INTRODUCTION - Thin parts are the oceanic crust which underlie

the ocean basins (5-10 km) and are composed of

SEISMOLOGY – the study of the generation, propagation
dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous
and measurement of seismic waves through earth and
rocks like basalt.
sources that generate them.

- seismos meaning earthquake and logia meaning - Thick parts are the continental crust which is
study of less dense and composed of (felsic) sodium
potassium aluminum silicate rocks like granite
ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY – the study and application
of seismology for engineering purposes
- The rocks of the crust fall into 2 categories:
o Sial
o Sima – starts about 11km below Conrad
Two principal components of engineering seismology:
Discontinuity
- Firstly, studying earthquake history and
tectonics to assess the earthquakes that could
Mohorovičić Discontinuity (Moho) – A discontinuity in
occur in a region their characteristics and
the seismic velocity
frequency of occurrence.
- The cause of Moho is thought to be a change in
- Secondly, studying ground motions generated rock composition from rock containing
by earthquake to assess the expected shaking plagioclase feldspar (above) to rocks that
from future earthquakes with similar contain no feldspars (below).
characteristics.
- There is a chemical discontinuity between
1.1 STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH ultramafic cumulates and tectonized
harzburgites w/c has been observed from deep
The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by
parts of oceanic crust
mechanical properties such as Rheology or Chemically

Mechanically, it can be divided into: - The oldest known mineral grains are 4.4 billion
(4.4 x 109) years old
1. Lithosphere L
2. Asthenosphere A
3. Mesospheric Mantle MM Mantle
4. Outer Core O
- Extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the
5. Inner Core I
thickest layer of Earth
Chemically, it can be divided into:
- The upper and lower mantle are separated by
1. Crust C
the transition zone
2. Upper Mantle U
3. Lower Mantle L
- The lowest part of the mantle next to the core-
4. Outer Core O
mantle boundary is known as the D” layer
5. Inner Core I

Crust - The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is 140

GPa (1.4 Matm)
- Ranges from 5-70 km in depth and is the
outermost layer - It is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in
iron and magnesium
 - The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 1021 1.2 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
and 1024 Pa.s and that of pitch is 107 Pa.s 1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

EARTHQUAKE – manifested as ground shaking caused by

- The source of heat that drives plate tectonics is
the sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust
the primordial heat left over from the planet’s
formation as well as the radioactive decay of - Recognized to be the symptoms of active
uranium, thorium and potassium. tectonic movements

- This energy may originate from:

Core
o Dislocations of the crust Di
- The average density of Earth is 5,515 kg/m 3
o Volcanic eruptions Vo
- Average density of surface is only around 3000 o Man-made explosions Ma
kg/m3 o Collapse of underground cavities Co
(such as mines and karsts)
- It is divided into 2 parts, a “solid” inner core
with a radius of 1220 km, and a “liquid” outer - Earthquakes are defined as natural
core extending beyond it to a radius of 3400 km. disturbances, different types of earthquake
exist:
- The densities are between 9900 and 12200 o Fault rupture-induced Fa
kg/m3 in the outer core and 12600 to 13000 o Volcanic Vo
kg/m3 in the inner core. o Mining-induced Mi
o Large-reservoir induced La
- Inner core – discovered in 1936 by Inge
Lehmann, primarily composed of iron and nickel
PLATE TECTONICS – earthquake occurrence may be
explained by the theory of large-scale tectonic
- Diamond anvil (static) studies at core pressures
processes
yield melting temperatures that are
approximately 2000K below those from shock THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS – derives from the theory
laser (dynamic) studies. of continental drift and sea-floor spreading

PLATES – large and stable rigid rock slabs (t=100km)

- In early stages of Earth’s formation about
4.5x109 years ago, melting would have caused
denser substances to sink toward the center in
a process called planetary differentiation
- The liquid outer core surrounds the inner core
and is believed to be composed of iron mixed
with nickel and trace amounts of lighter
elements
- Recent speculation that the innermost part of
the core is enriched in gold, platinum and other
siderophile elements
- Crust has a non-uniform t of 25-60km under
continents and 4-6km under oceans
- Mantle – extending from a depth of about 30km
to about 2900 km; it consists of dense silicate
rocks
- Lithosphere moves differentially on the
underlying asthenosphere, which is softer
warmer layer around 400km thick at a depth of
50km in the upper mantle
 - The horizontal movement of the lithosphere is The principal types of plate boundaries:
cause by convection currents in the mantle; the
 Divergent or Rift Zones
velocity of movement is about 1-10 cm/year
o Plates separate themselves from one
another and either an effusion of
15 Rigid Plates According to the Theory of Continental magma occurs or the lithosphere
Drift: diverges from the interior of the earth
o Rifts are distinct from mid-ocean ridges
1. Pacific Plate Pa
where new oceanic crust and
2. North American Plate No
lithosphere is created by sea-floor
3. South American Plate So
spreading
4. Eurasian Plate Eu
5. African Plate A
o Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of
6. Antartic Plate A
divergent plate boundary (Gulf of
7. Australian Plate A
Corinth, in Greece)
8. Indian Plate I
9. Nazca Plate N
 Convergent or Subduction Zone
10. Cocos Plate Co
11. Caribbean Plate Ca
o Adjacent plates converge and collide
12. Philippine Sea Plate P
13. Arabian Plate A
o A subduction process carries the slab-
14. Somali Plate S
like plate known as ‘under-thrusting
15. Caroline Plate C
plate’, into a dipping zone, also referred
to as the ‘Wadati-Benioff Zone’ as far
PLATE BOUNDARIES (SEISMIC BELTS) – where downward as 650-700km into Earth’s
earthquakes frequently occur interior

CIRCUM-PACIFIC AND EURASIAN (OR ALPINE) – the

o 2 Types of Convergent Zone:
most seismically active.

- It connects New Zealand, New Guinea, The  Oceanic Convergent Boundary

Philippines, Japan, The Aleutians, the west – occurs when two plates
coast of North America and South America consisting of oceanic
lithosphere collide;
- The 1994 Northridge (California) and the 1995
Kobe (Japan) earthquakes occurred along - It sinks easily and is destroyed
Circum-Pacific belt in the subduction zone

- The Eurasian Belt links the northern part of the  Continental Convergent
Mediterranean Sea, Central Asia, the Southern Boundary – occurs when both
Part of the Himalayas and Indonesia grinding plates consist of
continental lithosphere
- The Indian Ocean earthquake of 26 December
2004 and the Kashmir earthquake of 8 October - It is a lightweight rock and
2005 were generated by the active Eurasian Belt hence do not subduct

- Circum-pacific and Eurasian

belts are examples of oceanic
 and continental lithosphere
convergent boundaries
 Transform Zones or Transcurrent Horizontal
Slip – two plates glide past one another but
without creating new lithosphere or subducting
old lithosphere
- Transform faults can be found either in
continental or oceanic lithosphere
- Can offset mid-ocean ridges, subduction
zones, or both
- San Andreas Fault in California is an example
of a transform boundary connecting two
spreading ridges, namely the North America and
Pacific Plates in the Gulf of California to the
south and the Gorda Ridge in the north
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES - form narrow bands of
shallow earthquakes at mid oceanic ridges and can be
moderate in magnitude
SHALLOW AND INTERMEDIATE EARTHQUAKES – occur
at convergent zones in bands of hundreds of km wide
CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE EARTHQUAKES – can be
very large; 1897 Asam (India) Earthquake caused
extensive damage and surface disruption necessitating
the upgrade of intensity model scale used for measuring
earthquakes
DEEP EARTHQUAKES (300-700km in Depth) – generally
located in subduction zones over regions which can
extend for more than 1000km
WADATI-BENIOFF ZONES – are limited to the upper part
of the subduction zone that is about 700km deep
SHALLOW EARTHQUAKES W/ LARGE MAGNITUDE – can
occur along transform faults; Guatemala City was
almost destroyed during the devastating 1976
earthquake which occurred on the Motagua Fault. It
constitutes the transform boundary between two
subduction zones, the Pacific Coast of Central America
and the Leeward and Windward Islands in the Atlantic
Ocean
1.2.2 FAULTING
 When two ground masses move with respect to
one another, elastic strain energy due to
tectonic processes is stored and released
through the rupture of the interface zone
ELASTIC REBOUND – distorted blocks snap back towards
equilibrium and an earthquake ground motion is
produced
FAULT – the resulting fracture in Earth’s crust
Example of significant active faults by the slip
mechanism:
1. San Andreas Fault in California
2. Corinth Canal Fault in Greece – with about 70 m
exposure height
PARAMETERS used describe fault motion:
1. AZIMUTH (ϕ) – angle between the trace of the
fault, that is the intersection of the fault plane
with the horizontal, and the northerly direction
(0°≤ ϕ ≤ 360°)
2. DIP ( ) – angle between the fault and the
horizontal plane (0°≤ ≤ 90°)
3. SLIP OR RAKE ( ) – angle between the direction
of relative displacement and the horizontal
direction; measure on the fault plane (-180°≤ ≤
180°)
4. RELATIVE DISPLACEMENT (∆u) – the distance
travelled by a point on either side of the fault
plane
5. AREA (S) – surface area of the highly stressed
region within the fault plane
Most Common Mechanisms of Earthquake Sources:
DIP SLIP FAULTS – one block moves vertically with
respect to the other
- If the block underlying the foot plane or ‘foot
wall’ moves up the dip and away from the block
over-hanging the fault plane or ‘hanging wall’,
normal faults are obtained
 - Tensile forces cause the shearing of normal
faults
- If the hanging wall moves upward in relation to
the foot wall the faults are reversed
- Compressive forces cause the failure; Thrust
faults are reverse faults characterized by a very
small dip
- Mid-oceanic earthquakes are due chiefly to
normal faults
- The 1971 San Fernando Earthquake in California
was caused by rupture of a reverse fault
- Earthquakes along Circum-Pacific seismic belt
are caused by thrust faults
STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS – the adjacent blocks move
horizontally past one another.
- It can be right-lateral or left-lateral
- Example of strike slip occurred in the 1906 San
Francisco earthquake on San Andreas Fault
OBLIQUE SLIPS – can either be normal or reverse and
right or left lateral
- Slip angle is negative for normal faults and
positive for reverse faults
FOCUS OR HYPOCENTRE – the point under the surface
where rupture is said to have originated
EPICENTRE – the projection of focus on the surface
POINT-SOURCE APPROXIMATION – the reduction of the
focus to a point
FOCI – located by geographical coordinates, namely
latitude and longitude, the focal depth and origin or
occurrence time
EARTHQUAKES – generated by sudden fault slips of
brittle rocky blocks
5-15 KM – focal depths of most earthquakes
20-50 KM – focal depths of most intermediate events
300-700 KM – focal depths of deep earthquakes
The three types are also referred to as shallow,
intermediate and deep focus
CRUSTAL EARTHQUAKES – normally have depths of
about 30 km or less
- In Central California, the majority of
earthquakes have focal depths of 5-10 km
- Some intermediate and deep focus earthquakes
are located in Romania, the Aegean Sea and
under Spain
1.2.3 SEISMIC WAVES
FAULT RUPTURES – cause brittle fractures of the Earth’s
crust and dissipitate up to 10% of the total plate-tectonic
energy in the form of seismic waves
- Earthquake shaking is generated by two types of
elastic seismic waves: BODY and SURFACE
WAVES
BODY WAVES – travel through the Earth’s interior layers
- It include longitudinal or primary waves (also
known as P-WAVES) and transverse or
secondary waves (also called S-WAVES)
P-WAVES and S-WAVES – also termed preliminary
tremors because in most earthquakes they are felt first
P-WAVES
- Cause alternate push (or compression) and pull
(or tension) in the rock
- They exhibit similar properties to sound waves
- Seismic waves with relatively little damage
potential
- It travels faster (1.5 to 8 km/s)
S-WAVES
- Causes vertical and horizontal side-to-side
motion
- Introduce shear stresses in the rock along their
paths and are thus also defined as shear waves
- Their motion can be separated into horizontal
(SH) and vertical (SV) components
- Analogous to electromagnetic waves, show
large amplitudes and long periods and cannot
propagate in liquids
- It is slower, usually travelling at 50-60% of the
speed of p-waves
ACTUAL SPEED OF BODY WAVES – depends upon the
density and elastics properties of the rock and soil
through which they pass
SURFACE WAVES – propagate across the outer layer of
the Earth’s crust
- It include Love (L or LQ-WAVES) and Rayleigh (R
or LR-WAVES) waves; these waves induce
generally large displacements and hence are
also called principal motion
- Likely to cause severe damage to structural
system because of their long duration
- Surface waves are most prominent in shallow
earthquakes while body waves are equally well
represented in earthquakes at all depths
LQ-WAVES – generated by constructive interference of
SH body waves and hence cannot travel across fluids
- Motion is horizontal and perpendicular to the
direction of their propagation
- Have large amplitudes and long periods
LQ-WAVES OF LONG PERIOD (60-300s) – also called as
G-WAVES after Gutenberg; travel with a velocity of
about 4.0 km/s and are pulse-like
1.3 MEASURING EARTHQUAKES
1.3.1 INTENSITY
INTENSITY – a non-instrumental perceptibility measure
of damage to structures
- It is a descriptive method which has been
traditionally used to establish earthquake size
- It is a subjective damage evaluation metric
because of its qualitative measure
Early attempts at classifying earthquake damage by
intensity were carried out in Italy and Switzerland
around the late 1700s and early 1900s
Some of the most common intensity scales:
MERCALLI-CANCANI-SEIBERG (MCS) – 12-level scale
used in Southern Europe
MODIFIED MERCALLI (MM) – 12-level scale proposed in
1931 by Wood and Neumann, it is used in North America
and several other countries
MEDVEDEV-SPONHEUER-KARNIK (MSK) – 12-level scale
developed in Central and Eastern Europe and used in
several other countries
EUROPEAN MACROSEISMIC SCALE (EMS) – 12-level
scale adopted since 1998 in Europe. It is a development
of the MM Scale
JAPANESE METEOROLOGICAL AGENCY (JMA) – 7-level
scale used in Japan
INTENSITY measures are therefore highly inaccurate
INTENSITY SCALES – are used to plot contour lines of
equal intensity or ‘isoseismals’
1.3.2 MAGNITUDE
MAGNITUDE – a quantitative measure of earthquake
size and fault dimensions
 - It is an instrumental, quantitative and objective
scale
The first attempts to define magnitude scales were
made in Japan by Wadati and in California by Richter in
the 1930s
Most common magnitude scales:
1. LOCAL (OR RICHTER) MAGNITUDE (ML) - measures the
maximum seismic wave amplitude A recorded on
standard Wood-Anderson seismographs located at a
distance of 100km from earthquake epicenter
- WOOD-ANDERSON SIESMOGRAPHS – has a
natural period of 0.8 seconds, a critical damping
ratio of 0.8 and an amplification factor of 2800
- It amplifies waves with periods between
approximately 0.5 and 1.5 seconds, that is
wavelength of 500m to 2km
- ML = log (A) – log (A0)
o A0 – calibration factor
o ML – corresponds to an earthquake at a
distance of 100km with maximum
amplitude of A=1.0mm
- ML > 5.5 ; cause significant damage
- ML = 2 ; smallest event normally felt by people
2. BODY WAVE MAGNITUDE (mb) – measures the
amplitude of P-waves with a period of about 1 sec, that
is less than 10km wavelengths
- This scale is suitable for deep earthquakes which have
few surface waves
- mb = log (A/T) + o(∆)
- mb = magnitude
- A = amplitude
- T = period
- o(∆) = function of epicentral distance ∆ (in °)
3. SURFACE WAVE MAGNITUDE (MS) – a measure of the
amplitudes of LR-WAVES with a period of 20 seconds,
that is wavelength of about 60km
- Ms = log(A/T) + 1.66 log(∆) + 3.30
4. MOMENT MAGNITUDE (Mw) – accounts for the
mechanism of shear that takes place at the earthquake
sources
Step 1. Mo = GA∆u
Step 2. Mw = 0.67 log (Mo) -10.70
5. Richter Magnitude (ML) – a workable definition of
magnitude was first proposed by C.F. Richter
C.F. Richter – defined the earthquake magnitude as
logarithm to base 10 of the largest displacement of a
standard seismograph (called Wood-Anderson
Seismograph; t=0.8s : m=2800)
- It is only applicable to small and shallow earthquakes in
California and for epicentral distances less than 600km
ML is a regional scale while mb , Ms and Mw are
worldwide scales
Earthquakes with magnitude between 4.5 and 5.5 can
be defined as local, while large seismic events generally
have a magnitude of 6.0-7.0.
Great Earthquakes are those with magnitude larger than
7.0
1.4 ENERGY OF AN EARTHQUAKE
Energy Propagating by seismic waves is proportional to
the square root of amplitude period ratios
Magnitude is proportional to the logarithm of seismic
energy
- Log (E) = 1.5Ms + 11.8
- Log (E) = 2.4mb – 1.3
- Log (E) = 1.5Ms + 4.2
1.5 INTENSITY-MAGNITUDE RELATIONSHIPS
- Essential for the use of historical earthquakes
1.6.2 SITE EFFECTS
for which no instrumental records exist
STRUCTURES FOUND ON ROCK will be subjected to
Proposed by Gutenberg and Richter:
short-period (high frequency) motion
- ML = 0.67I0 + 1.00
STRUCTURES FOUND ON SOFT SITES result in longer
period (low frequency) excitation
1.6 SOURCE-TO-SITE EFFECTS
SITE RESONANCE EFFECT – the ratio between the period
DISTANCE AND TRAVEL PATH EFFECTS – changes in the
of the site and that of the building
wavefront shape
RESONANCE – a frequency-dependent phenomenon
SITE EFFECTS – local site conditions may affect
significantly the amplitude of earthquake ground - Ts = 4H/Vs
motions o Ts = seconds
o H = depth of soil layer (m)
o Vs = soil shear wave velocity (m/s)
1.7 DIRECTIONAL EFFECTS
The nature of soil response in earthquakes depends on
- Fault rupture traces can be a few km long
the amplitude and duration of motion
- Seismic wave radiation is influenced by the
source dimensions HIGH AMPLITUDE MOTION – tends to cause inelasticity
in the soil
DIRECTIVITY – waves propagate away from the fault
rupture with different intensity along different LONG DURATION SHAKING – increases the susceptibility
directions to liquefaction of saturated and partially saturated
soils; also increases pore water pressure leading to total
- It can lead to azimuthal differences in ground
loss of cohesion in soils that then turn into a liquid
motions
When soil responds elastically, the observed motions at
- The overriding of stress or ‘constructive the surface are amplified proportional to the input
interference’ results in larger ground motion ground motion
magnification with shorter total duration are
When soil responds inelastically, the soil absorbs large
exhibited in the opposite direction
amounts of the energy to large amplitude of ground
motions
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE – w/c is in essence a
In general, large earthquake vibrations travelling
Doppler effect, generates strong pulses of large
through inelastic media will exhibit lower accelerations
displacement or ‘fling’
and large displacements
RUPTURE DIRECTIVITY – causes polarization of ground
motion, that is, differences between the fault-normal
and fault-parallel components of horizontal ground
motion amplitudes

Polarization causes more intense shaking in the fault-

normal direction than in the fault-parallel direction

Directivity caused severe damage to residential

buildings and transportation system in urban areas
during the 1994 Northridge and 1995 Kobe earthquakes
1.6.3 DISPERSION AND INCOHERENCE EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS

DISPERSION AND INCOHERENCE - two strong motion DIRECT EFFECTS INDIRECT EFFECTS
characteristics associated with local spatial variations

Three basic effects:

GROUND EFFECTS GROUND EFFECTS
WAVE PASSAGE EFFECT – represents the time delay in
GROUND SHAKING LANDSLIDES
the arrival of seismic waves
GROUND CRACKING TSUNAMIS
EXTENDED SOURCE EFFECT – number and size of
earthquake sources affecting the seismicity at a site may GROUND LURCHING SEICHES
cause delays in the arrival time of waves
DIFF. GROUND SETTLEMENT AVALANCHES
RAY PATH EFFECT (OR SCATTERING EFFECT) – caused by
SOIL LIQUEFACTION ROCKFALLS
reflection and refraction of waves through the soil
during their propagation LATERAL SPREADING

DISPERION AND INCOHERENCE do not generally affect LANDSLIDES

short-span structures but they affect long-span
ROCKFALLS
structures (Bridges, stadiums, pipelines)

1.8 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

STRUCTURAL EFFECTS OTHER EFFECTS
Fundamental components of earthquake loss
assessment: VIBRATION OF STRUCTURES FLOODS
1. HAZARD (EXPOSURE) – the description of the FALLING OBJECTS FIRES
earthquake ground motion; can be quantified
STRUCTURAL DAMAGE TOXIC CONTAMINATION
but not reduced
2. INVENTORY STRUCTURAL COLLAPSE
3. VULNERABILITY (FRAGILITY) – the sensitivity of
the assets to damage from intensity of ground;
can be both evaluated and reduced 1.7.1 DAMAGE TO BUILDINGS AND LIFELINES
(retrofitting)
EXTENSIVE STRUCTURAL DAMAGE is suffered by
SEISMIC RISK – the product of hazard and vulnerability buildings, bridges, highways and other lifelines
for unit value of assets
SEISMIC VULNERABILITY OF STRUCTURES – varies as a
Factors of Destructive Potential of Earhquakes function of construction materials and earthquake act in
1. Size of an event (Intensity/Magnitude) Si resisting system employed
2. Focal Depth Fo LOOK FOR THE TABLE FOR TYPICAL DAMAGE OF
3. Epicentral Distance E REINFORCED CONCRETE, STEEL AND COMPOSITE
4. Topographical Conditions To BUILDINGS (IN THE MANUAL)
5. Local Geology L
SHEAR FAILURE – may occur in RC beams and columns
GROUND SHAKING – the most important hazard
resulting from earthquakes except ASIAN TSUNAMI OF LOCAL BUCKLING – may affect steel beams, columns
26 DECEMBER 2004 WITH ABOUT 280,000 PEOPLE and braces
KILLED Timber structures have been used extensively in Japan,
New Zealand and the USA
WOOD FRAMED BUILDINGS – are inherently lightweight
and flexible; both features are advantageous under
earthquake loading conditions
INADEQUATE FOUNDATION ANCHORAGE – can led to
uplifting and sliding in many cases of earthquakes
LIFELINES – those services that are vital to the health
and safety of communities
- Examples are:
o Electric power E
o Gas G 1.
o Water Wat
o Wastewater systems Was
o Transport systems (Highways T 4.
& Railways)
o Bridges Bri
o Ports Po
o Airports A DIFFERENTIAL GROUND SETTLEMENTS – may cause
1.7.2 EFFECTS ON THE GROUND
LOCAL GEOLOGY & TOPOGRAPHY – influence the travel
path and amplification characteristics of seismic waves
Ground motions may be amplified by sedimentary
layers with various thicknesses and degrees of
consolidation
1.7.3 SURFACE RUPTURE
RUPTURE OF THE GROUND SURFACE may be induced by
intense and long shaking as well as fault ruptures; may
generate deep cracks and large cracks
- Damage by fault rupture is more localized than
the widespread damage cause by ground
shaking
- 9 km of surface rupture along Nojima fault on
Awaji Island was observed in the 1995
earthquake in Japan
Cracks and gaps in the ground may cause damage to
transport systems (highways, railways, ports and
airports) and underground networks (water,
wastewater and gas pipes, electric and phone cables)
1.7.2.2 SETTLEMENT AND UPLIFT
FAULT RUPTURES – may cause large vertical movements
of the ground
Collapse of several structures and abutments of
bridges:
SAN FERNANDO (1971) Sa
2. LOMA PRIETA (1989) Lo
3. NORTHRIDGE (1994) No
KOBE (1995) Ko
SETTLEMENT, TILTING & SINKING – observed in the
aftermaths of several earthquakes worldwide
structural distress
Subsidence of 6-7 meters was observed during New
Madrid earthquakes (1811-1812) in the Mississippi
Valley in the USA
ARTIFCIAL WATERFALLS may also be generated by
settlements and uplifts from the Kocaeli, Turkey
earthquake of 1999
1.7.2.3 LIQUEFACTION
EXCESSIVE BUILD UP OF PORE WATER PRESSURE during
earthquakes may lead to the loss of stiffness and
strength of soils
SAND BOILS – creation of excessive pore water pressure
that causes ejection of the soil through holes in the
ground; it causes loss of support of foundations and
thus, structures tilt or sink into the ground
MASSIVE LIQUEFACTION induced damage has been
observed in two Niigata earthquakes of 1964 and 2004
as well as recent Pisco-Chincha (Peru) earthquake of
2007
During the 1964 Niigata, Japan earthquake (Ms = 7.5)
four storey apartment buildings tilt 60° on liquefied
soils
Similarly, in the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake,
liquefaction of the soils and debris used to fill a lagoon
caused a major subsidence, fracturing and horizontal
sliding of the ground surface on the Marina District in
San Francisco
SOIL LIQUEFACTION – may cause the floating to ground
surface of pile foundations with low axial loads and
underground light weight storage tanks
- In Kobe, lateral spreading damaged the pile
foundations of several buildings and bridges
because of horizontal movements
- Quay walls and sea defenses in the port of Kobe
were also affected by soil liquefaction
1.7.2.4 LANDSLIDES
Types of ground failure and movement:
1. ROCKFALLS Ro
2. DEEP FAILURES OF SLOPES De
3. SHALLOW DEBRIS FLOWS Sha
These failures are generated by the loss of shear
strength in the soil
Notable Landslides due to Earthquake:
1. 1964 ALASKA EARTHQUAKE – shock-induced
landslides devastated the Turnagain Heights
residential development, and many downtown
areas in Anchorage
o 9.6 MILLION CU. M. of soil took place in
the Anchorage area
2. 1970 PERU EARTHQUAKE (Ms=7.8) – triggered
the Huascaran Avalanche
3. 1989 LOMA PRIETA EARTHQUAKE – more than
1000 landslides and rockfalls occurred in the
epicentral zone in the Santa Cruz Mountains
4. LANDSLIDE ON STATE HIGHWAY 17 – disrupted
traffic for about 1 month
5. 1994 NORTHRIDGE EARTHQUAKE – landslides
that occurred in Santa Monica, along the Pacific
Coast Highway cause damage to family houses
built on cliffs
6. HYOGO-KEN NANBU EARTHQUAKE – few
landslides are triggered partly due to the fact
that it occurred during the dry season
1.7.3 HUMAN AND FINANCIAL LOSSES
During the 20th century over 1200 destructive
earthquakes occurred worldwide and cause more than
$1 trillion; if average over the century, annual losses are
about $10 billion
Between 1990 and 1999, annual loss rates were
estimated at $20 billion
FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY (FEMA)
– released a study estimating annual losses to the
national building stocks in the USA at $4.4 billion, with
California, Oregon, and Washington accounting for $3.3
billion of the total estimated amount
With regards to the loss of life:
- 10,000 people per year were killed by
earthquakes between 1990 and 1999
- In 2001, earthquakes in BHUJ (INDIA, Ms=7.9),
EL SALVADOR (Ms=7.6) and AREQUIPA (PERU,
Ms=9.3) caused more than 26,000 casualties
- The BAM (IRAN, Ms=6.6) and the SUMATRA
(INDIAN OCEAN, Mw=9.4) EARTHQUAKES
which occurred in 2003 and 2004 both on 26
December, caused more than 26,000 and
280,000 deaths
- KASHMIR EARTHQUAKE of 8 OCTOBER 2005
caused over 85,000 deaths
- Over this 108 period, deaths totaled about 1.8
million, having China accounted for more than
30% of all fatalities
- EARTHQUAKES rank second after FLOODS,
earthquake account for about 3.6 million
fatalities
 - If the death toll cause by TSUNAMIS is added to
that cause earthquakes, the total figure would
amount to around 4.5 milion

Several reconnaissance reports concluded that building

collapses caused 75% of earthquake fatalities during the
last century.

Other causes of death were fires and gas explosions,

tsunamis, rockfalls and landslides

Earthquake damage resulting in the collapse of

monuments, historical places of worship and stately
buildings represent and irreplaceable loss in terms of
cultural heritage

The expense of reconstructing the world famous vault of

the Basilica at Assisi (Italy) caused serious repercussions
for the national economy after 1997

Earthquakes that caused major damage to historical

sites:

1. GUJARAT (INDIA) G
2. BAM (IRAN) B
3. AREQUIPA (PERU) A
4. YOGYARTA (INDONESIA) Y

GLOBAL SEISMIC RISK MANAGEMENT – one of the

highest growth areas in industry