

For some assignments, it is appropriate to use the first person (e.g.
reflective writing). However, for other assignments the third person is
preferred. Sometimes a mixture of the first and third person should be
used for different purposes. So, check your assignment guidelines for
each assignment, as it will differ for different assignment types, different
style guides, and different disciplines. If you are unsure, then check with
your course coordinator.

Writing concisely
It is important in academic writing to make your point in as few words as
possible. This is to show you understand the concepts you are
discussing and that you are not adding extra words to pad out your
assignments. Lecturers often impose word limits on assignments for this
very reason.

Techniques to make your writing more

concise
Make your points straight away
“The first point relates to…”, “Secondly…”, “Finally…”
Replace phrases with single words or stack your adjectives
“The group of science students sat their exams”
“the science students sat their exams”

“Smith (2006) also believed this to be true, but took into

consideration the fact that some managers also preferred to have long
meetings that took all day”
“Smith(2006) agreed, but considered the fact that some managers
preferred to have longer, all-day meetings.”
Avoid qualifying words which mean the same thing
“Records” instead of “past records”
“Separate” instead of “separate out”
“In retrospect” instead of “looking back in retrospect”
 Omit unnecessary words
“lowering the rope” instead of “lowering the rope down”
“measuring the job” instead of “measuring up the job”
“because” instead of “due to the fact that”
Avoid saying the same thing twice
“The farmer sheared the sheep and removed all their wool” could simply
be replaced with “The farmer sheared the sheep”
Be wary of clumsy sentences where extra words have been added that
detract from the point being made
“There are several of the soldiers, each with their guns and ammunition,
who gathered at the gates of the camp before dawn.”
A better way would be to say: “Several of the soldiers, each with their
own guns and ammunition, gathered at the camp gates before dawn.”

First vs. third person

Pronouns are a set of words that replace nouns. They can be used to
make your work less complicated and less repetitive. Examples of
pronouns include:

 First person: I, we, me, us

 Second person: you

 Third person: he, she, it, they, him, her, them

For some assignments, it is appropriate to use the first person. However,

for other assignments the third person is preferred. Sometimes a mixture
of the first and third person should be used for different purposes. So,
check your assignment guidelines for each assignment, as it will differ
for different assignment types, different style guides, and different
disciplines. If you are unsure, then check with your course coordinator.

First person preference

The first person can be used to make writing more concise when
providing personal reflection, stating a position, or outlining the structure
of an assignment.
Some disciplines/lecturers allow or encourage the use of first or second
person ('I', 'we', 'you', etc.). The use of the first person is also
recommended/allowed in some style guides. For example, in the
American Psychological Association Publication Manual (6th ed.) it is
recommended that authors use the first person to avoid ambiguity and
anthropomorphism.

How to use the first person

The following examples illustrate some ways you can use the first
person in your writing.
Show all | Hide all
Example 1: Structuring an essay [hide]

In this essay, I will argue that gender and ethnicity factors affect buying behaviours.

I will argue that gender and ethnicity factors affect buying behaviours.

The essay will examine how gender and ethnicity factors affect buying behaviour.

Example 2: Describing research you conducted [hide]

I found that...

We informed participants that...

The authors informed participants that...

Example 3: Describing research you conducted [hide]

We compared...

Our comparison of...

The table compared...

Avoiding subjectivity using the first
person
Academic training requires students to support the claims they make by
providing solid arguments and/or evidence. So, even when the first
person is used in academic writing it can, and usually should, still
sound objective.

How to sound objective using the first

person when making a claim or stating
an argument
The following examples illustrate ways to use the first person in your
writing while sounding objective (i.e. making it clear that you are not just
expressing an unsupported personal view and that you are concerned
about facts and/or reasons rather than being influenced by personal
feelings or biases).
Show all | Hide all
Example 1 [hide]

I will argue that assisting developing countries to grow crops, such as tobacco and opium poppies, is not in
their best long-term interests.

I think that assisting developing countries to grow crops, such as tobacco and opium poppies, is not in their
best long-term interests.

I feel that assisting developing countries to grow crops, such as tobacco and opium poppies, is not in their best
long-term interests.

Example 2 [hide]

The evidence I presented above indicates that paying benefits to high school students encourages them to
stay at school when they would be better off in paid employment.

In my opinion, paying benefits to high-school students encourages them to stay at school when they would be
better off in paid employment.
 I believe that paying benefits to high-school students encourages them to stay at school when they would be
better off in paid employment.

Example 3 [hide]

I have presented reasons why educationalists need training in observing pupil behaviour to pick up on
unexpressed needs.

As a teacher, I believe teachers need training in observing pupil behaviour to pick up on unexpressed needs.

How to use the first person in reflective

writing
Reflective writing relies on personal experience, so it is necessary to use
the first person.
The following examples illustrate some ways to use the first person
in Reflective writing.
Show all | Hide all
Examples [hide]

I found this experience positive...

I witnessed...

I succeeded in...

I achieved my goal...

I could have reacted differently in this situation...

Third person preference

Many disciplines/lecturers discourage the use of the first or second
person ('I', 'we', 'you', etc.) and prefer the use of the third person
because it makes writing sound objective.
How to avoid the first person
The following examples illustrate ways to write without using the first
person.
Show all | Hide all
Example 1: Structuring the essay [hide]

How gender and ethnicity factors affect buying behaviours will be examined.

Careful examination of gender and ethnicity factors shows how these affect buying behaviour.

In this essay, I will examine how gender and ethnicity factors affect buying behaviours.

Example 2: Making a claim or stating an argument [hide]

Assisting developing countries to grow crops such as tobacco and opium poppies is not in their best long-term
interests.

I think that assisting developing countries to grow crops such as tobacco and opium poppies is not in their best
long-term interests.

Example 3: Making a claim or stating an argument [hide]

Paying benefits to high school students encourages them to stay at school when they would be better off in
paid employment.

In my opinion, paying benefits to high-school students encourages them to stay at school when they would be
better off in paid employment.

Example 4: Making a claim or stating an argument [hide]

Educationalists need training in observing pupil behaviour to pick up on unexpressed needs.

As a teacher, I believe teachers need training in observing pupil behaviour to pick up on unexpressed needs.

Example 5: Describing research you conducted [hide]

It was found that...

Participants in this study were informed that...

We informed participants that...

I found that...
 Inclusive language
Academic writing should avoid making assumptions or value judgements
about anyone based on their gender. These can cloud the objectivity of
your writing. Many of these assumptions are implicit within language, so
it is necessary to avoid terms that

 emphasise gender inappropriately or irrelevantly

 treat people of any gender unequally

 minimise or trivialise people of any gender

Pronouns
While “he” has been used historically as a generic term, it should be
avoided. “He or she” is a better alternative, but it can sound awkward:
If a student finds that he or she has problems with his or her report, he or
she should ask his or her lecturer for help before he or she gets
thoroughly confused.
A better option is to use the plural pronoun “they”:
If students find that they have problems with their reports, they should
ask their lecturers for help before they get thoroughly confused.
If you read in a course handout “every student should attend his
classes,” the writer is either assuming that none of the students are
women, or that those who are, will not mind being thought of as male.
Neither assumption is safe.

When gender is irrelevant

Avoid using words or phrases which indicate gender when gender is
irrelevant:
I went to a function for the celebrated lady novelist.
No-one would say “I went to a function for the celebrated man novelist”,
so this gender identification may imply that the novelist is a dilettante- a
woman who writes as a kind of elegant hobby rather than as a serious
career. If you need to identify her further, use her name:
 I went to a function for the celebrated novelist, Keri Hulme.

Compound words
Be cautious with words and phrases compounded with “man”. Like “he”,
“man” used to be used in a generic sense, but there are now more
appropriate words to use:

 spaceman > astronaut

 mankind > people, humanity

 manmade > artificial

 salesman > seller, sales representative

The bias may not be intentional, such as using chairman instead of chair
or housewife instead of homemaker. However, it is important to avoid
alienating or insulting the audience.

Diminutives
Avoid using words which use a diminutive to imply female:

 usherette > usher

 poetess > poet

(Neither ushers nor poets are inherently male or female.)

Other words
“Woman” and “women” are more commonly used than “lady” and
“ladies”
Ensure that paired words are equal. For example, instead of “man and
wife” use either “man and woman” or “husband and wife”.
Assignment Planning

Common command words

Account for: To give reasons, explain why something has happened.
Analyse: To break the subject up into its main ideas, and evaluate them
Assess: To judge the value of a subject critically.
Comment on: To discuss, explain, and give your opinion on the ideas
expressed.
Compare: To show the similarities and differences between two or more
subjects.
Criticise: To make your judgement about the views expressed and
support your judgement with evidence.
Define: To give the meaning of a word term, distinguishing it from
closely related subjects, sometimes by examples and illustrations.
Describe: To give a detailed account of the characteristics of a subject.
Discuss: To investigate and present the different aspects of a problem
or subject, usually in support of a position or argument.
Evaluate: To appraise or estimate the worth of something, to some
extent an explained personal opinion.
Examine: To inquire into, and consider a problem carefully.
Explain: To account for a subject's character, causes, results,
implications, etc., by clearly stating and interpreting the relevant details.
Generate: To propose new ideas or new interpretations of available
subjects.
Hypothesise: To propose a supposition which can be used as a basis
for testing conclusions.
Illustrate: To explain or clarify a problem using concrete examples,
diagrams, or figures.
Integrate: To draw together in a logical related way two or more subjects
not previously related.
Interpret: To explain the meaning of something, to make it clear and
explicit, and to evaluate it in terms of your own knowledge.
Justify: To provide the reasons for your conclusions or for the statement
made in the question.
Outline: To give the main features or general principles of a subject
leaving out minor details.
Prove: To show the truth of a statement by argument, experiment, or
test.
Relate: To establish the connection between one thing and another.
Review: To survey and critically examine a subject.
State: To describe the subject in precise terms, or set down an exact
meaning.
Summarise: To make a concise account of the main ideas of a subject
or argument, omitting explanatory details and examples.

Organising points in an
assignment
Once you have identified the command word and interpreted the
assignment question, you need to plan how your assignment will be
structured. This is best done at the same time as you
are researching the topic. The organisation of an assignment is also
dependent on the type of assignment.
In understanding how to organise and structure the points you want to
make in an assignment, it is worthwhile demonstrating several different
patterns to use.

Example 1
Discuss the social effects surrounding an Act of Parliament.
Imagine you have chosen an Act of Parliament and have identified two
main effects, with each effect incorporating several other sub-effects.
Paragraphs could be structured around one or more sub-effects that
comprise a main effect.

Introduction
Introduce Effects A and B.
 Effect A
 Sub-effect (1st paragraph in body of assignment)

 Sub-effect (2nd paragraph)

 Sub-effect (3rd paragraph)

 Sub-effect (joined onto 3rd paragraph)

Effect B
 Sub-effect (4th and 5th paragraphs)

 Sub-effect (6th paragraph)

 Sub-effect (7th paragraph)

Conclusion
Summarise and highlight the three main sub-effects, as well as future
implications of the Act.

Example 2
Compare and contrast Smith and Brown's theories about human
development.
This question is basically asking you to write about the similarities and
differences between two things. Imagine you have read up on both
theories, but have found that there are more differences than similarities.
Further, within the similarities there are two main features and within the
differences there are three main features.

Introduction
Introduce Similarities and Differences

Similarities
Feature A
 Example from Smith's theory

 Example from Brown's theory

Feature B

 Example from Brown's theory

 Example from Smith's theory

 Another example from Smith's theory that replicates a part of Brown's theory

Differences
Feature C

 Examples of different processes of analysis from each theory

Feature D

 Example from Smith's theory that is not provided in Brown's

 Reason why Brown's theory does not include the stage in Smith's

Feature E

 Example from Brown's theory that is not in Smith's

 Reason why Smith's theory does not include the stage in Brown's

Conclusion
Summarise, and highlight overall there are more differences than
similarities, which may derive from the structural differences between the
theories.

Example 3
Discuss cross-cultural communication issues in business organisations.
Imagine you have identified four main issues, their associated causes,
and potential solutions.
 Introduction
Introduce the topic of cross-cultural communication and its influence
upon business environments. Then briefly introduce the four main issues
surrounding cross-cultural communication to be discussed in the essay.

Issue 1
 Identify and explain nature of problem or difficulty

 Outline causal factors

 Describe two possible solutions and briefly evaluate pros and cons of each solution

Issue 2
 Identify and explain nature of problem or difficulty

 Outline causal factors

 Describe two possible solutions and briefly evaluate pros and cons of each solution

Issue 3
 Identify and explain nature of problem or difficulty

 Outline causal factors

 Describe two possible solutions and briefly evaluate pros and cons of each solution

Issue 4
 Identify and explain nature of problem or difficulty

 Outline causal factors

 Describe two possible solutions and briefly evaluate pros and cons of each solution
 Researching
Information for assignments can come from many different sources:

 Textbooks

 Other books

 Journal articles
 Websites

The most useful sources are usually identified by your lecturer. They are
given in reading lists from lectures or study guides. These sources have
been hand-picked for the course, and so are likely to be particularly
relevant.
They are usually ‘academic’, meaning that they come from a recognised
authority in the subject and have been vetted by other authorities (peer-
reviewed). Academic sources are generally reliable and thorough,
making them valuable for your research.
When looking for information outside the recommended readings,
academic sources are particularly valuable. See identifying academic
sources for more on recognising academic sources.
Not all sources are created equal. They can be out of date, or offer only
a limited perspective. They can be inaccurate, or even completely
wrong. When looking for information, evaluate the quality of sources that
you use.

Library research
The best place to find information is the Massey Library. Many of the
books and journals here have been chosen directly by your lecturers,
and the library has greater coverage of academic subjects than most
general-purpose libraries.

Identifying academic sources

When researching a topic for a university assignment, ‘academic’
sources are preferred over other types of writing. They carry more
weight and authority, and are likely to be more convincing.
Academic sources are
 Authoritative: academic sources identify the qualifications and expertise of the writer. A source written by a

recognised expert in a field is more likely to be trustworthy (although expertise should never be accepted blindly -

see evaluating source qualityfor more).

 Sourced: academic writing is careful to credit the origins of information and ideas, usually by means of a reference list

or bibliography.

 Peer-reviewed: other academics have read the source and checked it for accuracy. Before publication in an

academic journal, for example, an article is checked by a panel of referees. Academic books are checked by editors

and other reviewers.

 Objective: academic sources aim to examine a topic fairly. This does not mean that they never take a side, but that

the source does not ignore alternative positions on the topic.

 Written for academics: academic sources target university lecturers, students, and professionals interested in the

theoretical side of a topic.

Types of academic source

The most common forms of academic source are

 Books

 Journal articles
 Published reports

Sources such as newspaper articles, magazine articles, opinion pieces,

and websites are not commonly academic, although there are some
exceptions. Many journal articles and reports can be found online, for
example.
Academic journals are very different from popular magazines, although
they bear several similarities. For more, see what type of source is this?
To identify an academic source, apply the criteria listed above:

 What are the qualifications of the author? Academic authors are likely to come from a university or institute, and

academic writing is often published by a university press.

 Are sources listed? Look for a reference list or bibliography.

 Has the writing been peer-reviewed? Peer-reviewed journals will have an editorial board or committee listed, or will

provide instructions to authors that describe a standard peer review.

 Is the writing objective? Sources that are blatantly one-sided are unlikely to be academic.

 Who is the target audience? Consider the style of the writing, the presence of advertising, and where you found the

source (Massey Library has a more comprehensive selection of academic sources than public libraries, for example).

It can help to consider the purpose of the source. Academic writing aims
to inform. It does not aim to sell something, or present one person's
opinion independent of evidence or logic.
 Marking guides
Marking guides describe in detail what is required for an assignment.
They are often attached to the assignment question.
The kinds of marking guides used at university can vary according to
discipline, department, and course co-ordinator. Further, the individual
preferences of the marker will have a significant bearing on your grade.
Generally, however, the marking criterion for assignments at university is
likely to be divided into two broad areas: content and form.
Content is about the quality of the discussion you raise. This includes the
depth and coverage of your explanations and descriptions, the type of
evidence you use to support your points, and how well you are able to
evaluate the issues you have been assigned.
In contrast, form relates to technical aspects of writing, such as whether
you have followed grammatical rules and correct spelling, and how
clearly you have documented your evidence in the body of the
assignment and in the reference list at the back of your assignment.
Form also extends to the physical presentation of the assignment, which
involves conforming to the instructions given for formatting and layout.
The following criteria commonly appear in marking guides (adapted from
Holmes, 1995).

Content
 Coverage: Have you carried out all the requirements of the assignment thoroughly?

 Relevance: Is what you have written relevant to the requirements of the assignment?

 Overall structure: Is the overall structure of your assignment clear?

 Understanding: Do you show understanding of the content of the topic selected and relevant concepts for evaluating

it?

 Use of terms: Do you use technical terms accurately and appropriately?

 Clarity of explanation: Are your explanations clear, logical, and understandable?

 Reading: Do you show evidence of having read widely in the relevant area?
 Critical viewpoint: Can you see flaws in the theories/frameworks used in the topic being discussed?

Form
 Written expression: Grammar, spelling, and punctuation.

 Documentation: What references have you used to support your ideas? Are they correctly listed at the end and

correctly cited in the text of your assignment?

 Word limits: Did you keep to the word limit?

 Presentation: Is your assignment clearly presented and readable?

Example 1
Content
Very
Unsastisfactory Satisfactory Good Outstanding
good

Coverage 1 2 3 4 5

Relevance 1 2 3 4 5

Overall structure 1 2 3 4 5

Understanding 1 2 3 4 5

Use of terms 1 2 3 4 5

Clarity of explanation 1 2 3 4 5

Reading 1 2 3 4 5
 Critical viewpoint 1 2 3 4 5

Form
Very
Unsastisfactory Satisfactory Good Outstanding
good

Written expression 1 2 3 4 5

Documentation 1 2 3 4 5

Word limits 1 2 3 4 5

Presentation 1 2 3 4 5

Example 2
Another style of marking guide assigns a ‘weight’ to each criterion.

 Scope of assignment: 50%

 Evidence of reading: 10%

 Structure and organisation: 30%

 Presentation: 10%

 Total: 100%

References and further reading

Holmes, J. (1995). Ling 312: Sociolinguistics assignment marking guide. Wellington, New Zealand: Victoria
University.

Bloom, B. S., Englehart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational
objectives. The classification of educational goals: Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.