Unit 15 Electrostatics and Gauss’s Law

15.1 Electric charge

15.2 Coulomb’s law
15.3 Shell theorems for electrostatics
15.4 Electric field
15.5 Electric field lines
15.6 Shielding and charging by induction
15.7 Electric flux
15.8 Gauss’s law

15.1 Electric charge

There are two kinds of charges, namely, positive (+) charge and negative (−) charge.
• Like charges repel

+ + − −

• Unlike charges attract

− +

• Objects with zero net change are said to be electrically neutral.

• Electric charges are generated after rubbing between materials.

Example
After rubbing plastic rod (or amber rod) with fur, the plastic rod (or
amber rod) becomes negatively charged and the fur is positively
charged.

1
After rubbing glass rod with silk, the glass rod becomes positively charged and the silk is
negatively charged.

A familiar example of an electrically neutral object is the atom.

Atoms have a small, dense nucleus with a positive charge surrounded
by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. All electrons have exactly
the same electric charge. This charge is very small, and is defined to
have a magnitude, e = 1.60 × 10−19 C. S.I. unit of charge is coulomb,
C. Clearly, the charge on an electron, which is negative, is −e. This is
one of the defining, or intrinsic, properties of the electron. Another
intrinsic property of the electron is its mass, me:
me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg
In contrast, the charge on a proton – one of the main constituents of nuclei – is exactly +e. As
a result, since atoms have equal numbers of electrons and protons, their net charge is
precisely zero. The mass of the proton is
mp = 1.673 × 10−27 kg.
Note that this is about 2000 times larger than the mass of the electron. The other main
constituent of the nucleus is the neutron, which, as its name implies, has zero charge. Its mass
is slightly larger than that of the proton:
mn = 1.675 × 10−27 kg.

Example
How is it that rubbing a piece of amber with fur gives the amber a
charge?

Answer:
Rubbing the fur across the amber simply results in a transfer of
charge from the fur to the amber – with the total amount of charge
remaining unchanged. Before charging, the fur and the amber are
both neutral. During the rubbing process some electrons are
transferred from the fur to the amber, giving the amber a net
negative charge, and leaving the fur with a net positive charge. At
no time during this process is charge ever created or destroyed.

2
This, in fact, is an example of one of the fundamental conservation laws of physics:
Conservation of electric charge.
When charge is transferred from one object to another it is generally due to the movement of
electrons. In a typical solid, the nuclei of the atoms are fixed in position. The outer electrons
of these atoms, however, are often weakly bound and fairly easily separated. The atom that
loses an electron is a positive ion, and the atom that receives an extra electron becomes a
negative ions. This is charging by separation.

Example
Find the amount of positive electric charge in one mole of helium atoms.

Answer:
Note that the nucleus of a helium atom consists of two protons and two neutrons. The total
positive charge in a mole is
N A (2e) = (6.02 × 10 23 )(2)(1.60 × 10 −19 C ) = 1.93 × 10 5 C .

15.1.1 Polarization
We know that charges of opposite sign attract, but it is
also possible for a charged rod to attract small objects
that have zero net charge. The mechanism responsible
for this attraction is called polarization. When a charged
rod is far from a neutral object the atoms in the object
are undistorted. As the rod is brought closer, however,
the atoms distort, producing an excess of one type of
charge on the surface of the object (in this case a negative charge). This induced charge is
referred to as a polarization charge. Since the sign of the polarization charge is the opposite
of the sign of the charge on the rod, there is an attractive force between the rod and the
object.

15.1.2 Conductor and insulator

Conductors: materials that allow electric charges to move more or less freely, e.g. metals
Insulators: materials in which charges are not free to move, e.g. nonmetallic substances, say,
amber.

3
On a microscopic level, the difference between conductors and
insulators is that the atoms in conductors allow one or more of their
outermost electrons to become detached. These detached electrons,
often referred to as “conduction electrons,” can move freely
throughout the conductor. The right figures show the charging of a
conductor by touching it with charged rod.

15.2 Coulomb’s law

Electric force – Coulomb’s law
q1 q 2
Fe = k , where k (electrostatic constant > 0) is a constant.
r2
1
The electrostatic constant k = = 8.99 × 10 9 N ⋅ m 2 / C 2 , where ε0 is called permittivity
4πε 0

constant of free space, and ε 0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 C 2 / N ⋅ m 2 .

Gravitational force – Newton’s gravitational law
m1 m2
Fg = −G 2
, where G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 .
r
The negative sign is inserted to represent an attractive force.

Remarks:
1. Fundamental laws cannot be derived!

⎧Coulombs law,
⎪ Newtons law,
⎪ are concluded according to results in experiments and have survived in
⎨
⎪ # every experimental test.
⎪⎩etc.

2. Objects are considered as point particle or point charge, if d1 , d 2 << r .

r
+ −

d1 d2
3. Newton’s gravitational law is concluded for point particles. Similarly, Coulomb’s law
is also for the point charge.

4
4. The magnitude of the force of interaction between two point changes is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
K K
F1 F2
F1 = − F2 Obey Newton’s third law + +
q1 q2

5. Unit: International System of Units or Metric System (SI)

Charge q: measured in Coulomb or C.

Remark:
Electrostatic constant is related to the speed of light c:
1
c= ,
ε 0 µ0

where c = 2.998 × 10 8 m / s , and µ0 = 4π × 10-7 N/A2, the permeability of free space.

Example
Compare the electric and gravitational forces between a proton and an electron in a hydrogen
atom.

Answer:
Taking the distance between the two particles to be the radius of hydrogen, r = 5.29 × 10 −11 m ,
we find that the electric force has a magnitude
qe q p (1.60 × 10 −19 C )(1.60 × 10 −19 C )
Fe = k = (8.99 × 10 N ⋅ m / C )
9 2 2
−11
= 8.22 × 10 −8 N .
r2 (5.29 × 10 m) 2

Similarly, the magnitude of the gravitational force between the electron and the proton is

me m p (9.11 × 10 −31 kg )(1.673 × 10 −27 kg )

Fg = G = (6.67 × 10 −11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 ) −11
= 3.63 × 10 − 47 N .
r2 (5.29 × 10 m) 2

Hence, we obtain the ratio of the two forces

Fe 8.22 × 10 −8 N
= − 47
= 2.26 × 10 39 = 2,260,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
Fg 3.63 × 10 N

5
Example
We study the classical model for Hydrogen atom. The electron undergoes a circular motion
with a radius a 0 called Bohr radius. Find the speed of electron.
The constants are given as below.
electron
D
−11
a 0 = 5.29 × 10 m = 0.529 A a0

me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg Proton

Answer:
The force acting on the electron is obtained in the last example, where F = Fe + Fg ≈ Fe .

me v 2 Fa 0
But, F = (the centripetal force). Hence, v 2 =
a0 me

Fa 0 8.22 × 10 −8 × 5.29 × 10 −11

v= = = 2.18 × 10 6 m / s .
me 9.11 × 10 −31

15.2.1 Superposition of Coulomb’s force

The force exerted on charge 1 by charge 2:
G 1 q1 q 2
F12 = rˆ12
4πε 0 r12 2
G y
where r̂12 : unit vector along r12 . Point charge

⎧ same sign → repulsion q1

q1 and q 2 ⎨
⎩opposite sign → attraction K K K K
r1 r12 = r1 − r2
Similarly, The force exerted on charge 2 by charge 1:
G 1 q1 q 2
F21 = rˆ21 q2
4πε 0 r21 2 K
r2
G O x
where r̂21 : unit vector along r21 .
q2
The total force acting on charge q due to coulomb’s forces F1, F2 and F3.
q1 K q3
F = F1 + F2 + F3 (Principle of superposition) F2
K K
The direction of forces shown in the right figure, representing that the F1 F3
charge q is of opposite charge of q1, q2 and q3. q

6
Example
Three charges, each equal to +2.90 µC, are placed at three corners of a square 0.500 m on a
side. Find the magnitude and direction of the net force on charge number 3.

Answer:

y
G G
F31 F

r=0.500 m θ
2 G
3 F32

2r
r=0.500 m

1 x

The magnitude of force exerted on charge 3 by charge 1:

q2 (2.90 × 10 −6 C ) 2
F31 = k = (8.99 × 10 9 N ⋅ m 2 / C 2 ) = 0.151 N
( 2r ) 2 2(0.500 m) 2

The magnitude of force exerted on charge 3 by charge 2:

−6
q2 2 ( 2.90 × 10 C)2
F32 = k = (8.99 × 10 9
N ⋅ m 2
/ C ) = 0.302 N
r2 (0.500 m) 2

G G
The components of F31 and F32 :

F31, x = F31 cos 45.0 o = (0.151 N )(0.707) = 0.107 N

F31, y = F31 sin 45.0 o = (0.151 N )(0.707) = 0.107 N

F32, x = F32 cos 0 o = (0.302 N )(1) = 0.151 N

F32, y = F32 sin 0 o = (0.151 N )(0) = 0 N

The components of the resultant force:

Fx = F31, x + F32, x = 0.107 N + 0.302 N = 0.409 N

Fy = F31, y + F32, y = 0.107 N + 0 N = 0.107 N

The resultant force acting on charge 3:

2 2
F = Fx + Fy = 0.423 N

7
The direction of the resultant force on charge 3:
⎛ F3, y ⎞
θ = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 14.7 o .
⎟
⎝ F3, x ⎠

15.3 Shell theorems for electrostatics

Theorem 1:
A uniform spherical shell of charge behaves, for external points, as if all its charge were
concentrated at its center.
1 q1 q q1
F=
4πε 0 r 2

Total charge q
on spherical shell

Theorem 2:
A uniform spherical shell of charge exerts no force on a charged particle placed inside the
shell.
F=0

Remarks: The theorems are similar to the gravitational case.

15.4 Electric field

Test body
• Gravitational field (a vector field)
m
G − G M e m rˆ
G F r2 M
g= = = −G 2e rˆ
m m r
Gravitational field: Gravitational force per unit mass Earth
G
• Electric field E
G
G Fe 1 q K
E≡ = rˆ Fe
q 0 4πε 0 r 2 q0
A test charge
Electric field: Electrostatic force per unit charge with positive
Charged charge
SI unit of electric field: Newton/Coulomb or N/C particle q

8
Remark:
1. Why do we need to introduce the concept of Electric field?
Introducing the field as an intermediary between the charges, we can represent the interaction
as: charge field charge

Our problem of determining the interaction between the charges is therefore reduced to two
separate problems: (1) determine, by measuring or calculation, the electric field established
by the first charge at every point in space, and (2) calculate the force that the field exerts on
the second charge placed at a particular point in space.

2. Principle of superposition in electric field:

The resultant electric field E at a point is given by E = E1 + E2 + E3 , where E1, E2, and E3
are the electric fields experienced at that point due to charge 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

15.4.1 Discrete and continuous charge distribution

a) Discrete case
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅

b) Continuous case l
i) When charge is uniformly distributed along a line.
Total q
Linear charge density
q dq
λ≡ charge per unit length (λ = )
l dl
Total charge q

ii) Charge on a surface (uniformly distributed)

Surface charge density
Surface area S
q dq
σ≡ charge per unit area (σ = )
S dS

Total charge q
iii) On a volume
Volume charge density
q dq
ρ≡ charge per unit volume ρ=
V dV Volume V

9
Example (Challenging)
Find the electric field at a point P, which is at the top of the center of a charged ring. The
total charge on the ring is q.

G
dE ' G
E
P

G G
θ dE ' θ θ dE '
r z

ds R Total charge q P

Answer:
Due to the symmetry of the ring, the electric field along z direction can be calculated as
follows.
z 1 dq 1 λds
E = ∫ dE ' cosθ , where cosθ = and dE ' = = .
r 4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 z + R 2
2

q dq
The linear charge density of the ring λ = = , where R is the radius of ring.
2πR ds
1 λz
4πε 0 ( z + R 2 )3/ 2 ∫N
E= 2
ds
2πR

1 z(2πRλ )
=
4πε 0 ( z 2 + R 2 ) 3/ 2
Plug in the expression, 2πRλ = q , hence, the electric field at any point P, a perpendicular
q z
distance z from the plane and center of ring, E = .
4πε 0 ( z + R 2 ) 3 / 2
2

Remark:
When z >> R, that is the distance is much larger than the dimension of the ring,
1 1 1
≈ 2 = 3
(z + R )
2 2 3/ 2
( z + 0) 3/ 2
z
q
E≈
4πε 0 z 2

This is as if the case where R → 0 , the ring seems to be a point charge!

10
Example (Challenging)
Find the electric field at a point P, which is at the top of the center of a uniformly charged
disk. The total charge on the disk is q.
Answer:
The surface charge density
q G
σ= E
πR 2
Disk of Radius R
The differential area of the ring
dA = 2πrdr
r
dq = σ dA = σ (2πrdr ) R
q
The electric field experienced at a perpendicular distance
z from the center of disk due to the differential ring. dA dr
r
Remember that we have an expression for the ring in the
previous section.
zdq σz 2r dr
dE = =
4πε 0 ( z + r )
2 2 3/ 2
4ε 0 ( z + r 2 ) 3 / 2
2

σz R 2r dr
E = ∫ dE = ∫
4ε 0 0 (z + r 2 )3/ 2
2

R 2r dr
Now, we let y = r 2 and we have dy = 2rdr . The integral ∫0 (z + r 2 )3/ 2
2
becomes

2
1 R
R2 dy σz −
∫ = − +
2
, which gives E ( 2 )( z y ) 2
. Hence, we have
0 ( z 2 + y) 3 / 2 4ε 0 0

σ z
E= (1 − ).
2ε 0 z + R2
2

Remark:
σ
When R >> z (infinite sheet of charge), we have E = .
2ε 0

z 1 R2
When z >> R, we have = ≈ 1−
z2 + R2 R2 2z 2
1+
z2
σR 2 q q
That is E = . By using σ = , we have E = (Result of point charge!)
4ε 0 z 2
πR 2
4πε 0 z 2

11
15.5 Electric field lines
Rules for drawing electric field lines
Electric field lines:
(i) Point in the direction of electric field vector E at every point;
(ii) Start at positive (+) charges or at infinity;
(iii) End at negative (–) charges or at infinity;
(iv) Are more dense where E has a greater magnitude. In particular, the number of lines
entering or leaving a charge is proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

Example
Which of the following statements is correct: Electric field lines (a) can or (b) cannot
intersect?
Answer:
By definition, electric field lines are always tangent to the electric field. Since the electric
force, and hence the electric field, can point in only one direction at any given location, it

12
follows that field lines cannot intersect. If they did, the field at the intersection point would
have two conflicting directions.

15.6 Shielding and charging by induction

In a perfect conductor there are enormous numbers f electrons
completely free to move about. This simple fact has some rather
interesting consequences. Consider, for example, a solid metal sphere
attached to an insulating base as shown in figure. Suppose a positive
charge Q is placed on the sphere. The question is: How does this charge
distribute itself on the sphere when it is in equilibrium? In particular,
does the charge spread itself uniformly throughout the volume of the
sphere, or does it concentrate on the surface?
The answer is that the charge concentrates on the surface. Why should
this be the case? First, assume the opposite – that the charge is spread
uniformly throughout the sphere’s volume. If this were the case, a charge at location A would
experience an outward force due to the spherical distribution of charge between it and the
center of the sphere. Since charges are free to move, the charge at A would respond to this
force by moving toward the surface. Clearly, then, a uniform distribution of charge within the
sphere’s volume is not in equilibrium. In fact, the argument that a charge at point A will move
toward the surface can be applied to any charge within the sphere. The preceding result holds
no matter what the shape of the conductor. In general,
excess charge placed on a conductor, whether positive or negative, moves to the exterior
surface of the conductor.

15.6.1 Shielding
When electric charges are in equilibrium, the electric field within a conductor is zero; E = 0.
A straightforward extension of this idea explains the phenomenon of shielding, in which a
conductor “shields” its interior from external electric fields.

13
We also noted that the electric field lines contact conductor surfaces at right angles. If an
electric field contacted a conducting surface at an angle other than 90o, the result would be a
component of force parallel to the surface. This would result in a movement of electrons and
hence would not correspond to equilibrium.

15.6.2 Charging by induction

One way to charge an object is to touch it with a charged rod; but since
electric forces can act at a distance, it is also possible to charge an object
without making direct physical contact. This type of charging is referred
to as charging by induction.

14
15.7 Electric flux
The electric flux is defined as Φ, which is the product of the electric field and the area of
surface Φ = E ⋅ A .

Example
Consider a surface with area A and a uniform electric field penetrating the surface
perpendicularly. The electric flux is given by Φ = EA .

Example
Consider a surface with area A and a uniform electric field penetrating the surface with an
angle θ with the normal of surface. The electric flux is given by Φ = E ⋅ A . Or in scalar
form: Φ ≡ EA cos θ .

Surface area A

G
E
θ
ê

15
Remarks:
1. For a plane surface, the area vector A is defined as ê
Normal of the surface
A = Ae , where e is the normal vector.

2. For a curved surface, we have dA = dA ⋅ e . Area A

When the electric field E is not uniform, i.e., E = E (x, y, z), or if the surface is not a
plane, then Φ = ∑ E ⋅ ∆Ai or in the integral form Φ ≡ ∫ E ⋅ dA .
i

3. If the surface through which the flux is calculated is closed, the sign of the flux is as
follows:
• The flux is positive for field lines that leave the enclosed volume of the surface.
• The flux is negative for field lines that enter the enclosed volume of the surface.

15.8 Gauss’s law

In order to understand Gauss’s law, we first look at the following. Consider a point charge q
and a spherical surface of radius r and centered on the charge. The electric field on the
surface of the sphere has the constant magnitude
q
E=k .
r2
Since the electric field is everywhere perpendicular to the
G
spherical surface, it follows that the electric flux is simply E E
times the area A = 4πr2 of the sphere: +q r
⎛ q
Φ = EA = ⎜ k 2 (
⎞
)
⎟ 4πr = 4πkq
2

⎝ r ⎠
Plug in k = 1/(4πε0), we obtain the Gauss’s law
Gaussian surface with area 4πr2
q
Φ= .
ε0
Thus we find the very simple result that the electric flux through a sphere that encloses a
charge q is the charge divided by the permittivity of free space, ε0. This is a very nice result!!
As the electric field of many symmetrical system can be found readily with Gauss’s law.
Gauss’s law states that “the flux of the electric field over the Gaussian surface equals to the
net charge enclosed by that surface.”

16
Remarks:
1. Symmetrical situations arise in all fields of physics and, when possible, it makes sense
to cast the laws of physics in forms that take full advantage of this fact.
2. Gauss’s law is a new formulation of Coulomb’s law that can take advantage of
symmetry.
3. The integral form of Gauss’s law: ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = q , where ε 0 is the permittivity

constant.

Example
Consider the surface S shown in the figure. Is the electric flux through this surface (a)
negative, (b) positive, or (c) zero?

Answer:
Since the surface S encloses no charge, the net electric flux
through it must be zero, by Gauss’s law. That a charge +q is
nearby is irrelevant, because it is outside the volume enclosed
by the surface.
We can explain why the flux vanishes in another way. Notice
that the flux on portions of S near the charge is negative, since
field lines enter the enclosed volume there. On the other hand,
the flux is positive on the outer portions of S where field lines
exit the volume. The combination of these positive and negative contributions is a net flux of
zero. That is, the answer is (c).

15.8.1 Gaussian surface

Gaussian surface is a closed surface, e.g. sphere, cube, cylinder, etc. And, Gauss’s law tells
how the fields at the Gaussian surface are related to the charges contained within that surface.

Charges

Gaussian surface

17
Example
Calculate the electric field at a external point due to a point charge.

Answer:

We form a spherical Gaussian surface, centered at the charge, to enclose the charge q. The
G
electric field, E, is uniform on the spherical Gaussian surface. E
+q
From Gauss’s law ε 0 Φ = ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = q r

As E // dA and E is uniform on the surface, we have

ε 0 E ∫ dA = q or ε 0 E (4πr 2 ) = q
Gaussian surface with area 4πr2
q
E= ,
4πε 0 r 2
which gives the Coulomb’s law.

Remark 1: Gauss’s law ⇔ Coulomb’s law.

equivalent

Remark 2:
Suppose we have a spherical Gaussian surface, and if the electric field vectors are of uniform
magnitude and point radially outwards as shown. One can conclude that a net positive charge
must lie within the surface and that it must have spherical symmetry.

Charge inside?

? E

Spherical Gaussian surface

Example
Use Gauss’s law to investigate the space under a uniform electric field.

G
b dA

G
E

G
G dA G
dA a G E
E c

18
Answer:
We form a cylindrical Gaussian surface, which is immersed in a uniform field.
The electric flux:
Φ = ∫ E ⋅ dA = ∫ E ⋅ dA + ∫ E ⋅ dA + ∫ E ⋅ dA , where E ⋅ dA = EdA cosθ .
a b c

(i) Surface a θ = 180° ∫ E ⋅ dA = − EA

a

(ii) Surface b θ = 90° ∫ E ⋅ dA = 0

b

(iii) Surface c θ = 0° ∫ E ⋅ dA = EA
c

Φ = − EA + 0 + EA = 0
No charge is enclosed in the Gaussian surface.

Example
Find the electric field at a point very near to the surface of a charged conductor.

Answer:
q
Suppose charges q are on the right surface, the surface charge density is given by σ = , or
A
dq
in the language of calculus, σ ( r ) = .
dA
Now, we form the Gaussian surface as shown in figure. Near the conductor, the surface is
flat, so the E-field is // to e of the surface.
Apply the Gauss’s law, we have Gaussian
ê surface
ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = q Conductor G
a
c b E
∫ E ⋅ dA = ∫a
+∫ +∫
b c

i) For surface a, E = 0 (inside the conductor)

ii) For surface c, E ⊥ ê , hence we have E ⋅ dA = 0 . Charges q on surface

iii) For surface b, ∫ E ⋅ dA = E ⋅ A .

b

q σ
So, ε 0 EA = q ⇒ E = or E= .
ε0A ε0

19
Example
a
Find the electric field radiated from an infinite long charged + G
+ E
q + r
plastic rod with linear charge density λ, where λ ≡ ( q: total +
h +
charge enclosed by Gaussian surface) + h
ê c
+
Answer: +
+
From cylindrical symmetry, E is along radial direction. b +

By Gauss’s law: ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = q . Gaussian surface

Surfaces a and b do not contribute to the integral ê

ε 0 E ⋅ 2πrh = q = λh
G
λ E
So E=
2πε 0 r Gaussian surface at top

Example
Find the electric field radiated from an infinite plane sheet of
q
charge, with surface charge density σ ≡
A
Answer:
Gauss’s law ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = q

∫ E ⋅ dA = ∫ a
+ ∫ = 2 EA
b

q σ
So 2ε 0 EA = q E= =
2ε 0 A 2ε 0

Example
Find the electric field inside and outside a spherical shell of charge q.

S2
Answer:
S1
Due to spherical symmetry, the direction of E is along radial r1
r2
direction and E is uniform on the sphere. Spherical shell of
Charge q
For Gaussian surface S 2 : ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = q

Spherical Gaussian surfaces

20
 1 q
or ε 0 4πr2 2 E = q ⇒ E = , which gives the first shell theorem.
4πε 0 r 2

For Gaussian surface S1 : ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = q , where q = 0 .

ε 0 4πr1 2 E = 0 ⇒ E = 0 ,
which gives the second shell theorem.

Example Insulating
sphere with
Find the electric field E(r), inside and outside a uniformly charge inside
charged insulating sphere, with total charge Q and radius R.
r R
Answer: S1
S2
In order to find E with different r, we apply the Gauss’s law. G
E
Q Q
The volume charge density is given by ρ = = .
V 4π Radial direction
R3
3
The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface S1 is

Q 4π 3 r3
Qencl = ρV ' = r =Q 3 .
4π 3 3 R
R
3
From the spherical symmetry E has the same value on the surface S1.
Qr 3
ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = Qencl or ε 0 E (4πr 2 ) =
R3
1 Q
That is, E = r , for r < R (E ∝ r).
4πε 0 R 3

1 Q
At the surface of sphere, r = R, hence, we obtain E = .
4πε 0 R 2
When r > R, the Gaussian surface S 2
E
encloses all the charges.
1 Q
Qencl = Q E=
4πε 0 R 2
ε 0 E ⋅ 4πr 2 = Q 1 Q
E=
1 Q 4πε 0 r 2
Q 1 E= r
Hence, we obtain E = , which is 4πε 0 R 3
4πε 0 r 2
the result of coulomb’ s law.
r
R

21