Iman Salehi Thesis PDF

FATIGUE AND FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR OF
ALUMINOTHERMIC RAIL WELDS UNDER HIGH

AXLE LOAD CONDITIONS
by
Iman Salehi
B.Sc., M.Sc.
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
Centre for Sustainable Infrastructure

Faculty of Engineering and Industrial Sciences
Swinburne University of Technology
March 2013
ABSTRACT
Among different rail welding methods Aluminothermic welding (ATW) is the oldest
and simplest procedure widely used for re-railing and replacement of defective rails.
Since ATW is a cast welding process in which several aspects are operator-dependent it
suffers from the variability of the produced weld quality, presence of casting defects and
inconsistencies in the microstructure and mechanical properties. Previous observations
have shown that field-welded ATWs have been major sources of fatigue and overload
failures in Australian heavy haul railway systems. The most common failure modes are
categorized into straight breaks (transverse fissure) and horizontal split webs (HSW).
Straight breaks initiate from stress concentration sites at the edge of the weld collar, in
the foot, lower web and underhead regions, and propagate in vertical direction under
Mode I loading. HSW failures involve the development of a horizontal fatigue crack
which initiates from a surface or near-surface gross defect in the weld collar, generally
in the mid- or upper-web region.
In this study analysis of fatigue crack initiation is performed at the edge of the weld
collar of an aluminothermic weld, in order to examine the formation of straight break
under high axle load conditions. The fatigue assessment is accomplished using a
thermo-structural finite element simulation in ANSYS package followed by a shear
based multi-axial fatigue critical plane criterion implemented in a MATLAB computer
code. The influence of several parameters including wheel-rail contact patch
eccentricity, contact tractions, residual stress distribution, seasonal temperature
variation and track support condition is investigated. The analysis identifies the
underhead region of a defect-free weld as the most critical location which is subject to
severe fatigue damage under harsh curving and hunting behaviours.
A further study is performed on the influence of geometric features or the design of the
collar edge (flank angle and toe radius). Two geometrically different aluminothermic
welds, one of which is widely used in Australian heavy haul railways and the other one
recently developed, are investigated in terms of fatigue crack initiation risk. The results
I
confirm that the amount of fatigue damage is critically dependent on the geometric
features of the collar edge, particularly at the underhead radius. A well-designed collar
edge can also enhance the fatigue performance of the base region under poor track
support conditions.
A specific type of defect known as cold lap or finning resulting from the leak of the
molten metal out of the mould has been observed to be associated with the initiation of
straight breaks at the top of the rail foot. To study the formation of straight break
influenced by cold lap, the defect is considered as a crack and its propagation is studied
using Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics. The results show that the probability of crack
initiation from a cold lap defect largely depends on the lap thickness, lap tip location
and the wheel-rail contact conditions.
Eventually, damage tolerance analysis is performed for the two weld collar designs on
specific large defects located at the surface of the web region in relation to the
formation of HSWs. Two approaches, multi-axial fatigue analysis of the defect surface
and fracture mechanics, are utilised each of which applicable to certain types of defects
and sizes. The results suggest that the collar design in the web region can affect the
weld damage tolerance for particular web defects. For crack like defects considered in
this study a near flat design of the web can decrease the equivalent stress intensity factor
range by up to 15%. A combination of reinforcement and the adoption of a near flat
section geometry at the web region can also result in improved performance in terms of
fast fracture or overload failure.
II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my main
supervisor, Professor Ajay Kapoor for his in-depth and constant supervision in pursuing
this research. Throughout the years he has been providing me with excellent theoretical
and technical guidance and valuable feedback on my work and publications. I would
like to acknowledge his kind support, encouragement and enthusiasm that helped me
perform such challenging task.
I would also like to thank my second supervisor Mr. Peter Mutton from the Institute of
Railway Technology (IRT), Monash University who introduced the first idea of this
study and supported me with his constructive suggestions during the course of this
research. I benefited greatly from his extensive in-field knowledge and his previous
studies pertaining to rail weld failures. I would also like to acknowledge the IRT for
providing access to some of their experimental results and occasional financial support.
My PhD study was sponsored by Swinburne University of Technology through a

SUPRA scholarship. Hereby, I greatly appreciate their financial contribution and
provision of IT and laboratory equipment which facilitated this research.
My sincere thanks and appreciation goes to my beloved parents for their utmost support
and encouragement while I was away from them. I am deeply indebted to them for their
concern and sacrifice without which I would not have reached this stage. My thanks are
also due to my brothers and sister who have always been my inspiration. Finally, I wish
to express my special thanks to my wife, Zohreh Heidarirad for walking with me on this
journey with her infinite love, support and encouragement.
III
Dedicated to:
My beloved parents
My wonderful wife
IV
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis represents my own work and contains no material which has
been accepted for the award of any other degree, diploma or qualification in any
university. To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material
previously published or written by any other person except where due acknowledgment
has been made.
Iman Salehi
March 2013
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................... III
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................ V
TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................. VI
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS........................................................................................... X
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... XI
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. XXIV
LIST OF NOTATIONS AND ACRONYMS ......................................................... XXV
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1

1.1 Continuous Welded Rail .................................................................................... 1
1.2 Aluminothermic Weld ........................................................................................ 2
1.3 Aluminothermic Weld as a Major Source of Failure ......................................... 4
1.4 Aims and Objectives .......................................................................................... 7
1.5 Methodology ...................................................................................................... 9
1.6 Thesis Structure ................................................................................................ 10
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................... 12

2.1 Aluminothermic Weld Failure Mechanisms .................................................... 12
2.1.1 Local Plastic Deformation (Batter) ........................................................... 14
2.1.2 Rolling Contact Fatigue and Wear ............................................................ 17
2.1.3 Straight Breaks (Transverse Fissure) ........................................................ 19
2.1.4 Horizontal Split Webs ............................................................................... 24
2.2 Multi-axial Fatigue ........................................................................................... 29
2.2.1 Approaches to Fatigue Analysis ............................................................... 30
2.2.2 Multi-axiality ............................................................................................ 33
2.2.3 Critical Plane Approaches ......................................................................... 35
2.3 Damage Tolerance Investigation ...................................................................... 40
VI
2.3.1 Defects as Notches .................................................................................... 41
2.3.2 Multi-axial Fatigue Criteria....................................................................... 41
2.3.3 Defects as Cracks ...................................................................................... 43
2.3.4 Murakami’s Approach .............................................................................. 45
CHAPTER 3 IN-TRACK BENDING BEHAVIOUR............................................... 47

3.1 Finite Element Modeling .................................................................................. 47
3.1.1 Weld Geometrical Modelling.................................................................... 47
3.1.2 Track Modelling ........................................................................................ 48
3.1.3 Loading ..................................................................................................... 50
3.1.4 Seasonal Thermal Load ............................................................................. 53
3.1.5 Meshing ..................................................................................................... 54
3.1.6 Track Length Sensitivity Analysis ............................................................ 58
3.1.7 The Effect of Simplification in Contact Pressure ..................................... 59
3.1.8 Model Validation Using Experimental Results......................................... 61
3.2 Free Rolling Condition (Tangent Track) .......................................................... 63
3.2.1 Longitudinal Residual Stresses ................................................................. 68
3.3 Contact Patch Lateral Location ........................................................................ 69
3.4 Contact Tractions ............................................................................................. 76
3.5 Track Support ................................................................................................... 84
CHAPTER 4 MULTI-AXIAL FATIGUE ANALYSIS ............................................ 87

4.1 Dang Van Original Criterion ............................................................................ 87
4.2 Minimum Circumscribed Circle (MCC) .......................................................... 89
4.3 Estimation of Fatigue Parameters ..................................................................... 95
4.4 Residual Stresses .............................................................................................. 99
4.5 Free Rolling Condition (Tangent Track) ........................................................ 102
4.6 Contact Patch Lateral Location ...................................................................... 105
4.7 Contact Tractions ........................................................................................... 107
4.7.1 Contact Patch Eccentricity, Tractions and In-Service Observations ...... 109
4.8 Track Support ................................................................................................. 111
4.9 Sensitivity to Residual Stresses ...................................................................... 113
4.10 Sensitivity to Seasonal Temperature .............................................................. 117
VII
CHAPTER 5 FATIGUE AND WELD COLLAR DESIGN................................... 120
5.1 Design Alternatives and Geometric Features ................................................. 120
5.2 Residual Stress Distribution ........................................................................... 123
5.3 Performance in Tangent Tracks...................................................................... 123
5.4 Contact Patch Lateral Location ...................................................................... 127
5.5 Contact Lateral Traction ................................................................................. 130
5.6 Track Support Condition ................................................................................ 132
5.7 Web Fatigue Behaviour .................................................................................. 134
CHAPTER 6 COLD LAP DEFECT ........................................................................ 139

6.1 Cold Lap Defect ............................................................................................. 140
6.2 Analysis of Cold Lap ...................................................................................... 142
6.2.1 Virtual Crack Closure Technique (VCCT) ............................................. 144
6.2.2 Mixed-Mode Fracture Criteria ................................................................ 147
6.2.3 Local Stress Intensity Factors ................................................................. 149
6.2.4 Cold Lap Finite Element Model.............................................................. 150
6.2.5 Element Size of the Crack Tip ................................................................ 153
6.3 Influence of Cold Lap on Fatigue Behaviour ................................................. 154
6.3.1 Sensitivity to Lap Thickness ................................................................... 160
6.3.2 Sensitivity to Lap Unfused Length and Width........................................ 162
6.3.3 Sensitivity to Edge Offset ....................................................................... 164
6.3.4 Contact Patch Displacement and Lateral Traction .................................. 166
6.3.5 Track Support .......................................................................................... 169
6.3.6 Crack Kinking ......................................................................................... 170
CHAPTER 7 TOLERANCE TO WEB DEFECTS ................................................ 173

7.1 Defects as Notches (Multi-axial Fatigue) ....................................................... 174
7.1.1 Spherical Defects .................................................................................... 176
7.1.2 Ellipsoidal Defects .................................................................................. 181
7.1.3 Coin-Shape Defects ................................................................................. 184
7.2 Fracture Mechanics Approach ........................................................................ 188
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK........................................ 194

8.1 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 194
8.1.1 In-Track Bending Behaviour................................................................... 194
VIII
8.1.2 Fatigue Behaviour ................................................................................... 195
8.1.3 Straight Break at Top of the Rail Foot .................................................... 196
8.1.4 Collar Design .......................................................................................... 197
8.1.5 HSW and Web Defects ........................................................................... 198
8.2 Future Work ................................................................................................... 200
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 202
APPENDIX: Implementation of the Multi-axial Dang Van Criterion in a

MATLAB Program ..................................................................................................... 220
IX
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
1. Salehi, I., Kapoor, A., and Mutton, P., Multi-axial fatigue analysis of
aluminothermic rail welds under high axle load conditions. International Journal
of Fatigue, 2011. 33(9): p. 1324-1336.
2. Salehi, I., Mutton, P., and Kapoor, A., The effect of geometric features on multi-
axial fatigue behaviour of aluminothermic rail welds. Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit,
2012. 226(4): p. 360-370.
3. Salehi, I., Mutton, P., and Kapoor, A., Analysis of straight break formation in
aluminothermic rail welds using multi-axial fatigue criterion and fracture
mechanics. Journal of Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Accepted, Under
Review.
4. Salehi, I., Kapoor, A., Mutton, P.J., and Alserda, J. Improving the reliability of
aluminothermic rail welds under high axle load conditions. in Proceedings of
the Rail Rejuvenation and Renaissance Conference on Railway Engineering
(CORE 2010). 2010. Wellington, New Zealand, ISBN 978-0-908960-55-2.
5. Salehi, I., Mutton, P., and Kapoor, A., Analysis of damaging factors in thermite
welds through multi-axial fatigue criterion, in Proceedings of the International
Heavy Haul Association Conference 2011. June 19-22, 2011, International
Heavy Haul Association (IHHA): Calgary, Canada.
6. Salehi, I., Mutton, P., and Kapoor, A., Analysis of straight break formation in
thermite rail welds under heavy axle load conditions, Accepted for presentation
in International Heavy Haul Association Conference 2013. Feb 4-6, 2013,
International Heavy Haul Association (IHHA): New Delhi, India.
X
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Rail joining methods: (a) Fish plate and bolting; and (b) Welding 1
Figure 1-2 (a) Section view of ATW process during pouring and solidification;
and (b) On-site ATW installation 3
Figure 1-3 Section view of ATW process using single-use crucible 4
Figure 1-4 Failure statistics from September 1997 to October 2000 for SKV-F
welds 5
Figure 1-5 Main ATW failure modes in Australian heavy haul railways: (a)
Straight break; and (b) Horizontal split web in SKV-F weld 6
Figure 2-1 Histogram for 244 weld failures in a North American railway a)
Failure locations; and (b) Cause of failures 13
Figure 2-2 Failure modes (outer layer) and the cause of damage (inner layer) in
Japanese railways 13
Figure 2-3 (a) Weld profile (visible regions of the weld section) and; (b)
Hardness measurement on different regions of the weld and the
illustrated softened region (HAZ) 14
Figure 2-4 Qualitative presentation of P1 and P2 dynamic forces induced by a
rail weld surface irregularity; and are wheel-rail dynamic
force and time respectively 15
Figure 2-5 Dynamic impact factor versus vehicle speed for a tangent track 16
Figure 2-6 Squats formed on the battered regions of an aluminothermic weld 18
Figure 2-7 Longitudinal section of rail head illustrating transverse defect
formation from head check defect in the HAZ of an aluminothermic
weld 18
Figure 2-8 Straight break failure in an Australian heavy haul railway: (a)
Initiated from upper-foot (top of the foot); and (b) Initiated from the
underhead radius (head-web fillet) 20
Figure 2-9 The effect of flank angle and toe radius on the stress concentration
of the collar edge 21
XI
Figure 2-10 (a) Cold lap formation at the underhead region of a weld; and (b)
Fatigue crack emanated from the apex of the cold lap 22
Figure 2-11 Schematic view of cold lap formation when no leak of molten steel
has occurred 23
Figure 2-12 Effect of welding parameters on melt-back depth: (a) Preheating
time; and (b) Liquid temperature; the horizontal dotted line is the
boundary of cold lap and no cold lap regions 23
Figure 2-13 (a) Horizontal split web fracture; and (b) Fracture face of the weld
buttress showing an area of a shrinkage defect 24
Figure 2-14 Vertical residual stress distribution: (a) Flash butt; and (b)
Aluminothermic weld 26
Figure 2-15 Predicted threshold crack depth and the results of testing: (a)
Compressive loading of the collar web; and (b) Tensile loading;
is the vertical residual stress 27
Figure 2-16 (a) Typical HSW crack path and the three points for which stress
intensities are calculated; α is the angle of kinking; and (b) Finite
element model of the rail and the HSW 28
Figure 2-17 Stress intensity factor range for possible kinking angles and the real
crack propagation angle observed in service: (a) Step 1 showing
mode II crack growth, (b) Step 2 showing mode II growth; and (c)
Step 3 suggesting a Mode I growth 28
Figure 2-18 Fatigue crack nucleation and propagation: (a) Formation of material
slip bands under cyclic loading; and (b) Schematic view of fatigue
crack growth stages 30
Figure 2-19 Structural response to cyclic loading and the corresponding type of
failure: (a) Perfectly elastic (HCF), (b) Elastic shakedown (HCF),
(c) Plastic shakedown (LCF); and (d) Ratchetting mechanism
(incremental collapse or ratchetting) 33
Figure 2-20 (a) Fatigue crack under pure shear and the resulting interlocking
effect; and (b) Effect of normal stress in enhancing fatigue crack
growth by reducing the closure effect 38
Figure 2-21 Graphic presentation of Dang Van fatigue criterion in a failure
XII
condition showing a sample loading or stress path crossing the
criterion line during a cycle 40
Figure 2-22 Fatigue damage prediction using Findley criterion (RAHELS
model) and comparison with experimental data. Shaded regions
show different rail head damages predicted with respect to variable
geometrical features of defects 43
Figure 2-23 Schematic of experimental data for notches with different root
radius and predictions with notch method (defect modelled as
notch) and crack method (defect modelled as crack) 44
Figure 2-24 A semi-elliptical surface crack under reversed pure torsion 46
Figure 3-1 PLK weld, (a) Original weld, (b) Laser scanned geometry; and (c)
Model constructed in Solidworks and used in FE analysis 48
Figure 3-2 Schematic of the modelled track with aluminothermic weld at the
midway between the two middle sleepers, concrete sleepers, and
vertical and horizontal ballast stiffness 49
Figure 3-3 Model of ballast used in the calculation of ballast stiffness. Ballast
stiffness is the equivalent stiffness of the two shaded areas 49
Figure 3-4 Track model used in FE analysis; displacement constraint in Y
direction is applied to the red colour shaded areas of the sleepers
and constraint in X direction is applied to the rail ends 51
Figure 3-5 Schematic of the rail-wheel Hertzian contact and the dimensions
used for calculation of the contact patch semi-axis and . (Figure
adopted from Iwnicki 52
Figure 3-6 Wheel passage representation in FE model 53
Figure 3-7 Finite elements used is study: (a) SOLID185 for sleepers and rail;
and (b) SOLID187 for aluminothermic weld 55
Figure 3-8 Finite element mesh of the structure: (a) Track model, (b) Weld
region magnified; and (c) Collar edge magnified 57
Figure 3-9 Track models used for the length sensitivity analysis 58
Figure 3-10 Finite element simulation of real contact between rail and wheel:
Equivalent (von-Mises) stress distribution 60
XIII
Figure 3-11 3-point bending experimental setup for measurement of
longitudinal and vertical stresses on the weld region 61
Figure 3-12 Comparison of finite element results with strain gauge
measurements: (a) Vertical stress on the centerline of the weld
collar, (b) Longitudinal stress on the rail surface 5 mm distant from
the weld collar edge for central loading, (c) The same stress
component for eccentric loading 62
Figure 3-13 Equivalent stress distribution on the weld exterior surface; High
stress concentration is observed throughout the collar edge with
maximum values at the base region 64
Figure 3-14 Longitudinal stress contour under central loading (tangent track) 65
Figure 3-15 Local bending behaviour of rail head on web and the resulting
longitudinal stress SX under a bending moment MY. The local stress
SX is superimposed with the longitudinal stress developed by rail
section bending behaviour to form the total longitudinal stress at the
rail head 66
Figure 3-16 Variation of longitudinal stress at the rail underhead (on a path
located 31 mm from rail centreline) under central loading (tangent
track) inclusive and exclusive of the seasonal thermal effects: (a)
Rail with no weld installed; and (b) Rail with aluminothermic weld.
Shaded area shows the rail head length affected by the local
bending of the rail head 67
Figure 3-17 Residual stress range and total longitudinal stress range at three
locations of the weld suspected for straight break formation 68
Figure 3-18 Possible contact patch locations during vehicle steering in a
medium radius left hand curve 69
Figure 3-19 Contact patch locations on the rail running surface for the study of
aluminothermic weld stress distribution under eccentric loading 70
Figure 3-20 Longitudinal stress contour at the gauge side of the weld: eccentric
loading, contact patch 20 mm offset from rail centerline towards the
gauge side 71
Figure 3-21 Developed twisting moment and the resulting deformation 72
XIV
Figure 3-22 Local lateral deformation of the rail head at the location of wheel
load induced by Tx: (a) Top view; and (b) Front view 72
Figure 3-23 Variation of longitudinal stress at the rail underhead (on a path
located 31 mm from rail centreline) under eccentric loading with
different eccentricities 73
Figure 3-24 Strain gauge measurement of the longitudinal stress at the gauge
side underhead of a wide gap aluminothermic weld; data for a high
rail of a 68 kg/m section in a 918 m radius curve subjected to high
axle load conditions. Figure shows several wheel passages 74
Figure 3-25 Contour of vertical stress on the field side of the rail under an
eccentric load located 20 mm from the rail centreline towards the
gauge side 74
Figure 3-26 Variation of longitudinal stress (L.S.) and vertical stress (V.S.) at
different regions of the weld with respect to the load eccentricity 75
Figure 3-27 Longitudinal and lateral tractions acting on the leading and trailing
wheelsets of a two-bogie passenger coach in a 1000 m curve. The
position of each wheelset is schematically shown with respect to the
flange way gap and the value of forces is shown by the length of the
corresponding arrows 77
Figure 3-28 Longitudinal stress contour at the field side of the weld for an
eccentric load located 15 mm offset from the rail centerline towards
the gauge side with a lateral traction directed towards the field side
(outward) with a coefficient of 0.4 78
Figure 3-29 Lateral deformation of the rail section under a tractive load applied
15 mm offset from the rail centreline and L/V ratio of 0.4: (a)
Inward traction, and (b) Outward traction 79
Figure 3-30 Longitudinal stress contour at the gauge side of the weld for an
eccentric load located 15 mm offset from the rail centerline towards
the gauge side with a lateral traction directed towards the gauge
side (inward) with a coefficient of 0.4 80
Figure 3-31 Variation of longitudinal stress (L.S.) at the underhead, base and
upper foot region and vertical stress (V.S) at the mid web with
XV
respect to different coefficients of lateral traction and the direction:
(a) Field side; and (b) Gauge side of the weld. All the measurement
points are on one side and the dimensions are based on Figure 3-26 81
Figure 3-32 Variation of longitudinal and vertical stresses with respect to the
longitudinal traction 83
Figure 3-33 Variation of longitudinal and vertical stresses versus different
ballast stiffness under the weld adjacent sleepers: (a) Tangent track
(central loading); and (b) Field side in a curved track (eccentric
load located 15 mm offset from the rail centreline towards the
gauge side including an outward traction coefficient of 0.3) 85
( )) and the mesoscopic stress ( ( ))

Figure 4-1 Definition of macroscopic and mesoscopic scale and the associated
macroscopic stress ( 88
Figure 4-2 The stress components acting on the plane (∆) passing through the
material point O subjected to cyclic loading 90
Figure 4-3 Definition of the shear stress amplitude ( ) and mean shear stress
( ): (a) The longest projection method; and (b) The longest chord
Definition of the minimum circumscribed circle (MCC); ( ) −

method 91
is the time dependent shear stress amplitude ( ( )) and

Figure 4-4
in the
figure is the maximum amplitude 92
Figure 4-5 Samples of circles for the combination of vertices of the shear
polygon Ψ: (a) Two-point circles; and (b) Three-point circles 94
Figure 4-6 Tensile properties of weld material with respect to the hardness; red
line represents the trend line for the mean values of the ultimate
strength 97
Figure 4-7 Hardness distribution on the central longitudinal plane of the rail in
head, web and foot regions of the weld versus longitudinal distance
from the weld centreline 98
Figure 4-8 Trepanning technique for residual stress measurements and the
measurement locations 100
Figure 4-9 Residual stress measurements using strain gauge method and the
piece-wise linear models applied in analysis (Mode 1 horizontal
XVI
and Mode 2 vertical residual stresses are considered for fatigue
analysis and other modes are implemented for residual stress
sensitivity analysis as will be described later): (a) Longitudinal
residual stress at the collar edge; and (b) Vertical residual stress on
the centerline of the weld collar surface 101
Figure 4-10 DV damage parameter on collar edge versus height from rail foot in
a tangent track 102
Figure 4-11 Formation of cold lap at the underhead radius on both field and
gauge sides of an AT weld indicated by the white arrows. The cold
lap can sometimes contain pores as magnified at the bottom left
figure. Pores at the tip of a cold lap could facilitate fatigue crack
( ), hydrostatic stress ( )
initiation 103
Figure 4-12 Variation of shear stress amplitude
and the DV damage parameter on the most damaging plane at
underhead and top of the rail foot versus longitudinal distance of
the axle load from the weld centreline; maximum DV damage
values at the underhead radius and upperfoot are depicted by small
circles 104
Figure 4-13 DV damage parameter at the gauge side collar edge for both central
and eccentric loading located 25 mm distant from rail centerline
towards the gauge side with no shear tractions; Fatigue region
represents the region in which fatigue crack initiation is expected 106
Figure 4-14 DV damage parameter versus the contact patch lateral displacement
for the underhead radius, top of the rail foot and base fillet depicted
by circles in figure 4-13; Shaded area shows the fatigue region
where crack initiation is expected 107
Figure 4-15 DV damage parameter at the collar edge of the field side for an
eccentric load located 15 mm offset from the rail centerline with
lateral traction coefficients of 0 and 0.4 outwards; shaded area
shows the fatigue crack initiation region 108
Figure 4-16 DV damage parameter versus the lateral traction coefficient for the
underhead radius, top of the rail foot and base fillet depicted by
XVII
circles in figure 4-13; contact patch located 15 mm offset from the
rail centerline towards the gauge side 109
Figure 4-17 Straight break in the considered AT weld initiated at the underhead
radius 110
Figure 4-18 DV damage parameter for two longitudinal traction coefficients in a
tangent track 110
Figure 4-19 DV damage parameter at the collar edge versus ballast horizontal
stiffness (HS) and vertical stiffness (VS) in a tangent track 112
Figure 4-20 DV damage parameter at the collar edge versus different
longitudinal (L) and vertical (V) residual stress modes depicted in
figure 4-9 for an eccentric load located 25 mm from rail centerline
towards the gauge side 114
Figure 4-21 (a) DV damage parameter on the critical plane at the underhead and
upper foot regions versus the relative location of axle load with
respect to the weld centerline for different longitudinal residual
stress (LRS) values; vertical solid lines define the location of axle
load when the damage parameter at the mentioned regions achieves
its highest value; and (b) Value of shear stress amplitude,
hydrostatic stress and damage parameter versus LRS 115
Figure 4-22 Application of ultrasonic impact treatment on collar edge of an
aluminothermic weld using the specialized hand tool 116
Figure 4-23 Damage parameter at the collar edge in a tangent track for three rail
temperatures: neutral temp=35oC, 17oC above neutral temp=52oC,
and 16oC below neutral temp=19oC 117
Figure 4-24 Variation of shear stress amplitude, hydrostatic stress and DV
damage parameter on the most damaging shear plane at the
underhead and top side of the foot (depicted by circles in figure 4-
23) for different rail temperatures; vertical solid line illustrates the
neutral temperature 118
Figure 5-1 Two weld collar designs under investigation: (a) Type A sample
weld; (b) Type B sample weld; (c) Type A computer model; (d)
Type B computer model; and (e) Section view from top of the rail
XVIII
foot indicating the toe radius and flank angle in the two collar
designs 121
Figure 5-2 Finite element mesh of the Type B weld with the collar edge of the
upperfoot magnified at the bottom right figure 122
Figure 5-3 Residual stress measurements using trepanning and strain gauge
method and the piece-wise linear model applied in fatigue analysis:
(a) Longitudinal residual stress at 3 mm offset from the collar edge;
and (b) Vertical residual stress measured on the surface of the collar
mid-web 124
Figure 5-4 Longitudinal stress contour for a tangent track when the load is
located at the centerline of the weld: (a) Type A weld; and (b) Type
B weld 125
Figure 5-5 DV damage parameter versus height above the rail foot at the collar
edge of the two weld types in a tangent track 126
Figure 5-6 Collar shape with the flank angle at the underhead region of the two
weld types 127
Figure 5-7 Longitudinal stress contour on the gauge side for a curved track
with contact patch eccentricity of 25 mm with no tractions: (a)
Type A weld; and (b) Type B weld 128
Figure 5-8 Variation of longitudinal stress at the underhead radius (at 31mm
from rail centerline) of the gauge side under central loading
(tangent track) and eccentric load located 25mm from rail
centerline towards the gauge side 128
Figure 5-9 DV damage parameter on the collar edge versus height above rail
foot for a contact patch located 25mm offset from rail centerline
towards the gauge side 129
Figure 5-10 Longitudinal stress contour at the field side of the weld for an
eccentric load located 15 mm from the rail centerline with lateral
traction coefficient of 0.4: (a) Type A; and (b) Type B 130
Figure 5-11 Variation of longitudinal stress at the under head and base fillet of
the two weld types under different lateral traction coefficients 131
Figure 5-12 DV damage parameter at the collar edge of the two weld types for
XIX
an eccentric load located 15mm from the rail centerline with lateral
traction coefficient of 0.4 towards the field side 132
Figure 5-13 Damage parameter at the collar edge versus ballast vertical and
horizontal stiffness for a tangent track (a) Type A; and (b) Type B 133
Figure 5-14 Vertical stress contour on the field side of the weld for an eccentric
load located 25mm from the rail centerline with no lateral traction:
(a) Type A weld, (b) Type B weld; and (c) Section view of the
collar at the location of maximum bending stress and the effective
bending moment 135
Figure 5-15 Vertical stress versus height from rail base and the contribution of
residual stresses for an eccentric load located 25 mm from the rail
centerline 136
Figure 5-16 DV damage parameter on the centerline of the web surface for an
eccentric load located 25 mm from the rail centerline 137
Figure 6-1 Fatigue crack propagation at top of the rail foot underneath the
associated cold lap defects in three weld samples; arrows show the
fatigue crack propagation regions 140
Figure 6-2 Section view from the top of the rail foot illustrating two types of
cold lap defect: (a) Leaking of weld material and formation of an
unfused appendix (finning); and (b) Lack of fusion on the rail
surface inside collar boundaries (cold lap) 141
Figure 6-3 The unfused surfaces of a cold lap and its apex may resemble the
faces and tip of an existing crack which can propagate under fatigue
loading and form a straight break fracture 143
Figure 6-4 Crack closure technique (CCT) using two step finite element
simulations: (a) Step one, original crack (separation forces are
calculated at ); and (b) Step two, crack is grown and the
displacements at are obtained 145
Figure 6-5 Virtual crack closure technique (VCCT or MCCT) for 8-node brick
elements 146
Figure 6-6 Crack deflection angles and for mixed-mode crack problem 148
XX
Figure 6-7 Kinking at a crack tip and the local stress intensity factors (a)
Original crack; and (b) Crack with a kink at the tip 150
Figure 6-8 Cold lap model as a simple rectangular parallelepiped and its
geometric features 151
Figure 6-9 Finite element mesh and the refined block at the crack tip 152
Figure 6-10 Equivalent (von Mises) stress in the cold lap region under a central
load (tangent track) and the lap cross section showing crack mouth
opening 155
Figure 6-11 Variation of stress intensity factors and the resulting stress intensity
factor ranges at the middle point of the cold lap during one wheel
passage (loading cycle) 156
Figure 6-12 Variation of energy release rate (G) with respect to the kink angle.
Maximum energy release rate corresponds to the kink angle of 55o 159
Figure 6-13 Variation of stress intensity factor range at the tip of a kink with
different criteria is consistent to the maximum ∆

respect to the kink angle. Note that the kink angle predicted using
160
Figure 6-14 Variation of stress intensity factors and the resulting stress intensity
factor ranges at the middle point of the cold lap for two lap
thickness values 161
Figure 6-15 Equivalent stress intensity factor range at the middle point of the
lap versus the cold lap thickness. The two threshold values are
included in the figure 162
lap with respect to lap unfused length 163
lap with respect to lap width 164
Figure 6-18 Variation of stress intensity factor ranges and the equivalent
parameter with respect to the distance of the lap tip from the collar
edge. Negative values relate to lap tips inside the collar while
positive values imply lap tips located outside 165
Figure 6-19 Variation of separated stress intensity factor ranges as well as the
equivalent value with respect to the contact patch eccentricity from
XXI
the centerline towards the gauge side for the lap located on the field
Variation of ∆ , ∆ ,∆ and ∆
and gauge side of the weld 166
Figure 6-20 with respect to lateral
traction coefficient of both inward and outward directions for a lap
located on the field side of the weld 168
Figure 6-21 with respect to lateral
traction coefficient of both inward and outward directions for a lap
located on the gauge side of the weld 168
Figure 6-22 with respect to ballast
vertical stiffness in a tangent track (central loading) 170
Figure 6-23 at the tip of an existing kink
with respect to the kink length 171
Figure 6-24 Straight break at the top of the rail foot associated with a cold lap
defect with high content of porosity at its apex 172
Figure 7-1 Variation of the DV damage parameter on the web centerline of the
Type A and Type B welds and the corresponding locations of the
maximum damage where the defects are modelled 175
Figure 7-2 Defect models used in the damage tolerance analysis: (a) Spherical
defect; (b) Ellipsoidal defect; and (c) Coin-shape defect 175
Figure 7-3 Finite element mesh of the 3 mm radius spherical defect 176
Figure 7-4 Vertical stress contour on a spherical defect when the contact load
is located exactly at the top of the weld: (a) R=0.5 mm Type A
weld, (b) R=0.5 mm Type B, (c) R=4 mm Type A; and (d) R=4 mm
Type B 178
Figure 7-5 Variation of vertical stress (σz) at two points on the surface of the
defect with respect to the defect radius: point D at the deepest point
of the defect and Point S at the intersection of the defect and collar
web surfaces 179
Figure 7-6 Lines of force on the surface of the collar around a spherical defect
and the location of stress concentration: (a) Type A weld; and (b)
Type B weld 179
XXII
Figure 7-7 Variation of DV damage parameter at two points on the surface of
the spherical defect with respect to the defect radius 180
Figure 7-8 Equation of the considered ellipsoidal defect with conditions: b=c
and a=cte 181
Figure 7-9 Vertical stress contour on an ellipsoidal defect (a) b=0.25 mm Type
A weld, (b) b=0.25 mm Type B, (c) b=1.25 mm Type A; and (d)
b=1.25 mm Type B 182
Figure 7-10 Variation of vertical stress (σz) at two points on the surface of the
defect with respect to the semi-minor axis b 183
Figure 7-11 Variation of DV damage parameter at two points on the surface of
the defect with respect to the semi-minor axis b 183
Figure 7-12 Geometric parameters of the coin-shape defect considered in this
study (w is variable) 184
Figure 7-13 Vertical stress contour on a coin-shape defect: (a) w=1 mm Type A
weld, (b) w=1 mm Type B, (c) w=6 mm Type A; and (d) w=6 mm
Type B weld 185
Figure 7-14 Variation of the equivalent (von Mises) stress at two points on the
surface of the coin-shape defect with respect to the defect width (w) 186
Figure 7-15 Determination of relationship between hardness and yield strength
of rail welds 187
Figure 7-16 Variation of the DV damage parameter at two points on the surface
of the coin-shape defect with respect to the defect width (w) 188
Figure 7-17 Finite element mesh of the crack block and the application of radial
meshing suitable for virtual crack closure technique 189
Figure 7-18 Vertical stress contour on the crack block and the lower crack face
when contact load is located exactly at the top of the weld: (a) R=5
mm Type A weld, (b) R=5 mm Type B weld 190
Figure 7-19 Variation of equivalent stress intensity factor range with respect to
the crack radius: point D at the deepest point of the crack and Point
S at the intersection of the crack front and the collar surface 191
Figure 7-20 Variation of mode I stress intensity factor (KI) with respect to the
crack radius 192
XXIII
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1 Summary of the finite element model parameters 54

Table 3-2 Stress values in two locations of the weld collar with respect to
element size for the case of a vertical load located at the centreline
of the weld 56
Table 3-3 Stress values in three regions of the weld versus the track length
modelled 58
Table 3-4 Stress values in three regions of the weld versus the contact
pressure distribution 60
Table 6-1 Summary of the finite element model parameters 153
Table 6-2 Crack tip stress intensity factors versus the element size at the crack
tip block 154
XXIV
LIST OF NOTATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Chapter 1
CWR Continuous Welded Rail

ATW Aluminothermic Welding
FBW Flash Butt Welding
GPW Gas Pressure Welding
EAW Enclosed Arc Welding
HSW Horizontal Split Web
Chapter 2
HAZ Heat Affected Zone

Dynamic wheel load
!
Static wheel load
"
Depth of weld dip
#
Unsprung mass per wheel
$
Vehicle speed
Wavelength of the track irregularity
RCF Rolling Contact Fatigue
% Fracture toughness
& Fatigue notch factor
'
Web or base thickness
(
Weld flank angle
)
Weld toe radius
Depth of the surface roughness at the weld toe root
*
+,
Tensile strength of the toe root material
∆
Threshold crack depth
,
-
Threshold stress intensity factor range
Crack shape factor
XXV
∆
).
Stress range
Ratio of minimum to maximum total vertical stress
∆
Vertical residual stress
∆
Stress intensity factor range under mode I loading
Stress intensity factor range under mode II loading
HCF High Cycle Fatigue
LCF Low Cycle Fatigue
/& Fatigue strength of material
0& Number of cycles to failure under a reversed loading
True stress amplitude
Slope of S-N line
Alternating applied stress
Mean applied stress
& Fully reversed fatigue strength
1 2
1
Plastic strain amplitude
1
Total strain amplitude
3
Elastic strain amplitude
1%
Modulus of elasticity
∆1
Critical strain in ratchetting
Cyclic plastic strain accumulated in each loading cycle
4, 6,
Equivalent stress amplitude
7 Principal stress amplitudes
4, 6,
Equivalent mean stress
7 Principal mean stresses
8, 9 Mean
:
, stresses in x,y,z directions
1 4, 1 6, 1
Poisson’s ratio
7
1
Principal alternating strains
∆
Equivalent alternating strain
8 Maximum range of shear stress on the shear plane
, 8
;<4
Maximum normal stress acting on the shear plane
Fatigue limit in alternate bending
XXVI
<4
∆= 8 ⁄2
Fatigue limit in reversed pure torsion
∆1
Maximum shear strain amplitude
Normal strain range on the shear plane
@ Yield strength of material
,A Normal stress amplitude on the critical plane
,A Shear stress amplitude on the critical plane

B
,A Hydrostatic stress amplitude
,A Mean normal stress on the critical plane
CD
( )
Dang Van damage parameter
( )
Time dependent shear stress amplitude on the shear plane
Time dependent hydrostatic stress
CD Constant in Dang Van criterion
CD Constant in Dang Van criterion
,
E6,
Stress concentration factor
E4 ∗
Amplitude of the second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor
H
Maximum value of the hydrostatic stress including gradient effect
E4
Gradient of hydrostatic stress
8 Maximum hydrostatic stress in a load cycle
,
√ (J
Threshold stress intensity factor
KD
Square root of the crack area
∆
Vickers hardness
L Fatigue limit of a defective material
and Dimensions of semi-elliptical surface crack
Chapter 3
M Sleeper sitting width

Effective support length of the sleeper per rail
.
ℎM
Sleeper span
O
Ballast thickness
3M
Ballast stress distribution angle
Ballast modulus of elasticity
XXVII
0
(
Vertical applied load
)L8
Rolling radius of the wheel
)
Transverse radius of the wheel
8 Transverse radius of the rail
and Contact patch semi axes in x and y directions
(P, Q)
Mean contact pressure
Contact Pressure
Maximum contact pressure
Vertical wheel load
MBS Multi Body System
L/V Ratio of the lateral to vertical wheel load
Chapter 4
( )
( )
Deviatoric part of the mesoscopic stress
Deviatoric part of the macroscopic stress
R∗ Deviatoric part of the residual stress
E6
( )
Second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor
( )
Instantaneous value of the maximum mesoscopic Tresca shear stress
Instantaneous mesoscopic hydrostatic stress
S
MCC Minimum Circumscribed Circle
T
Total stress vector
U and U(V)
Normal stress vector on the shear plane
UW and UW (V) Shear stress amplitude vector

Shear stress vector on the shear plane
UX
Y
Mean shear stress vector
Y6Z
Number of vertices of the shear path polygon
Y7Z
Number of circles formed by two vertices of the shear path polygon
K[
Number of circles formed by three vertices of the shear path polygon
Brinell hardness
\] Ultimate tensile strength
UIT Ultrasonic Impact Treatment
XXVIII
Chapter 6
LEFM Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
COD Crack Opening Displacement
VCCT Virtual Crack Closure Technique
MCCT Modified Crack Closure Technique
∆
Crack length
H,H ,H
Crack extension
Separated energy release rates
Crack front element width
H
, , Crack tip Stress intensity factors
Shear modulus
Equivalent stress intensity factor
∆
and Crack kinking angles
Equivalent stress intensity factor range
MERR Maximum Energy Release Rate
Chapter 7
Dynamic fracture toughness
XXIX
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Continuous Welded Rail
It is a long time since continuous welded rail (CWR) has replaced the traditional bolting
method to join rail sections. Previously, fixed lengths of rails were joined together by
bolting the rail ends using metal perforated fish plates or joint bars (Figure 1-1a). This
method incorporated small gaps to accommodate expansion of the rails in hot seasons
and because of this gap the passage of train induced impact forces on the joint causing
different failures on the rail ends, joint components and railway track. Nowadays,
continuous rails are produced by welding the rail sections using different welding
techniques to form a continuous welded rail which may extend several kilometres in
length (Figure 1-1b). The history of CWR goes back to the early 20th century with the
construction of 7,000 metres of continuous rail by Krefeld railway in Germany in 1924
[1]. Since 1950’s this method has become common especially in main line applications.
(a) (b)
Figure 1-1: Rail joining methods: (a) Fish plate and bolting; and (b) Welding
CWR has resulted in several improvements in the performance of railways thanks to the
elimination of the expansion gap and the associated rail surface discontinuity. The
benefits attributed to the CWR include reduced maintenance requirements as a result of
lower bolt hole and fish plate failures, lower impact forces on railway due to better
1
integrity, reduced track deterioration, better wear performance and generally increasing
rail lives. CWR has also largely contributed to ride quality enhancement and passenger
comfort.
Flash butt welding (FBW) and Aluminothermic welding (ATW) are the most common
welding methods used all over the world. Other alternatives such as gas pressure
welding (GPW) and enclosed arc welding (EAW) are also used, however to a lesser
extent [2-4]. FBW incorporates an automatic welding machine in which the rail ends are
heated to fusion temperature by running a strong electric current through the high
resistance contact of the rail ends as they periodically touch each other. The rails are
then forged together with high pressure forming a strong bond. As the portability of the
equipment is restricted the FBW is the preferred method to weld rail sections in welding
plants prior to transportation to track construction site. However with the development
and more widespread availability of mobile flash butt welding equipment, flash butt
welding is increasingly used in place of aluminothermic welding for in-track welding.
1.2 Aluminothermic Weld
The invention of thermite process and aluminothermic weld is considered a milestone in

the development of continuously welded rail. The thermite reaction and its applications
were first patented by German chemist Hans Goldschmidt in 1895 when he was
investigating the reaction of metal oxides with aluminium powder [5-7]. The thermite
reaction is an exothermic process in which large amount of thermal energy is released;
the quantity sufficient to provide molten metal for casting and welding processes. The
thermite process associated with ATW incorporates reaction between fine aluminium
and iron oxide powders in a crucible. The following reactions are widely used in the
ATW processes [1]:
Fe2O3 + 2Al 2Fe + Al2O3 + 181.5 Kcal (1-1)
3Fe2O3 + 8Al 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + 719.3 Kcal (1-2)
2
The practical temperature achieved by the second reaction is about 1930 oC, which is
well above the melting point of iron. After the abovementioned reaction is complete and
the slag (mainly aluminium oxide) has floated on the top of the crucible, the molten
steel is poured (through an automatic tap at the underneath of the crucible) in a two or a
three piece hardened sand mould which has already been clamped and sealed around the
two rail ends. The rail ends which have been heated through a preheating stage (a pre-
reaction stage in which the rail ends are heated by gas torches) are partially melted in
presence of the hot molten steel and fuse with it forming the complete weld (Figure 1-
2). Afterwards, the setup is allowed to cool down, the moulds are then removed, the
risers are trimmed and the weld head is finally ground to the consistent rail head profile.
All the above-mentioned procedures are performed in a timely manner and according to
certain guidelines to ensure consistent quality of the produced welds [8].
Variations of the ATW process include different preheating duration, post-weld cooling
condition, portion (thermite mixture) hardness, weld gap width and weld collar design
(reinforcement shape design), and more recently, single-use crucibles (Figure 1-3). In
any case, the applicability of a new AT weld (process and consumables) must be
approved by strict guidelines and performance tests according to adopted railway and
welding standards such as AS1085-Part 20 [9] or BS-EN 14730 [10].
(a) (b)
Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy
Figure 1-2: (a) Section view of ATW process during pouring and solidification [11]; and (b) On-site
ATW installation
3
Figure 1-3: Section view of ATW process using single-use crucible [11]
Although, the ATW process is quite old and largely operator dependent it is the
preferred method for on-site applications due to the low cost of equipments and
consumables, fast installation and lower delay in normal railway operation, portability
of equipment and the possibility to weld different rail sections together. ATW is mainly
used for the following applications:
• Joining new rails on site as part of the railway construction

• Replacing defective or broken rails as a maintenance procedure
• Installation of insulated rail joints
• Renewal of railway crossings
1.3 Aluminothermic Weld as a Major Source of Failure
Despite the main role as a welding procedure and its operational preference, ATW is
considered a manual cast welding process and as a result suffers from the variations of
the produced weld quality. ATW processes involve several stages such as rail end
alignment, gap adjustment, mould installation, sealing and preheating in which the
operator plays an important role and any departure from the guidelines could result in a
defective weld. In the meantime, since ATW is a casting process the fused material
features coarser microstructure (columnar grains with predominantly pearlitic
microstructure) and sometimes includes traces of non-metallic inclusions and porosity
which are contributing factors to lower ductility and fracture toughness of the ATWs
4
compared to the parent rail. In general ATW is considered a discontinuity in rail line
due to the following factors [12]:
• Inconsistency of the weld microstructure and material properties (static and

fatigue strength, hardness, ductility, etc.) to the rail material.
• Presence of high residual stresses as a result of welding process and their
difference with those of the parent rail.
• Difference in geometrical shape and dimensions of the ATW collar from the
parent rail section.
• Propensity of the ATW process to produce cast related defects such as
inclusions, porosity, shrinkage cracks and hot tears and their possible
contribution to fatigue and premature failure of ATWs.
Previous studies have shown that field welded ATWs have been frequent sources of
previous failures in Australian heavy haul railway systems [13-15]. One investigation
shows that for a period of 18 months prior to June 2001 failures in one particular type of
aluminothermic weld resulted in approximately 75% of all broken rail reports for the
Newman mainline of the BHP Billiton Iron Ore railway system, and the majority of
these failures occurred in rail welds which were less than 6 months old [15].
Figure 1-4: Failure statistics from September 1997 to October 2000 for SKV-F welds [15]
5
Figure 1-4 illustrates the number of failed welds and the failure rate with respect to the
service life of the installed welds. Around 70% of the installed welds failed in the early
stage of their service life (less than 3 months) while not many welds survived more than
3 years in service. Most of the failures were due to straight breaks (vertical or near
vertical fracture of the weld) and horizontal split webs (horizontal fracture at the mid-
web region) associated with shrinkage and other large defects and inclusions at the web
region (Figure 1-5).
Figure 1-5: Main ATW failure modes in Australian heavy haul railways: (a) Straight break; and
(b) Horizontal split web in SKV-F weld [16]
Another study performed on North American railroad infrastructure implies that around
40% of all failures in a class I railroad has been due to field welded ATWs with around
90% of the failures initiated at the base or web regions [17]. It is worth mentioning that
railhead defects may be more frequent than base or web-initiated failures but rail head
fatigue cracks are less likely to cause any broken rails as the defect can be readily
detected through standard NDT techniques such as ultrasonic and X-ray inspections and
removed before they result in total fracture. Similar statistical study in Japanese
railways shows that out of 121 damaged welds (comprising four different welding
techniques) in 17 years prior to 2002, 43% has been associated to ATWs [18].
The information provided on the failure rates proves the importance of ATW as a key
maintenance and safety issue. ATW has been under constant improvements since its
invention in 1895 and because of that the current failure rates have dropped
6
significantly compared to early installations. However, by development of the new high
strength hypereutectoid and bainitic rail materials there is a big challenge to keep ATW
lives compatible to those of the parent rails in which they are installed. Thorough
engineering investigations and improvements are still needed especially if ATW aims to
remain the preferred on-site welding method for higher speed and axle load demands of
the railway industry.
1.4 Aims and Objectives
As previously mentioned, straight breaks and horizontal split webs are the most
common ATW failure modes in Australian heavy haul railway system. Straight breaks
initiate from stress concentration sites at the edge of the weld collar, at the foot, lower
web and underhead regions, and propagate in vertical direction under Mode I loading.
On the other hand, horizontal split web failures involve the development of a horizontal
crack which initiates from a surface or near-surface defect at the weld collar, generally
in the mid or upper-web region. Understanding the mechanism and the contributing
factors in formation of these failures is vital to prevent their occurrence and before any
modifications of the process design could be made.
Bending and Fatigue Behaviour
The main objective of this study is to investigate the fatigue behaviour of the welded
rail section with respect to the abovementioned failure modes under heavy axle load
conditions. The risk of fatigue crack initiation and the associated critical locations of the
weld collar (particularly with respect to straight break formation) are analyzed and the
effect of the following operational and process parameters is quantified:
• Track curving or hunting through variable wheel–rail contact patch location and
introduction of wheel lateral tractions
• Longitudinal and vertical residual stress distribution as a result of welding
process, preheating and post-weld cooling conditions
• Seasonal-dependent stresses arising from the difference between the current rail
temperature and the temperature at the time of weld installation
7
• Unsupported or weakly supported sleepers in the vicinity of the weld as a result
of track deterioration processes arising from rail surface irregularities
Collar Design
Amongst different metallurgical and mechanical parameters important in initiation and

propagation of these failures, geometrical design of the collar is a determining factor in
the fatigue performance and service life of ATW. Part of the study is devoted to the
analysis of geometrical features (flank angle and toe radius) particularly at the edge of
the weld collar (which is responsible for or assistive in straight break formation). Two
geometrically different aluminothermic welds, one of which is widely used in
Australian heavy haul railways and the other one recently developed, are investigated in
terms of fatigue crack initiation risk. The role of the collar shape at the mid web region
in mitigating or increasing the risk of horizontal split web formation is also studied.
Straight Break at Top of the Rail Foot
Beside the role of irregularities of the collar shape, analysis of the fractured welds have
shown that a specific type of defect known as cold lap is responsible for the formation
of straight breaks at the upper foot region close to the collar edge. Cold lap is a
condition where the weld metal seeps into the gap between the mould and the parent rail
and solidifies forming an unfused metallic appendix. One of the objectives of this study
is to investigate whether and under which conditions fatigue crack could grow from the
tip of a cold lap and lead to a straight break failure.
HSW and Web Defects
A further chapter is devoted to the role of specific defects in formation of horizontal

split webs at the critical locations of the two above mentioned ATWs. The study focuses
on large pores (as the most detrimental defect) with predefined geometries and variable
dimensions for example semi-spherical, ellipsoidal and coin-shape surface defects. This
study is considered in the context of damage tolerance analysis through which the
tolerance of alternative collar shapes to the existing welding defects at the web region
could be evaluated.
8
1.5 Methodology
Prior to any numerical investigation of fatigue crack initiation, the cyclic stress history
of the weld section under service loading must be determined. Accordingly, a thermo-
structural finite element analysis is performed in ANSYS 12.0 package as a preliminary
stage to provide stress history for fatigue analysis and to facilitate the interaction of
service and seasonal-dependent thermal stresses. A specific length of railway track
comprising concrete sleepers and elastic foundation in both vertical and longitudinal
directions is modelled and the passage of wheel is considered through longitudinal
movement of the associated contact patch and pressure.
Analysis of fatigue behaviour is performed using the calculated stress histories

combining the effect of contact, bending, seasonal-induced thermal and the weld
residual stresses. Due to the complexity of the stress state, out of phase nature of the
stress components and rotating principal stresses it is necessary to use a multi-axial
fatigue criterion. The shear based Dang Van multi-axial criterion based on the concept
of critical plane is exploited through a fatigue code developed in this study using
MATLAB software. The effect of the previously mentioned service and process
conditions are also examined using this methodology.
Damage tolerance analysis is performed using two techniques each of which is

applicable to certain type of defects. For large predefined defects (spherical, ellipsoidal
and coin-shape) considered on the mid web surface, fatigue analysis is performed
through finite element analysis of the stress distribution history on the surface of the
defect. The risk of crack initiation is subsequently determined using the Dang Van
multi-axial fatigue criterion. For some types of defects like coin-shape and cold lap, the
method ceases to be valid since the stresses at the critical locations exceed elastic limits.
In these conditions, damage tolerance analysis is performed using linear elastic fracture
mechanics considering the presumed defects as equivalent cracks. Virtual crack closure
technique in conjunction with finite element method is used to extract stress intensity
ranges and determine the risk of crack propagation.
9
1.6 Thesis Structure
This thesis is organized in eight chapters the content of which are summarized as
follows:
Chapter 2, Literature review: the main ATW failure mechanisms, contributing factors
and related background and studies are reported in this chapter. Subsequently, the
methods meant to be used in fatigue analysis and damage tolerance investigation are
described and the related literature review is provided.
Chapter 3, In-track bending behaviour: in this chapter the bending behaviour of ATW
and related stress distributions are determined using finite element simulation. Model
construction, meshing, loading and model validation are described and the effect of
different service conditions such as tangent, curved tracks and track support at the
vicinity of ATW are presented.
Chapter 4, Multi-axial fatigue analysis: fatigue behaviour of ATW is investigated using

the critical plane criterion. The approach to estimate material fatigue parameters and the
implementation of residual stresses in the fatigue code are described. The effect of
operational conditions on the fatigue behaviour is quantified and sensitivity analyses on
the seasonal temperature, residual stresses and weld support condition are performed.
Chapter 5, Fatigue and weld collar design: the effect of collar geometrical features on
multi-axial fatigue behaviour of ATW is investigated. Two geometrically different
welds are considered and their performance under variable service conditions is
quantified. Eventually, the role of reinforcement design at the web region in crack
initiation locus and fatigue damage value is reported.
Chapter 6, Cold lap defect: damage tolerance analysis is performed on the crack
initiation risk at the tip of the cold lap defect through crack FE modeling and
applications of linear elastic fracture mechanics. Sensitivity analysis is performed on
cold lap geometrical dimensions and some service conditions.
10
Chapter 7, Tolerance to web defects: the influence of predefined surface defects on
fatigue behaviour of web region is investigated. The results of two approaches using the
multi-axial fatigue analysis of defect surface and linear elastic fracture mechanics are
presented.
Chapter 8, Conclusions and future work: the core objectives and methodology of the
study are summarized and a conclusion on the main results is presented. The limitations
of the current study are pointed out and recommendations are made for future works.
11
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Aluminothermic Weld Failure Mechanisms
The variability of the produced weld quality due to excessive operator dependability and
the cast like nature of the process bring about increased deterioration rate compared to
that of the parent rail. The study of ATW failure modes is critical both to the
characterization of weld performance and to the rail lives since some of the failure
modes indirectly affect the adjacent parent rails.
A number of studies have been performed on the frequency of ATW failure incidents,
their locations and main initiators. Lawrence [17] indicates that most of the failures (on
a North American railway) have resulted from fatigue cracking of the base, web-base
fillet and web locations and attributes them to the weld defects such as cold laps, slag,
porosity and hot tears (Figure 2-1). Terashita [18] classifies the type and cause of the
failures (on Japanese railways) in a pie chart graph indicating the transverse fissure
(straight break) as the most prominent type of failure and the lack of fusion and
shrinkage defect as the main cause of this failure mode (Figure 2-2). However, the
proportion of failures and the main reasons largely depend on the type of ATW process,
its design and also the type and location of railway in which the weld is installed. In
fact, one might find a specific type of ATW failure mode as a maintenance issue in a
railway system while no such failure is observed elsewhere.
In this chapter, the main ATW failure modes in Australian heavy haul railways are
categorized in four sections according to the location and type of failure. A description
is provided for each failure mode, the cause and contribution factors and the pertinent
previous studies. Some of the failure modes such as local plastic deformation of the rail
running surface, rolling contact fatigue, wear and horizontal split webs are common
between ATW and FBW (flash butt weld) and so the studies related to either of these
welds will be mentioned briefly.
12
Figure 2-1: Histogram for 244 weld failures in a North American railway a) Failure locations; and
(b) Cause of failures [17]
Figure 2-2: Failure modes (outer layer) and the cause of damage (inner layer) in Japanese railways
[18]
13
2.1.1 Local Plastic Deformation (Batter)
In aluminothermic welding process the rail ends are subjected to tremendous heat input
from the preheating stage and the molten metal. As a consequence of this thermal
energy, the parent rail material softens and undergoes microstructural changes which
lead to lower hardness levels compared to the unaffected regions of the rail. This
thermally affected region is called heat affected zone (HAZ) and is an important
characteristic in terms of the performance of ATWs. Figures 2-3a and 2-3b illustrate the
section view (weld profile) of an ATW and the hardness measurement at different
regions of the weld. The width of the HAZ region and its hardness distribution depend
on the process parameters such as the weld gap, heat input during preheat stage and
more importantly the weld portion hardness which is selected to match the hardness of
the parent rail.
(a) (b)
Figure 2-3: (a) Weld profile (visible regions of the weld section) and; (b) Hardness measurement on
different regions of the weld and the illustrated softened region (HAZ) [19]
As the new weld is exposed to repetitive service loading the softened region depicted in
Figure 2-3b is deformed plastically and as a result, local dipping (batter) forms at the
weld running surface. The geometrical irregularities (due to batter and sometimes rail
head misalignments) on the surface of the weld cause impact loading on the weld and
the track structure underneath and contribute to their failure. The surface irregularities
of the weld could also affect the adjacent parent rail in the form of corrugations which
14
develop as a result of dynamic impact loads through a combination of cyclic plastic
deformations (ratchetting) and wear mechanisms of the rail running surface [20-21].
A number of studies have been performed to quantify the impact forces and accordingly
characterize the weld surface irregularities and their influence on the weld and railway
supporting components [22-27]. According to Jenkins et al. [23] the impact forces
arising from the surface irregularities has two peaks defined as P1 and P2 which
represent the high frequency and low frequency responses of the track (Figure 2-4). The
first peak (P1) occurs in about half a milliseconds after the wheel passage and is
attributed to the instantaneous response of the rail and sleeper inertia. This force mainly
affects the rail wheel contact region (responsible for weld batter) and is damped by the
rail and sleepers before it can reach the track bedding. However, a second peak is also
observed after several milliseconds and is related to the delayed response of the wheel
set unsprung mass. The P2 peak has a high energy compared to P1 (as it has a larger
wavelength) and is the main cause of ballast deterioration since it magnifies the sleeper
loads and penetrates into the track bedding.
irregularity; ^_à and V are wheel-rail dynamic force and time respectively [26]
Figure 2-4: Qualitative presentation of P1 and P2 dynamic forces induced by a rail weld surface
Perhaps the most applicable methods for design engineers to calculate the impact force
components (as mentioned previously) are the ones proposed by Jenkins et al. [23] and
Frederick [24] which are based on simplified theoretical relations. For instance,
15
Frederick estimates the influence of irregularities through the definition of a total
dynamic force:
b c 60(!"# 6 )/$6 (2-1)
is the static wheel load at weld (N), ! is the

depth of weld dip (m), " is the unsprung mass per wheel (kg), # is the vehicle speed
Where is the dynamic wheel load (N),
(m/s) and L is the wavelength of the track irregularity (m). However, for a better
understanding of the impact load and the contributing factors the more rigorous vehicle-
track dynamic modellings such as the ones performed by Steenbergen [25] and Ishida
[27] seems necessary. Recently, a sophisticated model has been developed by Wen [28]
in which the vehicle-track dynamic interaction model is combined with finite element
analysis of the plastic deformation (batter formation) at the weld running surface.
The results achieved by strain gauging of the rail and measurement of the dynamic force
however indicate that under heavy axle load conditions an amplification factor
(coefficient by which the static wheel load is magnified) of 1.2 to 1.5 occurs at welds
with about 0.5 mm dip depth supported by concrete sleepers [29]. According to Mutton
and Alvarez [15] there is a near linear relation between the dynamic impact factor
(amplification factor) and the vehicle speed for both the dipped and peaked welds and it
generally varies between 1.1 to 1.6 (Figure 2-5).
Figure 2-5: Dynamic impact factor with respect to vehicle speed for a tangent track [15]
16
2.1.2 Rolling Contact Fatigue and Wear
Since the rail running surface is under repetitive service loading with high contact
stresses, incremental plastic deformation (under ratchetting mechanisms due to
exceedance of shakedown limits [30]) develop in the rail material. Plastic (shear) strain
is accumulated until the ductility of material is exhausted and the material fails to
support further deformation. The failed material either is detached from the surface in
the form of wear debris or develops micro-cracks which subsequently propagate and
branch into material forming rolling contact fatigue cracks [30-32].
Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) and wear are among failure modes which are common
between different welding methods and rail sections. However, aluminothermic welds
are more susceptible to these failures mostly due to lack of sufficient ductility in the
fusion zone as a result of the casting nature and the lower strength of the softened HAZ
[33-34]. Additionally, the existence of HAZ and the associated batter (or generally
surface irregularities) lead to impact forces which contribute to the initiation and higher
propagation rate of RCF cracks. The relatively lower fracture toughness ( %) of
aluminothermic rail welds [35] also promotes lower weld life as a result of faster
transition of weld RCF failures to brittle fractures.
RCF defects usually appear on the running surface in the form of head checks (gauge
corner cracking), spalling (flaking), shelling and as localised defects such as squats.
Figure 2-6 shows squat defects in the two HAZ bands of an aluminothermic weld [22].
The RCF defects at the rail running surface may propagate and form transverse defects
(detail fracture), vertical and horizontal split heads and eventually lead to total rail
section break. According to Mutton et al. [36] increased tensile stress areas in the rail
head specifically under severe head wear will lead to higher crack growth rates and RCF
cracks to turn down and form transverse defects (see Figure 2-7).
To investigate the fatigue behaviour of wheel rail contact region and the effect of
material properties several studies have been performed using finite element modelling,
fracture mechanics and application of multi-axial fatigue criteria [37-42]. These
17
procedures can be extended to aluminothermic welds through incorporation of weld
HAZ and fusion zone material characteristics and the effect of amplified service
loadings. Nevertheless, no such analysis has been performed so far.
Figure 2-6: Squats formed on the battered regions of an aluminothermic weld [22]
Figure 2-7: Longitudinal section of rail head illustrating transverse defect formation from head
check defect in the HAZ of an aluminothermic weld [36]
18
2.1.3 Straight Breaks (Transverse Fissure)
Straight break or transverse fissure is a fatigue failure (less likely an overload or brittle
fracture) which initiates from a defect, geometrical discontinuity or stress concentration
in the weld section and develops in a vertical or near vertical direction (under mode I
crack propagation) eventually leading to total section break. The main locations of the
weld in which straight breaks initiate are the collar edge or its vicinity (HAZ) at the
base, web-base fillet or web regions of the weld [17]. However, in the weld type
currently used in Australian heavy haul, the underhead (head-web fillet) and upper-foot
(top of rail foot) regions are very prone to straight break formation (Figures 2-8a and 2-
8b). It is reported that in some defective welds, the straight break may also initiate from
a shrinkage defect at the weld centreline or a lack of fusion defect on the fusion
boundary of the weld [13]. However, the straight breaks initiating form such gross
defects propagate very quickly in the form of a brittle or overload fracture with no sign
of fatigue crack growth (polished fracture surface, striations and beach marks). The
initiation and propagation of straight break is largely under the influence of the
following longitudinal stress components:
• Tensile cyclic stress (particularly at the rail base region) as a result of service
loading and the bending behaviour of rail section. Poor rail support condition
due to ballast deterioration in the vicinity of aluminothermic welds can increase
this cyclic stress component.
• Seasonal thermal stresses in the form of static tensile stress in cold months of the
year when the ambient temperature is much lower than the neutral (stress free)
temperature. According to strain gauge measurements, longitudinal stress values
up to ±80 to ±100 MPa can be observed for temperature deviations of ±35 to
±45oC around the neutral temperature.
• Tensile residual stress as a result of the welding process, pre-heat and post
cooling conditions. According to Mutton et al. [43] the longitudinal residual
stress at the top of the foot and underhead region of some aluminothermic welds
can reach up to 300 MPa.
19
(a) (b)
Figure 2-8: Straight break failure in an Australian heavy haul railway: (a) Initiated from upper-
foot (top of the foot) [44]; and (b) Initiated from the underhead radius (head-web fillet) [16]
The presence of stress concentration is vital for the occurrence of straight breaks and as
mentioned the collar edge which is the boundary of parent rail surface and the weld
collar is very prone to this type of failure. The two parameters used to characterize the
geometry of collar edge are flank angle and toe radius which represent the angle
between the free surface of rail with the collar and the notch radius respectively. Ross
[45] has performed some finite element simulations on the effect of flank angle and toe
radius. The results show the significant dependence of stress concentration factor on the
flank angle and toe radius (Figure 2-9). The effect of flank angle however reduces as the
toe radius increases and ceases to be influential for high angles above 70 degrees.
According to Lawrence et al. [46] even in absence of defects, most collar edges are
critical and can potentially be straight break initiators. They have developed a model for
fusion welded butt joints which can be applied to quantify the severity of fatigue
(fatigue notch factor, &) at the collar edge of aluminothermic welds based on the
geometrical and surface conditions:
ghiJ JjJ(g Q b k1 c 0.27 tan ' r.6s t u v1 + 0.1054 * √)y −1

(
(2-2)
20
Where is the web or base thickness, ' is the weld flank angle, ( is the weld toe radius,
) is the depth of the surface roughness at the weld toe root and * is the tensile strength
of the toe root material. Based on the equation, the fatigue performance is improved
through reduction of the flank angle, enlarging the toe radius and enhancing the surface
smoothness of the collar edge i.e. reducing the value of surface roughness ()).
Figure 2-9: The effect of flank angle and toe radius on the stress concentration of the collar edge
[45]
Beside the stress concentration associated with the collar edge features, a type of
welding defect referred to as cold lap has been reported to be responsible for a majority
of straight breaks. Cold lap is not exclusive to aluminothermic welds and is considered a
common defect in any welding method which incorporates a filler metal e.g. arc
welding. According to Dimitrakis [47] cold laps greatly reduce the fatigue life of fusion
weldments by accelerating and sometimes eliminating the nucleation stage of fatigue
cracks as a result of a very high stress concentration at the cold lap notch root.
The cold lap defect generally occurs in locations where the welding mold does not
perfectly fit the exterior surface of the rail ends. The resulting gap allows the molten
metal to leak out of the mold and solidify forming an unfused region on the rail surface.
The reason for lack of fusion between the leaked material and the rail surface is mainly
due to insufficient heat input to melt the rail surface and fuse the two surfaces.
21
However, presence of contamination on the surface of parent rail may also be
responsible for the lack of fusion [17]. Figure 2-10 shows a typical cold lap formed at
the underhead radius of an aluminothermic weld and the resultant fatigue crack
developed from its apex (notch root). Figure 2-8a also illustrates a cold lap formed at
the top of the rail foot where the straight break has nucleated. In fact, cold lap is the
main cause of straight breaks initiating at the top of the rail foot particularly for the
welded rails with dissimilar heights.
(a) (b)
Figure 2-10: (a) Cold lap formation at the underhead region of a weld; and (b) Fatigue crack
emanated from the apex of the cold lap [48]
Cold laps could also occur in locations where the mold fit is perfect; in this case the
formation of cold lap is associated with the lack of enough melt-back on the rail end
[49]. Accordingly, the cold lap occurs when the amount of liquid penetration in the rail
end (melt-back depth) is smaller than the initial length of rail end passed beyond the
mould collar edge (stick-out length). Figure 2-11 shows a schematic section view of the
cold lap formation during the solidification stage.
A series of thermal finite element simulations has been performed by Chen [49-51] to
investigate the formation of cold lap and the effect of different weld process parameters
such as preheating time, liquid temperature, weld gap and stick-out (extent of parent rail
material projecting into mould cavity) dimensions. The FE model is basically a heat
transfer model in which the preheating, tapping and solidification stages are introduced
by predefined heat fluxes and temperature boundary conditions measured during
laboratory welding. The amount of melt back and heat affected zone are determined
22
through obtaining isotherms of different temperatures in the model. Accordingly, the
line of fusion is defined by plot of the solid-liquid interface temperature isotherm and
the outermost boundary of the HAZ profile is determined by the isotherm of eutectoid
temperature.
Figure 2-11: Schematic view of cold lap formation when no leak of molten steel has occurred [49]
According to the simulation results, by increasing the preheating time, the melt-back
depth increases and the possibility of cold lap formation decreases. Similar conclusion
can be drawn for the effect of molten metal temperature (Figure 2-12). However, it was
surprisingly found that the width of weld gap cannot significantly change the
temperature gradient and the melt-back depth. On the other hand, a shorter stick-out
could alleviate the requirement for high input of thermal energy and molten metal
temperature and accordingly reduce the cold lap probability.
Figure 2-12: Effect of welding parameters on melt-back depth: (a) Preheating time; and (b) Liquid
temperature; the horizontal dotted line is the boundary of cold lap and no cold lap regions [49]
23
2.1.4 Horizontal Split Webs
Horizontal split web (HSW) or big dipper is a common failure mode in both
aluminothermic and flash butt welds in Australian heavy haul railways [52-53]. This
failure mode is typified by initiation of horizontal cracks at mid to upper web region of
the weld collar surface and propagation in a horizontal plane into the heat affected zone.
Once the crack tip extends past the weld collar, it can develop vertically either towards
the rail head and/or base resulting in removal of a rail section and dramatically
increasing the risk of derailment. The main cause of HSW formation is the presence of
large surface or subsurface defects such as shrinkage cracks, hot tears, inclusions (in the
form of alumina slag or iron oxides) and pores [15, 54]. That is why in most instances
the propagation of HSW is rapid in the form of a brittle fracture and no evidence of
fatigue crack growth could be seen on the fractured face. Figure 2-13 shows an example
of HSW and the associated shrinkage defect at the corner of one of the weld buttresses.
(a) (b)
Figure 2-13: (a) Horizontal split web fracture; and (b) Fracture face of the weld buttress showing
an area of a shrinkage defect [55]
The factors which contribute to the formation of HSW failures in aluminothermic and
flash butt welds are well understood and comprise the following [53, 56-57]:
• High vertical residual stresses present at the web collar surface. The value of
these stresses may vary between 100 to 300 MPa for aluminothermic welds
depending on the collar shape and process factors. The corresponding range for
24
flash butt weld is between 450 to 600 MPa (Figure 2-14). However, heat
treatment techniques such as normalizing and stress relieving may be used to
alleviate surface residual stress levels, although they are not considered standard
procedures due to possible side effects such as reducing hardness levels in the
rail head.
• Fatigue crack initiation sites such as surface or near surface gross defects e.g.
shrinkage defects, hot tears and inclusions. However, flash butt welds are
relatively cleaner than aluminothermic welds and are less likely to contain such
defects.
• Cyclic vertical stresses as a result of eccentric loading of the rail. According to
the observations most of HSW failures in both aluminothermic and flash butt
welds occur in curves of 600-900 m radius or tangent tracks prone to vehicle
hunting. The repetitive lateral displacement of the vertical loading (on the gauge
and field side of the rail) due to this steering behaviour can result in significant
reverse bending. Based on a strain gauge measurement on the web surface of an
aluminothermic weld, maximum stresses can vary from +150 MPa to -130 MPa
for a single train passage. However, according to finite element analysis, the
shape of the collar and the related buttress could also influence the vertical stress
distribution [53, 57].
• Inferior fatigue crack growth characteristics of the weld compared to those of the
parent rail. According to a study by Bulloch [58] the crack growth behaviour in
aluminothermic weld is usually unstable and the growth rate could be up to 5
times faster than the upper bound values for rail steels. This is mainly attributed
to the much coarser microstructure and presence of highly directional columnar
grains.
A linear elastic fracture mechanics approach has been used by Dudley [52]
(aluminothermic welds) and Marich [56] (flash butt welds) to determine the threshold
defect sizes on the web surface and the effect of applied and residual stresses. Dudley
proposes the following equation for aluminothermic welds based on the analysis of semi
elliptical surface cracks (as substitutes for defects) in a plate:
25
+, b 1⁄z {∆ , ⁄-∆ |6 (2-3)
Where +, is the threshold crack depth, ∆ , is the threshold stress intensity factor
range, - is the crack shape factor which varies in the range 0.75 to 0.93 for typical
HSW initiators and ∆ is the stress range (maximum stress due to wheel load).
However, the value of ∆ , depends on the stress ratio ). which is the ratio of
minimum to maximum total vertical stress (incorporating the residual stress) and varies
according to the following relation:
Figure 2-14: Vertical residual stress distribution: (a) Flash butt; and (b) Aluminothermic weld [14]
•
∆ , }~ b∆ , r 1 ). (2-4)
Where ∆ , r is the threshold stress intensity factor range at ). b 0 and = is a material

constant. According to previous measurements, the values of ∆ , r and = are about
10.4 " √€ and 0.62 respectively. Figure 2-15 shows the effect of residual stress and
the applied stress range on the threshold crack depth for compressive and tensile loading
of the web collar [53]. The graph indicates that a combination of lower residual stress at
the web region and reduced applied vertical stress (which may be achieved by better
design of the collar shape and reducing the impact forces induced by the running surface
irregularities) could result in a significant increase of tolerance to defects responsible for
HSW failures.
26
Figure 2-15: Predicted threshold crack depth and the results of testing: (a) Compressive loading of
the collar web; and (b) Tensile loading; T•‚ is the vertical residual stress [53]
As previously mentioned, HSW cracks initially develop in longitudinal direction almost

parallel to the rail running surface and then kink or branch towards the head and or the
foot. A good understanding of the HSW propagation mechanism and the evolution of
stress intensity factors could be quite helpful for maintenance purposes such as
determination of inspection intervals. Perhaps the only study which has considered the
crack propagation characteristics of HSW has been performed by Beretta et al. [59-60]
in which the mechanism of fatigue crack propagation and the associated crack path are
investigated in flash butt welds. In this study, a finite element analysis has been
performed in ABAQUS FE package where the stress intensity factor histories (during
the wheel passage) for the tip of a modelled HSW crack is determined in three steps of
propagation (Figure 2-16). The modelled crack for each step follows the same path
observed in a real fracture so that the calculated stress intensity factors (and their range)
can be used to identify the fracture mode for the corresponding step.
Figure 2-17 illustrates the value of ∆ (stress intensity factor range under mode I
growth) and ∆ (stress intensity factor range under mode II) for the abovementioned
three crack tips along the propagation path. In all graphs α is the angle between the
possible kinking direction and the current crack path.
27
Figure 2-16: (a) Typical HSW crack path and the three points for which stress intensities are
calculated; α is the angle of kinking; and (b) Finite element model of the rail and the HSW [60]
Figure 2-17: Stress intensity factor range for possible kinking angles and the real crack
propagation angle observed in service: (a) Step 1 showing mode II crack growth, (b) Step 2 showing
mode II growth; and (c) Step 3 suggesting a Mode I growth [60]
28
the propagation angle observed in real fracture corresponds to a maximum value of ∆
For the first and second steps where the crack tip is located at point I and II respectively,
with ∆
the real crack path is associated to the maximum of ∆ . These results are consistent
having only a little influence. However, at the third step just before kinking,
with the SEM fractographic observations and suggest that HSW cracks initially develop
under mode II (in plane shearing) propagation and then switch to mode I (opening) once
they kink. Similar results have been obtained for the trailing end of the crack.
The propagation of HSW crack under mode I after kinking suggests that the value of
longitudinal residual stress as a result of the welding procedure plays an important role
in subsequent propagation and final fracture of the weld. According to Skyttebol [61],
the calculated residual stresses in flash butt welds using finite element simulations could
reach up to 600 MPa extending from the upper foot region to the rail underhead.
2.2 Multi-axial Fatigue
Fatigue is considered a material behaviour in which localized permanent damage occurs

as a result of fluctuating or cyclic loading. The fatigue phenomenon is progressive since
it occurs in a period of time, localized as the material changes are restricted to specific
locations in material and permanent since it does not recover once it starts [62].
The complete mechanism of fatigue in ductile materials is somewhat complicated but it

can be summarised as the initiation of micro cracks from persistent material slip bands
and consecutive propagation until the structure is eventually fractured. Slip bands are
described as patterns of plastic deformation formed on the surface of a material as a
result of the dislocation movements along the slip crystallographic planes in a grain
(Figure 2-18a). It is worth mentioning that slip bands occur in grains in which the slip
planes are oriented in the maximum shear stress direction and hence it can be concluded
that fatigue cracks mainly initiate on maximum shear stress planes. According to
Forsyth [63] fatigue cracks initially nucleate and grow in the maximum shear stress
range plane for a short length generally in the order of several grain sizes. This stage is
referred to as stage I crack propagation and has a relatively low rate. On the second
29
stage the rate of propagation increases dramatically and also the crack growth direction
changes course to one which is nearly perpendicular to the applied tensile stress (Figure
2-18b). The crack continues to grow with each load cycle until it reaches a critical
length after which the sudden fracture takes place.
Figure 2-18: Fatigue crack nucleation and propagation: (a) Formation of material slip bands under
cyclic loading; and (b) Schematic view of fatigue crack growth stages [62]
Fatigue is generally categorized into two regimes of high cycle and low cycle. In high
cycle fatigue (HCF) large number of cycles (typically between 103 to 108 cycles) is
considered and the material behaviour at the crack nucleation region is deemed to be
predominantly elastic. Such conditions usually involve applied stresses lower than the
yield strength of material and the loading is of high frequency nature [64]. On the other
hand low cycle fatigue (LCF) involves shorter lives typically below 103 cycles. This
behaviour applies to the locations which experience high stresses in excess of yield
strength and as a result the deformation is predominantly plastic and the strains are
relatively high.
2.2.1 Approaches to Fatigue Analysis
Stress-life method is the first and widely used approach to quantify the fatigue
characteristics of a material in engineering applications. This method is based on the
assumption that the behaviour of material is predominantly elastic and the material
endures a high number of cycles so its application is restricted to HCF analysis. The
standard stress-life method involves S-N curve (Wöhler diagram) which is a plot
30
relating the fatigue strength of material to the number of cycles to fracture according to
experimental fatigue tests (e.g. alternate bending). Basquin [65] has proposed a linear
log-log approximation for S-N diagram which can be written in the following format:
ƒ( /& b & (20& )

„ M
(2-5)
Where, /& is the fatigue strength of material at 0& cycles under a reversed (). b −1)
„
loading, is the true stress amplitude, & is a material constant approximately equal to
the true fracture strength of material and is the slope of S-N line. It is worth
mentioning that some ferrous materials have an endurance limit (fatigue limit) below
which the material’s life is virtually infinite. In these cases, the S-N line is horizontal
after 106 or 107 cycles.
However, the S-N graph described above cannot be directly used for design applications
since it lacks the important effect of mean stress. A comprehensive graph (referred to as
Haigh diagram) which incorporates the results of the non-zero mean stress tests has
been proven to be difficult to develop [66]. Accordingly, some researches among which
Soderberg, Goodman, Gerber and Morrow tried to find simplified graphs and relations
to accommodate for the effect of mean stresses in the fatigue life of materials. Goodman
has proposed a relation between alternating applied stress ( ), mean of applied stress
( ) and the fully reversed fatigue strength (limit) of the material ( & ):
+ b1
& *
(2-6)
It was assumed in the stress-life approach that the plastic strains are negligible;
however, it is not always the case in reality bearing in mind that the actual fatigue
mechanism involves plasticity at the crack initiation location. This particularly applies
to LCF regime where the local stresses exceed the yield strength and substantial plastic
deformation occurs. Under such conditions strain-life approach based on the direct
measurement of strains (under strain-controlled fatigue test of smooth specimens) can
better quantify fatigue characteristics of a component. It is worth mentioning that since
31
strain is linearly related to stress for elastic conditions, the strain based approaches can
also be used for HCF analysis whereas the opposite does not apply.
Coffin [67] and Manson [68] were the first who found that the relation between plastic
strain amplitude (1 2 ) and life to fracture (0& ) can be linearized in a logarithmic scale.
The relation is similar to what was proposed by Basquin in stress-life approach:
1 2 b 1&„ (20& )A (2-7)
Where 1&„ and + are material parameters called fatigue ductility coefficient and fatigue
ductility exponent. If equation 2-5 is combined with equation 2-7, it forms a general
relation which is the basis for the strain-life approach [69]:
„
1 b1 2+1 b (20& )M + 1&„ (20& )A
&
3
(2-8)
Where 1 and 1 are the total and elastic strain amplitude respectively and 3 is the
modulus of elasticity. Equation 2-8 has the benefit of being applicable to both HCF and
LCF regimes.
Similar to stress-based approach, the strain-life relation does not include mean stress
effects. Several methods have been proposed to account for the mean stress ( ) among
which the modified Morrow relation [70] has been shown to be more consistent with the
experimental data:
„
1 b1 2+1 b …1 − „ † (20& ) + 1&„ (20& )A
& M
3
(2-9)
&
The LCF failure occurs when the material ductility is exhausted under plastic
shakedown condition in which the strain cycle is closed (Figure 2-19c). However,
another type of failure may also be responsible for the rupture of material under
extensive cyclic plasticity. This type of failure called ratchetting occurs when the strain
cycle is open and the material accumulates plastic strain during each loading cycle
32
(Figure 2-19d). The material fails under ratchetting mechanism when the total
accumulated plastic strain reaches a critical strain which is comparable to the plastic
strain at the failure of a monotonic tension test sample. The number of cycles to failure
in ratchetting may be determined by dividing the critical strain (1% ) by the ratchetting
strain accumulated cyclically (∆1 ). While ratchetting is occurring the material also
experiences reversing plastic strain which produces LCF. The number of cycles to
failure in LCF can be calculated using the aforementioned Coffin-Manson criterion.
According to Kapoor [71] the ratchetting mechanism and LCF are competitive
independent phenomena and the final rupture is governed by the mechanism which
provides the smaller number of cycles to failure. Ratchetting is one of the most
important failure mechanisms responsible for the formation of RCF and wear in
rolling/sliding contact conditions.
Figure 2-19: Structural response to cyclic loading and the corresponding type of failure: (a)
Perfectly elastic (HCF), (b) Elastic shakedown (HCF), (c) Plastic shakedown (LCF); and (d)
Ratchetting mechanism (incremental collapse or ratchetting) [72]
2.2.2 Multi-axiality
In real life there are many instances where the engineering structures are under
combined loadings which produce complex and multi-axial stress states. The condition
becomes even worse if the applied load components have different frequencies and/or
33
phases. Under such conditions, principal stress vectors may rotate during a loading
cycle and/or their magnitudes become non-proportional. This particularly applies to
locations with high stress concentration such as notch roots and situations with moving
contact load such as the wheel-rail contact.
The question arises whether the abovementioned methods based on uni-axial

measurements can be directly applied to multi-axial conditions. To overcome the multi-
axiality of stress state, early researchers developed equivalent stress (or strain)
approaches which were simply the extensions of static yield criteria [62, 66]. These
criteria are widely used in engineering applications and are available both in the form of
strain-based models for LCF analysis and stress-based models for HCF regime. A
common stress-based model is based on the distortion energy (octahedral stress or von
Mises) yield criterion through which an equivalent stress amplitude ( ) is defined in
terms of the principal stress amplitudes ( 4, 6, 7) in the material point during a
loading cycle (Equation 2-10). If mean or residual stresses are also present, a similar
equation (Equation 2-11) can be written to define an equivalent mean stress ( ) based
on the principal mean stresses ( 4, 6, 7 ). The values of and can then be
used in Equations 2-5, 2-6 or other similar stress-life relations to determine the
possibility of fatigue failure and the associated life to fracture.
1
b ‡( 4 − 6)
6 +( 6 − 7)
6 +( 7 − 4)
6
√2
(2-10)
1
b ‡( 4 − 6)
6 +( 6 − 7)
6 +( 7 − 4)
6
√2
(2-11)
Sines [73] reviewed the results on the alternate bending and torsion fatigue tests and
found that the alternating shear stress causes the fatigue damage. However, he indicated
that the outcome of analysis based on the maximum shear stress and octahedral shear
stress criteria give similar results and the use of either of the methods is governed by the
convenience of the mathematical expression. Moreover, he realized that the fatigue life
of material is mainly influenced by the mean hydrostatic stress with mean shear stress
having no effect. Accordingly, he proposed a failure criterion combining the octahedral
shear stress and mean hydrostatic stress in the following form:
34
1
‡( − 6)
6 +( − 7)
6 +( − 4)
6 + ‰( + + 9) ≤=
3 4 6 7 8 (2-12)
Where ‰ and = are material parameters determined using simple fatigue experiments
and 8, , 9 are the mean stresses in P, Q, ‹ directions. A modification to the
Sines criterion is the Crossland criterion [74] in which the maximum hydrostatic stress
substitutes the mean value. This criterion is particularly suitable for conditions where
high hydrostatic stresses are involved.
For the case of LCF regime where plastic deformation is dominant, equivalent strain
approaches similar to the equivalent stress methods discussed in HCF can be used. One
of the most common models is the octahedral shear strain theory (analogous to the
octahedral shear stress model) which can be written as follows [62]:
1
1 b ‡(1 4 − 1 6 )6 + (1 6 − 1 7 )6 + (1 7 − 1 4 )6
√2(1 + :)
(2-13)
Where, : is the Poisson’s ratio and 1 4 , 1 6 , 1 7 are the principal alternating strains. The
equivalent alternating strain 1 can then be applied to Coffin-Manson or similar strain-
life relation to evaluate the fatigue life.
The main disadvantage of all the mentioned equivalent stress/strain methods is that they
are not accurate for the non-proportional loading situations where the principal stresses
change their directions during the loading cycle and so their application is very much
restricted to simple multi-axial loadings.
2.2.3 Critical Plane Approaches
According to crack observations, fatigue cracks in ductile materials initiate on planes of

maximum shear stress amplitudes and their growth is influenced by the surrounding
normal stresses. These observations have led to the development of some fatigue crack
initiation models considering both the orientation of fatigue crack planes as well as the
risk to fatigue failures. In critical plane approaches (criteria), stresses (or strains) during
35
a loading cycle are resolved on various planes in a material and the most severely
loaded plane (according to that specific criterion) is determined as the critical plane on
which fatigue cracks nucleate. Because of the directional nature of these methods,
critical plane approaches can safely be used for non-proportional multi-axial loading
situations where the principal stress axes rotate during the cycle.
2.2.3.1 Findley Criterion
In 1959 Findley [75] developed a criterion for high cycle fatigue analysis based on the
stress components acting on the critical plane. This criterion relies on the experimental
observations which propose that the normal stress on the critical shear plane reduces the
allowable alternating shear stress. The criterion implies that fatigue failure occurs in the
material if the following inequality is satisfied during a loading cycle:
∆
cŒ >;
8
2 , 8 (2-14)
∆Ž••‘
6
Where, is the shear stress amplitude or half of the maximum range of shear stress
, 8
shear plane. ; and Œ are material parameters which are related to the fatigue limit in
on the shear plane considered and is the maximum normal stress acting on the
alternate bending (;<4 ) and fully reversed pure torsion ( <4 ) according to the following
relations [76]:
;<4
2− ;<4
6
Œb <4 ;b“
;<4 ;
2’ −1 4 ” <4 − 1•
(2-15)
<4
<4
Findley’s inequality should be assessed for all the shear planes passing through the
material point. The plane which results in the highest damage parameter (highest value
of the left side of the inequality which is also called the Findley’s Parameter) is the
critical plane.
36
2.2.3.2 Brown and Miller Criterion
In 1973 Brown and Miller [77] formulated a similar criterion but based on the shear and
normal strains. This criterion is a strain-based method and could be used for both HCF
and LCF regimes. A simple form of this criterion is presented as follows [78]:
∆=
c O∆1 b ‰
8
2
(2-16)
∆= 8 ⁄2 is the maximum shear strain amplitude and ∆1 is the normal strain range on
the shear plane considered. ‰ is a material constant and O is a weighting factor which
defines the importance of the normal strain (stress) effect on fatigue crack initiation.
2.2.3.3 Fatemi and Socie Criterion
According to Fatemi and Socie [79-81], the growth of small fatigue cracks under only
shear stresses can be restricted by the closure phenomenon. Fractographic evidence
indicates that crack faces are usually irregular and so due to the friction and interlocking
(closure) between the faces, the applied shear stress on crack plane cannot produce
enough driving force at the crack tip. However, the application of normal stresses or
strains to the crack plane can open up the crack mouth, reduce the friction and promote
crack propagation under shear stresses (Figure 2-20). Considering this fact, Fatemi and
Socie developed a criterion in the following form:
∆=
”1 c O •b‰
8 , 8
2 @
(2-17)
Where, ∆= 8 ⁄2 and , 8 are the maximum shear strain amplitude and the maximum
O and ‰ are material constants. This criterion is considered a strain-based approach and
normal stress on the plane of maximum shear stress, is the yield strength of material,
is widely used for LCF analysis.
37
Figure 2-20: (a) Fatigue crack under pure shear and the resulting interlocking effect; and (b) Effect
of normal stress in enhancing fatigue crack growth by reducing the closure effect [62]
2.2.3.4 Liu Criterion
Liu [82-84] has developed a criterion based on the concept of distinction between
critical plane and fracture plane. Fatigue fracture plane is defined as the crack plane
observed in macroscopic level while critical plane is the plane of fatigue crack initiation
in grain size scale. Liu assumes the fracture plane as the plane which experiences the
maximum normal stress amplitude. Critical plane however can be the same as fracture
plane or inclined from its direction for different materials. In this criterion, the fracture
plane is initially determined according to the maximum normal stress amplitude
criterion and then the critical plane is evaluated by calculating the angle between the
two planes (O). O is predicted as a function of <4 ⁄;<4 for brittle and ductile materials.
Once the critical plane is defined, fatigue damage can be calculated based on the non-
linear combination of the normal stress amplitude ( ,A ), shear stress amplitude ( ,A )
B
and hydrostatic stress amplitude ( ,A ) acting on the critical plane:
6
,A
,A ”1 c ˜ ;<4
• 6 B 6
,A ,A
–— ™ c” • cŒ… † b‰ (2-18)
;<4 <4 ;<4
Where ,A is the mean normal stress, and Œ, ‰ and ˜ are material parameters which can
be determined by fatigue experiments. The advantage of Liu criterion is that it can be
used for the range of very ductile to extremely brittle materials and is able to define both
fracture and critical planes.
38
2.2.3.5 Dang Van Criterion
Dang Van [85-88] developed a criterion for HCF analysis based on the microscopic
observations indicating that cracks initiate in material slip bands under the influence of
the local maximum shear stress amplitude and their growth is facilitated by crack
opening as a result of the surrounding tensile hydrostatic stress. According to the
criterion in its simple linear form fatigue crack initiates at a point of material if the
following inequality is fulfilled on a shear plane of that particular point during at least a
time portion in the whole stress cycle [89]:
CD b ( )+ CD ( )> CD (2-19)
Where CD is the Dang Van damage parameter which is considered a numerical index
for fatigue damage, ( ) is the time dependent shear stress amplitude on the considered
shear plane which is defined as the difference between the instantaneous and the mean
shear stress of the whole cycle and ( ) is the time dependent hydrostatic stress at the
point of interest. CD and CD are material parameters which are obtained through two
classical fatigue tests such as alternate torsion and alternate bending as follows [90]:
3( − 0.5;<4 )
b b
<4
CD
;<4 CD <4 (2-20)
So the fatigue damage (or Dang Van parameter) is simply compared with the value of
the fatigue strength of material in pure reversed torsion. Dang Van criterion can also be
examined through graphical representation of the load path on ( - ) diagram. In this
diagram the loading path is defined by time dependent values of ( ) and ( ) in a
loading cycle and the criterion is introduced by a line (representative of Equation 2-19).
If the loading path remains in the safe region below the criterion line no fatigue failure
occurs, otherwise fatigue crack initiation is incipient (Figure 2-21).
The planes on which the abovementioned inequality is satisfied are called critical
planes. Finding the critical plane in each material point is part of the fatigue analysis as
39
the critical plane is not obvious at the outset of the process. Hence, the inequality should
be assessed in any shear plane passing through the material point on which the fatigue
analysis is performed.
Figure 2-21: Graphic representation of Dang Van fatigue criterion in a failure condition showing a
sample loading or stress path crossing the criterion line during a cycle
The applicability of the Dang Van criterion is in elastic or elastic shakedown situations
where a stabilized state of stress can be developed. Accordingly, the criterion has been
successfully applied to several studies on the formation of rolling contact fatigue
failures in rail and wheel running surface under a shakedown condition [41-42, 89-94].
The criterion has also been exploited in the analysis of fatigue crack initiation in web
and head regions of the flash butt weld under the influence of high residual stresses
[95]. Dang Van criterion is also a reliable tool in automotive industry for vehicle
component design optimization and damage tolerance investigations [96-98]. More on
this criterion and its computer implementation is provided in Chapter 4.
2.3 Damage Tolerance Investigation
It is well known that nearly all fatigue failures in engineering structures initiate from
geometrical irregularities with high stress concentrations such as pores, inclusions,
notches, cracks and scratches. Accordingly, it is an important engineering challenge to
define the tolerance of structures to defects or to find the range of defect sizes and
40
shapes which do not affect the fatigue performance of the material. Several approaches
have been proposed to determine the influence of defects in fatigue strength of materials
among which the following methods are widely used:
2.3.1 Defects as Notches
In these approaches the defects are considered as notches and the stress state on the
surface and at the vicinity of the notch is used to quantify the effect of defects. Perhaps
the simplest approach is to relate the fatigue strength of material to maximum stress at
the tip of a notch and use stress concentration factor ( , ) or fatigue stress concentration
factor ( &) as the only parameters characterizing the severity of defects. However,
different studies suggested that beside the maximum stress the stress distribution from
the surface of the notch to the interior of the material (usually defined as stress gradient)
is also a governing factor particularly for large defects with low stress gradients [99-
101]. It is known that a defect with low gradient of stress (gradual decrease of stress) is
more damaging than a defect with high gradient (steep decrease of stress) [102].
Maybe a better approach rather than stress analysis of the defect surface is to account
for plastic deformations at the vicinity of defects and perform an elastoplastic stress
analysis [103]. Such approach has been exploited by Sigl et al. [104] in which the strain
amplitude at the surface of the defect is evaluated and the Coffin-Manson relation
(Equation 2-7) is used to determine the fatigue life of the defective material. However,
the main disadvantage of this approach is the necessity to define an advanced consistent
constitutive equation for cyclic plastic deformations.
2.3.2 Multi-axial Fatigue Criteria
According to the observations by Nadot [105-106] the first stage of fatigue crack
nucleation in defective materials occurs on the maximum shear stress amplitude plane in
the most severely loaded point of the defect. This is similar to what is observed in defect
free materials. Accordingly, it seems rational to use the same multi-axial fatigue criteria
to investigate crack initiation from the surface of the defects. This idea is more strongly
41
supported by experimental data showing that for defects with low stress concentration
fatigue limit is defined by the threshold for crack initiation from the defect surface. The
reason is that under a low gradient stress at the periphery of a blunt notch the initiated
crack can more readily propagate and lead to a total failure [102].
Fry et al. [107] used Findley critical plane criterion to investigate the effect of pores and
inclusions in formation of rail head damages in aluminothermic welds. Several defect
geometries (basketball, football and poker chip shapes) were investigated through
analytical calculation of the cyclic stress distribution on the periphery of defects and
applying critical plane criterion. The methodology is also capable of determining the
type of rail head damage (shelling, vertical split head and detail fracture) by examining
the direction of fatigue critical plane.
According to the study, pores are more damaging than inclusions and the shape and
orientation of pores have a strong effect on the type of rail head damage and the life
consumed in stage I of crack propagation. It was also found that the defects located at
the highest tensile residual stress depth of the rail head are most damaging. Figure 2-22
illustrates the damage map for different types of pores considered in this study.
Nadot [105] proposed a criterion based on the Crossland multi-axial criterion

considering the effect of hydrostatic stress gradient at the vicinity of defects. The
criterion is written based on the linear combination of shear stress amplitude E6,
(amplitude of the second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor) and the maximum
value of the hydrostatic stress including gradient effect (E4 ∗ 8 ).
H
‡E6, + OE4 ∗ ≤‰ E4 ∗ b E4 ”1 − •
8 8 8
E4
(2-21)
8
Where H is the gradient of hydrostatic stress, E4 8 is the maximum hydrostatic stress

in a load cycle, O and ‰ are material parameters in Crossland’s criterion and is a
material parameter describing the influence of defect. The stress distribution of the
42
defect surface required for this criterion is extracted from elastoplastic finite element
simulation of predefined defect models.
Figure 2-22: Fatigue damage prediction using Findley criterion (RAHELS model) and comparison
with experimental data. Shaded regions show different rail head damages predicted with respect to
variable geometrical features of defects [107]
2.3.3 Defects as Cracks
If experimental results for fatigue strength of material based on notches with different
root radius and subsequently different stress concentrations are plotted, a similar curve
such as the one depicted in Figure 2-23 will be developed. The fatigue limit
dramatically decreases with the increase of stress concentration up to a certain stress
43
,)
∗
concentration factor ( after which the fatigue limit becomes virtually invariable
∗
[108]. According to Smith and Miller [109] below , the full effect of stress
concentration is felt by the material and the occurrence of fatigue is governed by the
∗
maximum stress at the notch root and hence the geometry of the defect. Above , all
defects behave similar to a crack of the same length. The reason is that for sharp defects
(high stress concentration at the root and high stress gradient) there are some small
fatigue cracks at the fatigue limit of material which cannot propagate due to lower
stresses far from the defect root. So the fatigue limit is not governed by the initiation of
cracks from the root but by the propagation or non-propagation of these peripheral
cracks. Hence, it is rational to model high stress concentration defects as cracks and
analyze the propagation of the substituting cracks.
Figure 2-23: Schematic of experimental data for notches with different root radius and predictions
with notch method (defect modelled as notch) and crack method (defect modelled as crack) [108]
Several studies have been performed on the influence of defects through describing
defects as equivalent to sharp cracks [52, 104, 110-112]. The general approach is to find
the stress intensity factors at the tip of the modelled crack and then compare them with
threshold stress intensity ( , ) or its range (∆ , ) for possible crack propagation or
critical stress intensity factor ( %) as the threshold for fast fracture.
44
2.3.4 Murakami’s Approach
As previously mentioned, the solution for the effect of small defects (with high stress
concentration) is essentially a crack propagation problem due to the presence of non
propagating cracks at the periphery of defects in fatigue limit of material. Murakami
[113] suggested that a good geometrical parameter governing the stress intensity factor
range along a crack front is √ (J or the square root of the crack area (in the case of a
defect it is the square root of the projected area of a defect on the maximum principal
stress plane). Accordingly, the stress intensity factor range (for mode I) can be defined
by the following relation:
∆ b 0.65∆ r ’z√ (J (2-22)
Where, ∆ r is the applied remote stress range. He also proposed that the threshold stress
as a function of both √ (J and the material Vickers hardness KD based on several

intensity factor range for a small crack (as a substitute to a small defect) can be written
experiments on different materials and defect sizes [102]:
∆ , b 3.3 ∗ 10<7 (KD + 120)(√ (J )4/7 (2-23)
Where, ∆ , is in (" √€), KD in (Œh;€€<6) and (J in š€6 . Combining

Equations 2-22 and 2-23, the fatigue limit (∆ L) for a defective material (with surface
defects) can be presented in the following form:
∆ L b 1.43(KD c 120)⁄(√ (J )4/› (2-24)
A similar approach can be used to estimate the fatigue limit of defective materials in
reversed pure torsion. However, under such conditions the stress intensity factor range
cannot be solely defined in terms of the square root of the projected area (√ (J ) but is
also dependent on a geometrical parameter , a function of the crack aspect ratio.
Fatigue limit for pure shear can be determined by the following relation [102]:
45
0.93
∆ b
KD c 120
L ∗ (2-25)
/ √ (J 4/›
Where, and are dimensions of the semi-elliptical surface crack as illustrated in

Figure 2-24. / can be approximated using polynomial function 2-26.
Figure 2-24: A semi-elliptical surface crack under reversed pure torsion [102]
6 7 •
” • b 0.0957 c 2.11 ” • 2.26 ” • c 1.09 ” • 0.196 ” • (2-26)
These equations can be used for a wide range of KD hardness values from 70 to 720.
However, their applicability is limited to small cracks with √ (J less than 1000š€
[114]. For the case of larger defects, the fatigue limit may be governed by the crack
initiation threshold for which the actual geometry of the defect becomes important.
46
CHAPTER 3 IN-TRACK BENDING BEHAVIOUR
3.1 Finite Element Modeling
The first step to investigate fatigue performance of aluminothermic welds is to study the
in-track bending behaviour and the resulting stress distribution arising from contact,
thermal (seasonal-induced) and service loadings. Finite element (FE) method if
carefully applied has shown to be a reliable tool for such analysis and has been widely
used in performance characterizations of railway components. In this chapter the finite
element analysis of a specific type of aluminothermic weld widely used in Australian
heavy haul railway systems using ANSYS 12.0 FE package is presented. The FE model
comprises a specific length of track incorporating concrete sleepers, elastic foundation
and seasonal thermal loading effects, hence considered as a thermo-structural model. At
the beginning of this chapter, the model construction and load application are described
and the reliable mesh type and sizing is determined. Subsequently, the model is
validated using experimental measurements and finally the bending behaviour of weld
is studied for different operational conditions.
3.1.1 Weld Geometrical Modelling
The aluminothermic weld considered in this study is a Boutet PLK type weld made
using consumables from Railtech Ltd. Since the original drawing for the external
geometry of this weld was not available, the relevant dimensions were extracted from a
scanned geometry of the sample weld using Roland Picza laser Scanner/Digitizer.
Eventually, the 3D model of the weld was constructed in Solidworks CAD design
software for later implementation in FE simulation. Figure 3-1 shows the actual PLK
weld sample, laser scanned geometry and the Solidworks model constructed
accordingly. It is worth mentioning that the modelled weld is free from surface defects
and other geometrical irregularities which as a result of the cast-like nature of the
process are visible on the exterior of the real weld. So, at this stage of the study on-site
47
weld imperfections and other surface features which do not form part of the as-designed
collar shape are not considered. Analysis on some type of welding defects and their
effect on fatigue behaviour is reported in Chapters 6 and 7.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3-1: PLK weld, (a) Original weld, (b) Laser scanned geometry; and (c) Model constructed in
Solidworks and used in FE analysis
3.1.2 Track Modelling
To investigate in-track bending behaviour of the aluminothermic weld a specific length

of the track was modelled in ANSYS 12.0 package. The model comprises one side of a
3237 mm length of track with six concrete sleepers and vertical and longitudinal
bedding stiffness under the sleepers representing the bedding flexibility. The standard
AS68 kg/m rail profile (AS 1085.1 [115]) was incorporated into the model, since this is
the rail size used in the heavy haul system under investigation. It was also assumed that
the weld is located halfway between the middle sleepers. The sleeper cross section was
adopted from the work by Kaewunruen [116] and the sleeper spacing was set to 600
mm which is common in heavy haul applications. However, the effective length of the
sleeper modelled per one rail was selected as one third of the total sleeper length and the
sleeper was centered under the rail [117-118]. Figure 3-2 shows schematic of the model
used in this study.
48
The required vertical stiffness of ballast per sleeper was calculated according to the
model suggested by Zhai et al. [119]. In this model the load carrying part of the ballast
can be simplified by overlapping cones and it is assumed that outside these cones the
normal stress is zero. Under this assumption the stiffness of ballast can be approximated
by the equivalent stiffness of the two ballast masses depicted in Figure 3-3 as follows:
Figure 3-2: Schematic of the modelled track with aluminothermic weld at the midway between the
two middle sleepers, concrete sleepers, and vertical and horizontal ballast stiffness
Figure 3-3: Model of ballast used in the calculation of ballast stiffness. Ballast stiffness is the
equivalent stiffness of the two shaded areas
b
„ M4 M6
M
+
(3-1)
M4 M6
2( − M ) tan O
b 3M
lnŸ( . )/v M ( + . − M )y
M4 (3-2)
.( . − + 2 + 2ℎM tan O) tan O

b 3M
M
M − . + 2ℎM tan O
M6 (3-3)
49
Where, M is the sleeper sitting width, is the effective support length of the sleeper per
rail (here, one third of the total length), . is the sleeper span, ℎM is the ballast thickness,
O is the ballast stress distribution angle and 3M is the ballast modulus of elasticity. The
longitudinal stiffness can vary between 1.0e5 to 1.0e7 N/m per metre of track [120].
However, in this study an average value of 5.0e6 N/m per metre of track is used which
together with the applied vertical stiffness can result in a 2-3 mm vertical deflection
underneath the wheel load in finite element analysis. Such deflection is consistent to the
measured values in service under similar loading conditions [36].
Additional to the elastic foundations applied at the underneath and sides of the sleepers,
two other boundary conditions were implemented in the track model. A displacement
boundary condition is applied on the two rail ends to prevent longitudinal movement of
the track and also to enable the development of seasonal thermal stresses in the rail.
However, displacements and rotations in other directions are permitted at the rail ends.
A sensitivity analysis on the simplification of the boundary condition at the rail ends
and the modelled track length is reported later in this chapter. The last displacement
boundary condition is applied on the inner cross section of the sleepers to prevent
sleeper movements in lateral direction (transverse to the rail length). This is equivalent
to the application of a symmetry boundary condition for one side of the track. This type
of boundary condition truly applies to the tangent track where the contact patches on
both rails are nearly at the centreline of the rails. For the curved track, the actual lateral
restraint (fixture or stiffness) on one side of the track cannot be directly defined and
depends on both the conditions of track bedding and the service loading on the other
side of the track. Figure 3-4 shows the three dimensional model used for FE analysis
and the type of displacement boundary conditions applied.
3.1.3 Loading
The axle load used in this study is set to 343.3 kN (which is representative of Australian
heavy haul railways) and half of this value (171.7kN) is applied to the rail running
surface as the vertical wheel-load contact force. The actual contact region between the
rail and wheel may be of Hertzian, multi-Hertzian, semi Hertzian or non-Hertzian type
50
according to the rail-wheel profiles and the location of contact on the rail running
surface. However, in this study an elliptical contact patch was assumed for all contact
conditions and the vertical load is applied on a Hertzian elliptical patch modelled on the
rail running surface. The dimensions of the elliptical patch are calculated from the
curvatures of the rail and wheel surface in the contact point using the following relations
[121]:
Figure 3-4: Track model used in FE analysis; displacement constraint in Y direction is applied to
the red colour shaded areas of the sleepers and constraint in X direction is applied to the rail ends
1 1 1 1 |¡ − -|
-b , ¡ b ” + • , cos ' b
2( 2 )L8 ) 8 ¡+-
(3-4)
3 1 − :6 1
4/7
b €… 0 †
2 3 -+¡
(3-5)
3 1 − :6 1
4/7
b Y… 0 †
2 3 -+¡
(3-6)
Where, 0 is the vertical applied load, ( is the rolling radius of the wheel, )L8 is the
transverse wheel radius and ) 8 is the transverse radius of the rail running surface
(Figure 3-5). € and n are non-dimensional coefficients which are tabulated as functions
of ' [121] and and are the ellipse semi axes in x and y directions. The values of
and are calculated as 9.12 mm and 5.92 mm respectively considering a tangent track
and according to the wheel and rail dimensions used in this study.
51
Wheel load was applied to the elliptical contact patch as a uniform mean pressure
calculated by 0/z . As a matter of fact, the Hertzian contact pressure has an
ellipsoidal distribution and is not constant over the contact patch. However, since only
the weld regions below the rail head are considered for fatigue analysis (the current
study focuses on the formation of straight break and horizontal split webs) it is unlikely
that the simplification on the contact pressure could affect the stress distribution far
from the running surface. Nevertheless, the effect of this simplification is studied by
comparing three cases of the uniform contact pressure, Hertzian contact pressure and
the simulated contact pressure resulting from the wheel rail contact modelling. The
finite element simulation and its results will be presented later in this chapter.
the contact patch semi-axes W and ¦. (Figure adopted from Iwnicki [121])
Figure 3-5: Schematic of the rail-wheel Hertzian contact and the dimensions used for calculation of
Since the main objective of this study is to quantify the fatigue performance, it is
necessary to calculate the cyclic stress history at the points of interest in the weld. This
requires FE modelling of one load cycle. The load cycle is defined by the passage of the
wheel over the weld and this is achieved in the current model by moving the contact
pressure from one end of the modelled track to the other end. The contact pressure
movement in FE software is applied using multiple load steps through which the contact
52
pressure is sequentially translated from one elliptical patch to the other starting from
one end of the track up to the end. In this case the result of the simulation for each load
step defines the stress distribution of the weld under the wheel load located at that
particular point of the track. Figure 3-6 shows the approach used in FE analysis as a
representative of wheel movement and the associated load cycle. According to the
figure, in loading step i the contact pressure is applied on patch i and the simulation is
performed and the pertaining stress distribution is recorded. In the next step i+1 the
contact pressure is applied on patch i+1 and patch i is unloaded. This process continues
for the full length of the track. The central distance of the two adjacent contact patches
is set to 22 mm.
Figure 3-6: Wheel passage representation in FE model
3.1.4 Seasonal Thermal Load
As previously mentioned, the effect of seasonal thermal stresses as a result of the

difference between the stress free temperature or the rail temperature in which the weld
is installed and the service temperature or the ambient temperature in which the railway
operates is considered in this study. The stress free temperature or the reference
temperature (in FE analysis) is set to 35 oC (the nominal stress free temperature for the
railway considered may vary between 35 to 40 oC and in practice a greater range may
also exist. Hence, a sensitivity analysis on thermal loading will be reported in Chapter
4). The service temperature or the simulation temperature (in FE analysis) is set to 19
53
o
C which represents the average ambient temperature during cold months of the year. In
this condition the rail is normally under seasonally induced static tensile stress which is
believed to facilitate initiation and propagation of straight breaks as previously
discussed. The other factor necessary to simulate thermal stresses is the linear
coefficient of thermal expansion which is set to 1.2e-5 /oC for rail steel. The mentioned
parameters are used in all the simulations in this study unless otherwise specified. Table
3-1 summarizes the model parameters used in FE simulations.
Table 3-1: Summary of the finite element model parameters
Rail section (kg/m) 68 Sleeper Poisson’s ratio 0.18
Rail length (mm) 3237 Ballast young’s modulus (MPa) 110
250*237
Sleeper section dimensions (mm) Ballast thickness (mm) 450
*180
Sleeper effective length (mm) 834 Ballast stress distribution angle (o) 35
Sleeper span (mm) 600 Ballast vertical stiffness (MN/m) 123
Ballast horizontal stiffness per meter

Axle load (kN) 343.4 5
of track (MN/m2)
Rail young’s modulus (GPa) 205 Thermal expansion coefficient (/ oC) 1.2e-5
Rail Poisson’s ratio 0.3 Reference temperature (oC) 35
Sleeper young’s modulus (GPa) 47.5 Simulation temperature (oC) 19
3.1.5 Meshing
Two types of 3D continuum finite elements were used in this analysis to mesh the weld,
rail and the supporting sleepers. Since only the regions far from the running surface are
under investigation, the mechanical behaviour was deemed elastic for all FE elements.
The FE mesh for weld region was designed using 10-node tetrahedral structural solid
elements SOLID187. This element has a quadratic displacement behaviour and is very
suitable for meshing complex geometries like aluminothermic weld exterior shape. For
other parts of the model including the rail and sleepers, a more numerically efficient
element SOLID185 was used. Solid185 is an 8-node brick structural solid element
54
which has a linear displacement behaviour. This element is widely used for modeling
general 3D solid structures. However, for the case of complex geometries it may
degenerate into 6-node prism or 4-node tetrahedral elements that have low accuracies
particularly at locations with high stress gradients. Figure 3-7 illustrates the two solid
structural elements SOLID187 and SOLID185.
Figure 3-7: Finite elements used is study: (a) SOLID185 for sleepers and rail; and (b) SOLID187
for aluminothermic weld [122]
For the contact between the rail and the supporting sleepers or different sections of the
rail, a bonded contact algorithm with pure penalty formulation is used. The contact
surfaces are represented by the two surface elements CONTA174 and TARGE170 each
of which lying on one surface of the contact pair.
The element or mesh sizing is an important part of the model construction since
inconsistent element sizes (coarse meshing) and shapes (highly distorted or stretched
elements) can both affect the convergence of the FE analysis and/or reduce the accuracy
of results. ANSYS 12.1 has provided an advanced meshing tool and quality check to
avoid occurrence and early detection of such defective elements. However, the suitable
mesh sizing for different regions of the structure depends on the type of loading, related
geometry and the required accuracy and still needs user discretion. In this study several
sensitivity analyses were performed to determine the suitable mesh sizing for the
sleepers, rail and weld regions. The objective is to find a sufficiently fine mesh size
below which the element size does not noticeably alter the stress or strain results at the
55
locations of interest in the structure. In the meantime, the constructed mesh should not
be too fine so as to extensively increase the number of elements and reduce the
efficiency of solution. Of particular importance in mesh sizing is the collar edge of the
weld where the geometry is inhomogeneous and stress concentration is relatively high.
The stress distribution readings at this region should also be very accurate since the
stress history is later used for fatigue analysis and crack initiation studies. A sample of
these sensitivity analyses is presented in Table 3-2 where different stress components at
two locations of the collar edge root are compared with respect to the element size used.
Table 3-2: Stress values in two locations of the weld collar with respect to element size for the case
of a vertical load located at the centreline of the weld.
Underhead Fillet Base Fillet
Stress S¨ Stress S©ª Stress S¨ Stress S©ª

Element Longitudinal Equivalent Maximum Longitudinal Equivalent Maximum
τ¬-¨ (MPa) τ¬-¨ (MPa)

Size Shear Stress Shear Stress
(mm) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
0.05 191.8 196.8 109.8 423.9 421.6 233.2
0.1 191.5 195.4 108.9 423.1 420.7 231.8
0.15 190.1 194.8 107.9 421.7 414.9 228.9
0.2 186.9 192.4 107 414.8 406.2 223.3
0.25 183.9 184.8 102.9 392.6 395.1 215.5
0.3 178.7 173.5 94.8 353.4 374.7 205
It is apparent from the above values that by reducing the element size at the collar edge,
the model can better predict the stress concentration. However, more refinement in
element size from 0.1 mm to 0.05 mm has little effect (less than 1%) on stresses and so
the former size seems both sufficiently accurate and numerically efficient. The finite
element mesh of the track resulted from the sensitivity analysis is depicted in Figure 3-
8. The following mesh consists of 371,106 SOLID187 tetrahedral elements mostly used
for weld region and the surrounding area, 16,192 SOLID185 brick elements for rail and
sleepers and 561,046 nodes in total.
56
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3-8: Finite element mesh of the structure: (a) Track model, (b) Weld region magnified; and (c) Collar edge magnified
57
3.1.6 Track Length Sensitivity Analysis
As a matter of fact the railway track is a continuous structure but due to restrictions in
finite element analysis, modeling of this structure as in real life is computationally
expensive. That is why the continuation of the track was simplified by application of
longitudinal boundary conditions (restriction in x displacement) at the two rail ends.
Here, the objective is to find a modelled track length in which the simplified applied
boundary condition at the rail ends does not significantly affect the stress distribution of
the weld region. Accordingly, a sensitivity analysis was performed on the modelled
track length. Three track models were constructed each of which with a specific length
increasing from 3237 mm (generally used throughout this study) up to 5637 mm (Figure
3-9). The simulation is based on a vertical load located at the centerline of the weld and
rail representing the contact condition in a tangent track. Table 3-3 presents stress
values evaluated at the underhead radius, base fillet and midway on the web buttress of
the weld for the three track models.
Figure 3-9: Track models used for the length sensitivity analysis
Table 3-3: Stress values in three regions of the weld versus the track length modelled
Underhead Fillet Base Fillet Web
(Point A) (Point C) (Point B)
S©ª S©ª
S¨ (MPa) S¨ (MPa) S® (MPa)
Track
Length
(MPa) (MPa)
(mm)
5637 192.6 197.3 422.2 419.8 -44.7
4437 191.7 197.1 422.1 419.3 -44.9
3237 191.5 195.4 423.1 420.7 -45.2
58
As the table suggests, the stress values for the three regions of the weld do not change
by more than 1% with respect to the track length modelled. This clearly shows that for
the three track lengths the simplified boundary condition applied at the rail ends does
not notably affect the stress distribution of the weld and so the use of shorter 3237 mm
long track is computationally economical and also leads to satisfactory results.
3.1.7 The Effect of Simplification in Contact Pressure
As previously mentioned, a simplification was made on the contact pressure that is the
actual Hertzian contact pressure in the form of an ellipsoidal function (Equation 3-7)
was replaced by a uniform contact pressure equivalent to the mean pressure.
P6 Q6 3
(P, Q) b t1 − − b
6 6 2z
(3-7)
Where, is the maximum contact pressure, is the vertical applied load, and are
the contact patch semi axes and P and Q are the coordinates of any point on the patch
with respect to a coordinate system lying on the centre of the patch.
A validation study was performed to compare the effect of this replacement on the stress
distribution at the underhead region (below rail head) and to verify the acceptance of
this simplification. Three finite element models were studied, the first one with a
uniform contact pressure applied on an elliptical patch located at the centerline of the
weld and rail and the second with a Hertzian contact pressure distribution applied on the
same patch size. The third model consists of the finite element contact simulation
between the rail and wheel as shown in Figure 3-10. In this simulation the vertical load
is applied on the bearing surface of the wheel bore. A displacement boundary condition
was applied on the bore surface to restrain movement in any direction except vertical
direction. The element size applied on the contact regions of the wheel and rail was set
to 5e-4 m and the minimum time step (in the iterative solver) to 1e-5 seconds to achieve
a stable convergence.
59
Figure 3-10: Finite element simulation of real contact between rail and wheel: Equivalent (von-
Mises) stress distribution
Table 3-4 shows some stress values at different regions of the weld evaluated using
each simulation. The stress readings for the three regions of the weld clearly show that
the substitution of the Hertzian pressure with a uniform mean contact pressure has no
significant effect on the bending behaviour of the weld regions below the head. This is
expected since the regions of interest are far from the running surface and the stresses
observed in these locations arise from the total beam section bending behaviour on the
sleepers rather than the contact stresses at and below the running surface.
Table 3-4: Stress values in three regions of the weld versus the contact pressure distribution
Underhead Fillet Base Fillet Web
(Point A) (Point C) (Point B)
S©ª S©ª
S¨ (MPa) S¨ (MPa) S® (MPa)
Contact
Pressure
(MPa) (MPa)
Function
Hertzian 193.9 197.6 423.1 420.2 -45.0
Uniform 191.5 195.4 423.1 420.7 -45.2
FE
Contact 193.8 197.1 422.1 419.8 -44.7
Model
60
3.1.8 Model Validation Using Experimental Results
The stress distribution achieved through finite element analysis was compared with
results of previous strain gauge measurements (Mutton et al. [43]) on a rail undergoing
3-point bending test. Stresses were measured at locations on the collar surface (for
vertical stress measurement) and at the vicinity of the collar edge (for the longitudinal
stresses). The support span used for the 3-point bending setup was 600 mm and a
vertical load of 200 kN was applied through indentations machined onto the head of the
rail at lateral offsets of 0 mm and 22.5 mm from the rail centerline towards the gauge
side (Figure 3-11). A similar FE model was also constructed to simulate in-lab
experimental setup and conditions. However, no thermal stresses (arising from
temperature variations) were involved in both FE model and the experimental test.
Figure 3-11: 3-point bending experimental setup for measurement of longitudinal and vertical
stresses on the weld region
Figure 3-12 illustrates the vertical stress on the collar surface, and longitudinal stress at
the collar edge, under central loading and eccentric loading (22.5 mm offset from rail
centerline) respectively. The consistency between the FE results and the strain gauge
measurements is satisfactory for most of the results although the strain gauge readings
are sporadic at some locations. The difference between the theoretical and experimental
results and the irregularities of the strain gauge measurements are attributed to the
following reasons:
• General scatter inherent in the strain gauge measurement technique.
61
Figure 3-12: Comparison of FE results with strain gauge measurements: (a) Vertical stress on the
centerline of the weld collar, (b) Longitudinal stress on the rail surface 5 mm distant from the weld
collar edge for central loading, (c) The same stress component for eccentric loading (strain gauge
measurements from Mutton et al. [43])
62
• Stress measurements at locations with high stress gradients (i.e. longitudinal
strain measurements close to the collar edge) were sensitive to both small
variations in the position of the strain gauge relative to the edge of the collar and
collar edge geometrical features. Due to the cast like nature of the process, the
collar edge features may be slightly different on the four sides of the weld.
• Use of uniaxial strain gauges at locations where the strain behaviour is biaxial,
particularly below and above the neutral axis for both longitudinal and vertical
strain measurements.
• Vertical strain measurements at locations where the surface is not oriented in
vertical direction, especially on the weld collar neck.
• A slight rotation of the rail at the location of supports was evident in tests
particularly under eccentric loading while a fixed support was used in the FE
model.
3.2 Free Rolling Condition (Tangent Track)
The stress distribution analysis was primarily performed for the tangent (straight) track
in which the contact patch is approximately located at the centerline of the rail. It is
assumed that no lateral traction as a result of vehicle steering and no longitudinal force
due to acceleration or braking exist at the contact patch so the rail/wheel contact
experiences a free rolling condition. It is worth mentioning that in free rolling condition
friction forces may still exist at the contact patch however, the net traction force is zero
since the contact frictional forces are in equilibrium. This assumption can safely be
applied for the normal operation in tangent tracks.
Figure 3-13 shows the contour of equivalent (von Mises) stress at the weld region. Since
the load application is symmetric, the same stress distribution can be observed on the
other side of the weld. As the figure suggests, high values of equivalent stress is present
on the collar edge of the weld due to the effect of stress concentration or the notch
effect. The equivalent stress reaches its maximum value at the base region (particularly
base fillet) where the normal stress as a result of rail section bending is highest and it
reduces from the base towards the mid web where the neutral axis of the section lies.
63
Figure 3-13: Equivalent stress distribution on the weld exterior surface; High stress concentration
is observed throughout the collar edge with maximum values at the base region
As previously mentioned the vertical straight breaks nucleating at the collar edge are
driven by the longitudinal tensile stresses and accordingly, the contour of this stress
component is of great importance in defining the critical regions and possible failure
nucleation sites. Figure 3-14 illustrates the longitudinal stress distribution on the weld
exterior surface in a tangent track operation.
64
Underhead Radius
Base Fillet
Figure 3-14: Longitudinal stress contour under central loading (tangent track)
Similar to the equivalent stress contour, high stress concentration is evident throughout
the collar edge with the maximum value at the base region. The total stress distribution
is in agreement with the section beam bending having high tensile stresses at the base
and high compressive stresses at the rail head. However, the seasonal thermal effect
which develops longitudinal tensile stress in the whole rail section has resulted in
(through superposition) an increase in the severity of tension at the base and reduction
in compressive stress at the rail head.
Beside the severe tension at the base, a local tensile stress region is also observed at the
underhead region (depicted by a circle), however with lesser extent. The occurrence of
this tensile region at the underhead is somewhat in contradiction to the total section
65
bending behaviour due which a compressive stress similar to the surrounding area is
expected. This tensile stress described by Eisenmann [123] and Sugiyama et al. [124] is
attributed to the local bending of the rail head on the web. The rail head can be assumed
as a standalone beam which is elastically supported by the rail web and so the additional
stresses developed in the rail head are governed by the rail head section characteristics
such as the rail head neutral axis and moment of inertia (Figure 3-15).
Figure 3-15: Local bending behaviour of rail head on web and the resulting longitudinal stress SX
under a bending moment MY. The local stress SX is superimposed with the longitudinal stress
developed by rail section bending behaviour to form the total longitudinal stress at the rail head
The tensile stress at the underhead region is often referred to as tension spike since it
has a narrow width of about 100 to 150 mm occurring as a short duration stress cycle
under the wheel. Figure 3-16 illustrates the longitudinal stress variation and the
characteristics of the tension spike at the underhead region of a plain rail and an
aluminothermic weld with and without the effect of seasonal thermal stresses. For the
plain rail and weld without thermal effect the longitudinal stress changes sign from
compressive to tensile due to the rail head local bending behaviour. The effect of
seasonal stresses is to increase the total longitudinal stress and generally shifting the
stresses from compressive to tensile. However, in aluminothermic weld the tension
spike does not occur at the centreline of the weld because at this location of rail head the
weld is reinforced with the collar and has a high moment of inertia. On the other hand,
the spikes occur on the collar edges and have highly localised and intensified
characteristics which are in fact due to high stress concentration or the notch effect.
66
(a)
(b)
Figure 3-16: Variation of longitudinal stress at the rail underhead (on a path located 31 mm from
rail centreline) under central loading (tangent track) inclusive and exclusive of the seasonal thermal
effects: (a) Rail with no weld installed; and (b) Rail with aluminothermic weld. Shaded area shows
the rail head length affected by the local bending of the rail head
67
Tension spikes could be detrimental both to the fatigue cracking of the underhead
region of the weld as will be shown in the next chapter and to the rolling contact fatigue
cracks approaching the underhead region from the rail surface. The tensile stress region
at the underhead is particularly damaging for the growth of RCF cracks in heavily worn
rails where the running surface is quite close to the underhead region and so the
extended RCF cracks could more easily grow under mode I crack propagation leading
to transverse or detail fractures [36].
3.2.1 Longitudinal Residual Stresses
Strain gauge residual stress measurements have revealed that the longitudinal stress is
highly compressive at the underside of the weld foot, whereas significant tensile
residual stresses occur at the top of the foot and underhead radius regions. According to
measurements by Mutton et al. [43] the longitudinal residual stress at the underside of
the foot can vary between about -284 MPa and -183 MPa, at top of the foot between
120 MPa and 298 MPa and at the underhead radius between 121 MPa to 300 MPa.
Figure 3-17 shows the total longitudinal stress range resulting from the superposition of
finite element stresses (due to service loading) with the residual stress measurements at
three location of the collar edge suspected as straight break nucleation sites.
Figure 3-17: Residual stress range and total longitudinal stress range at three locations of the weld
suspected for straight break formation
68
Although, the longitudinal stress at the base region is highest among other locations, the
total stress observed at this location is comparatively low due to high compressive
residual stress. However, at both underhead and top of the rail foot the total resulting
stress is highly tensile which indicate that these locations may be critical in terms of
straight break formation.
3.3 Contact Patch Lateral Location
As previously mentioned, the contact location in tangent tracks is generally at the

vicinity of the rail centerline. However, under some operational conditions such as
steering in curved tracks or straight tracks in which vehicle hunting occurs, the contact
patch is displaced. The actual location of the contact depends on many factors among
which are the wheel and rail profiles, the radius of track curve and whether the leading
or trailing wheelset are under investigation. In shallow to medium curves the leading
wheelset moves towards the high rail (outer rail) and the trailing wheelset towards the
low rail (inner rail). Under this condition the contact between the leading wheel and
high rail is displaced towards the gauge side of the rail. In very sharp curves both the
leading and trailing wheelsets move towards the high rail and so all the contacts on the
high rail will be displaced towards the gauge side and even flange contact may occur.
Figure 3-18 shows the possible contact position on the high and low rail running surface
of a leading wheelset during steering in a curved track.
Figure 3-18: Possible contact patch locations during vehicle steering in a medium radius left hand
curve (adopted from Telliskivi et al. [125])
69
The eccentricity of the contact patch and the applied load brings about additional torsion
and bending on the rail and weld section and it will definitely change the stress
distribution on the weld surface. In this study, the effect of contact patch eccentricity
was simulated through moving the contact patch from the rail centreline towards the
gauge side in steps of 5 mm distance up to 25 mm distant from the rail centreline
(Figure 3-19). The contact patch dimensions and the associated contact pressure may
change slightly according to the curvatures of the rail and wheel at the point of contact.
However, as previously studied on Section 3.1.6 the pressure distribution on the contact
patch has a negligible effect on the stress distribution at the underhead regions of the
rail and weld. Accordingly, a similar contact patch and pressure distribution were
incorporated for the load eccentricity at the running surface.
Figure 3-19: Contact patch locations on the rail running surface for the study of aluminothermic
weld stress distribution under eccentric loading
Figure 3-20 illustrates the longitudinal stress contour on the gauge side of the weld
collar under an eccentric load located 20 mm offset from the rail centreline. The contour
shows elevated tensile stresses at the underhead region of the weld which is attributed to
the same local bending behaviour of the rail head. However, the increased severity has
its origin in the developed moment Tx (twisting moment) which results from the
eccentricity of the applied load (Figure 3-21). In fact it is not expected that the twisting
70
moment on the rail head directly affects the underhead radius. However, as a result of
the local twisting deformation enforced on the rail head and the resistance of the sleeper
supports and the rest of the rail length to this deformation (Figure 3-22) a longitudinal
strain and its associated stress is developed at the underhead region. This stress is
additive to the local tension spike which results from the rail head bending on the web.
Figure 3-20: Longitudinal stress contour at the gauge side of the weld: eccentric loading, contact
patch 20 mm offset from rail centerline towards the gauge side
The longitudinal stress at the base region does not change significantly compared to the
central loading (tangent track). In fact, the total rail section bending behaviour in XZ
plane has not notably changed since the wheel vertical load Fz and the associated
bending moment My are constant.
71
Figure 3-21: Developed twisting moment and the resulting deformation
(a)
(b)
Figure 3-22: Local lateral deformation of the rail head at the location of wheel load induced by Tx:
(a) Top view; and (b) Front view
72
The variation of the longitudinal stress and the associated tension spike with respect to
the contact patch lateral location is depicted in Figure 3-23. As the figure suggests the
effect of eccentricity is pronounced at the collar edge due to the high stress
concentration whereas at centre regions a comparatively small influence is observed
mostly attributed to the vertical support provided by the weld buttress.
Figure 3-23: Variation of longitudinal stress at the rail underhead (on a path located 31 mm from
rail centreline) under eccentric loading with different eccentricities
For other regions of the rail underhead far from the weld centerline the effect of
eccentricity virtually vanishes as the distance increases. Since the effect of rail head
local bending behaviour is restricted to a short length (as depicted in Figure 3-16), the
influence of load eccentricity at the underhead is also locally restricted. The occurrence
of tension spikes in curves can also be observed through strain gauge measurements of
the rail and weld under normal service. Although, it is impossible to measure the
severity of stress at the collar edge due to the limitations in the strain gauge
measurement technique similar (however, with less severity) tension spikes at the
vicinity of collar edge are evident (Figure 3-24).
73
Tension Spike
Figure 3-24: Strain gauge measurement of the longitudinal stress at the gauge side underhead of a
wide gap aluminothermic weld; data for a high rail of a 68 kg/m section in a 918 m radius curve
subjected to high axle load conditions. Figure shows several wheel passages. [16]
Beside, the underhead region affected by the eccentricity of the applied load, the
developed longitudinal bending moment Mx (Figure 3-21) induces vertical bending
stresses on the web regions of the weld. As a result, a compressive stress develops on
the gauge side and a tensile stress at the field side of the rail.
Figure 3-25: Contour of vertical stress on the field side of the rail under an eccentric load located 20
mm from the rail centreline towards the gauge side
74
Figure 3-25 illustrates the contour of the vertical stress (Sz) on the field side of the weld
under an eccentric load located 20 mm offset from the rail centreline towards the gauge
side. The Figure suggests the maximum vertical stress occurs at the mid web region of
the weld where the horizontal split web (HSW) failures usually initiate. The mid web
region in a sound weld features a nearly smooth surface so no stress concentration is
involved and the stress values may not be high enough to nucleate cracks at this region.
Nevertheless, the cyclic vertical stress as will be seen in later chapters has a prominent
role in initiation of fatigue cracks from existing defects or cracks on the web of
defective welds.
Figure 3-26: Variation of longitudinal stress (L.S.) and vertical stress (V.S.) at different regions of
the weld with respect to the load eccentricity
The results of the stress distribution sensitivity to the contact patch lateral location
(eccentricity) are summarised in Figure 3-26 for four regions of the weld which are
noteworthy in terms of straight break and horizontal split web formation. The underhead
region is the most affected in which the longitudinal stress increases dramatically with
the contact patch lateral location. Considering the longitudinal residual stress range, the
stress can reach up to 700 MPa which is quite close to the yield point of the material
75
(about 740 MPa for the considered weld material). The web region experiences a linear
increase in the vertical stress changing from compressive to tensile as a result of a linear
rise in the developed lateral bending. For the base region and the top side of the foot the
trend is still linear however, with a slight decrease in longitudinal stresses attributed to
the small changes in the total section bending behaviour by the introduction of lateral
bending and twisting.
3.4 Contact Tractions
Beside the vertical force resulting from the axle load, there are also longitudinal and
lateral forces acting on the surface of the contact patch. The longitudinal forces usually
occur as a result of acceleration or braking of the vehicle. However, they will also
develop during curving or steering due to the resistance of the bogie’s suspension (yaw
suspension) to the rotation and the radial alignment of the leading and trailing axles.
Lateral tractions mainly develop in curves and sometimes in tangent tracks prone to
vehicle hunting. High lateral traction in curves results from the resistance of the
wheelset to the curving and increases by the rise of the wheel-rail angle of attack during
the curve negotiation. In extreme conditions (very sharp curves or high speeds) these
forces can lead to vehicle derailment. However, based on the type of wheelset (leading
or trailing), radius of the curve and whether the rail is the high rail or low rail the lateral
traction can be inward (towards the centre of the curve) or outward. Figure 3-27 shows
the longitudinal and lateral tractions acting on the leading and trailing wheelsets of a
two bogie passenger coach travelling on a 1000 metre radius curve.
Calculation of tractive forces requires analytical or numerical multi-body dynamic

analysis and depends on many factors such as wheel-rail profiles, curve radius, vehicle
speed, and friction condition of the contact region. Commercial Multi-Body-System
(MBS) software such as GENSYS, ADAMS and VAMPIRE are capable of determining
contact traction forces in different operational conditions. Although, the calculation of
these forces is beyond the scope of this study, it can be assumed that their value is
proportional to the applied vertical load. Accordingly, the sensitivity analysis on the
76
effect of the longitudinal and lateral tractions can be performed by varying the ratio of
these forces to the vertical load (L/V ratio) defined as the traction coefficient.
Figure 3-27: Longitudinal and lateral tractions acting on the leading and trailing wheelsets of a
two-bogie passenger coach in a 1000 m curve. The position of each wheelset is schematically shown
with respect to the flange way gap and the value of forces is shown by the length of the
corresponding arrows [126]
In this study a range of traction coefficients from 0 (free rolling) to 0.4 were simulated
for both lateral and longitudinal tractions. Although, the high rail mostly experiences
outward lateral traction (towards the field side), both outward and inward (towards the
gauge side) directions were considered in the stress analysis to evaluate and compare
the results in each case. Figure 3-28 illustrates the longitudinal stress contour at the field
side of the weld for a lateral traction coefficient of 0.4 directed towards the field side
and located at 15mm from rail centerline towards the gauge side.
The contour clearly shows the increased value of tensile stress at both underhead radius
and base regions of the field side towards which the lateral traction is directed. These
observations can also be described by the bending behaviour and deformation pattern of
the rail section. As the deformation on Figure 3-29b suggests the lateral force on the
contact patch produces a high clockwise twisting moment (Tx) and also a lateral
bending moment (Mz) on the rail section. It is interesting to note that the clockwise
twisting moment produced by the lateral force counteracts the counterclockwise
77
twisting moment resulting from the eccentricity of the applied load. As previously
described the total resulting clockwise twisting moment produces a high tensile stress at
the field side underhead radius. The lateral bending moment (Mz) affects both
underhead and the base region by inducing tensile bending stresses.
Figure 3-28: Longitudinal stress contour at the field side of the weld for an eccentric load located 15
mm offset from the rail centerline towards the gauge side with a lateral traction directed towards
the field side (outward) with a coefficient of 0.4
Figure 3-30 depicts the longitudinal stress contour at the gauge side of the weld for an
eccentric load located 15mm offset from rail centerline towards the gauge side with a
lateral traction directed towards the gauge side with a coefficient of 0.4. The severity of
tensile stress at the underhead region is significantly higher than the previous case of an
78
outward traction although the base region virtually experiences the same stresses. This
indicates that an inward traction is much more detrimental at the underhead region than
an outward traction of the same coefficient. There are two main reasons for such
observation. In an inward traction both the twisting moments resulting from the
eccentricity of the vertical applied load and the inward lateral force are
counterclockwise and so the total twisting moment is much higher than the previous
case of outward traction. The higher lateral deformation of the rail head under inward
traction also proves this finding (Figure 3-29a). In addition, for an inward traction since
the gauge side underhead is located under the vertical load, it directly experiences an
additional local tension spike arising from the eccentricity of the axle load whereas, the
underhead at the field side in an outward traction is not subject to such tension spike.
Similar to the case of outward traction the lateral bending moment (Mz) provides an
additional tensile bending stress to both underhead and the base regions.
(a) (b)
Figure 3-29: Lateral deformation of the rail section under a tractive load applied 15 mm offset from
the rail centreline and L/V ratio of 0.4: (a) Inward traction, and (b) Outward traction
79
Figure 3-30: Longitudinal stress contour at the gauge side of the weld for an eccentric load located
15 mm offset from the rail centerline towards the gauge side with a lateral traction directed
towards the gauge side (inward) with a coefficient of 0.4
Figure 3-31 gives a better insight into the effect of lateral traction and its direction on
stress distribution at different regions of the weld. As expected the longitudinal stress at
the underhead and base fillet of the field side increase with the rise of the traction
towards the field side and this increase is significant at the underhead region showing
the great effect of local bending of the head. The graph also shows that an inward lateral
traction alleviates the stresses at the two regions of the field side mentioned. However,
both the longitudinal stress at the top of the foot and the vertical stress at the mid web of
the field side increase by the introduction of an inward traction.
80
(a)
(b)
Figure 3-31: Variation of longitudinal stress (L.S.) at the underhead, base and upper foot region
and vertical stress (V.S) at the mid web with respect to different coefficients of lateral traction and
the direction: (a) Field side; and (b) Gauge side of the weld. All the measurement points are on one
side and the dimensions are based on Figure 3-26.
81
The increase in the vertical stress at the field side can be described by the development
of a longitudinal bending moment Mx and its rise with higher inward tractions. On the
gauge side an opposite behaviour is observed for the underhead and the base fillet as
previously described. Similar to the field side (however, with more severity due to the
additional tension spike described earlier), an abrupt increase can be observed at the
underhead radius with the introduction of higher inward tractions. Considering the
normal range of the longitudinal residual stress (100 to 300 MPa), the total stress at the
underhead radius exceeds the elastic limit of material. Under cyclic loading, this can
increase the risk of low cycle fatigue if elastic shakedown does not occur. However, this
cannot be directly verified since the plastic deformation can release the stress
concentration and alleviate the severity of longitudinal stress at the collar edge. In
addition, the occurrence of high inward tractions in service is less likely than high
outward tractions. For the base fillet in both sides of the weld, the longitudinal stress is
expected to be alleviated for all traction conditions due to the high compressive residual
stress (up to -300 MPa) at the underside of the foot.
For the longitudinal stress at the top side of the foot and the vertical stress at the mid
web of the gauge side an opposite behaviour to the field side is observed and they
decrease with the application of an inward traction. Similar to the field side the
development of higher vertical compressive stresses is attributed to the bending moment
Mx which linearly depends on the value of the lateral traction.
The effect of longitudinal traction as a result of vehicle acceleration or braking was also
studied through considering longitudinal traction coefficients ranging from 0 to 0.4.
Figure 3-32 shows the variation of longitudinal and vertical stress at the underhead,
base and mid web region respectively based on different longitudinal tractions for a
central load (representing operation in tangent track) with no lateral traction. It is
obvious from the results that the longitudinal traction irrespective of its magnitude has
virtually no effect on the stress distribution of the weld for regions below the underhead.
In fact no specific loading scenario is experienced by the depicted regions under a
longitudinal traction. Nevertheless, both the longitudinal and lateral tractions play
significant roles in failure modes of the running surface such as RCF and wear.
82
Figure 3-32: Variation of longitudinal and vertical stresses with respect to the longitudinal traction
The results presented for the effect of contact patch lateral displacement and lateral
traction (as a representative of curving and hunting behaviour) combining with the
range of longitudinal residual stresses show that the underhead region of the weld may
be a critical location in terms of fatigue crack initiation. For both field and gauge side of
the weld, the longitudinal stress at top of the foot (incorporating high tensile residual
stresses at this region) may have an additive role in development of fatigue failures or
growth of the existing cracks. However, despite the presence of high service stresses at
the base region the total longitudinal stress (bending stress plus residual stress) is less
severe than the underhead due to the effect of high compressive residual stress at the
base.
The results seem consistent with the failure modes observed under in-service loading.
Fatigue cracking at the underhead radius is a common failure mode in the type of weld
considered, and mostly occurs in short radius curves and tangent tracks prone to vehicle
hunting. The incidence of fatigue cracking at the top of the foot is also high however all
failures at this region have been associated with surface features such as cold laps,
which act as crack initiators. On the other hand, few failures have been reported
initiating from the underside of the rail foot in normal operations.
83
3.5 Track Support
Track bedding like any other track component deteriorates over time as a result of
repeated and uneven service loading. Deterioration is described as the permanent
(sometimes called plastic) deformation of ballast or subgrade which may not be uniform
along the track since the service loading is irregular. Settlement of the track bedding
may bring about poor support under some sleepers, and ultimately a total lack of
support or complete looseness. This phenomenon is considered a closed loop since the
lack of support brings about increased service loading and an increase in the loading
more readily affect the track support integrity. The extent of this interaction needs
careful study of vehicle-track dynamic behaviour under the influence of support voids
and bedding settlement as described in the references [127-129] and depends on many
factors including the vehicle speed, the number of defective-support sleepers involved
and the amount of gap developed underneath each sleeper.
Aluminothermic welds are among the locations of the track where the rate of ballast
deterioration is fairly high. The problem is mostly due to the irregularities at the surface
of the weld head, which impose high dynamic loads on the track bedding and cause
ballast pumping. Weld battering (local plastic deformation and dipping of the weld
running surface) due to lack of consistent hardness, and vertical misalignment of the rail
heads prior to welding, are among weld surface irregularities. In fact the lack of support
at the vicinity of aluminothermic welds affect the bending behaviour and stress
distribution in critical locations of the weld and may influence the weld performance.
According to Ishida et al. [128] loose sleepers can substantially decrease the fatigue life
of welds and so regular track maintenance is necessary for their safe operation.
In this study the effect of deficiency in track support on the weld bending behaviour is
investigated through the variation of ballast vertical stiffness under the weld two
adjacent sleepers which are subject to the largest effect of impact forces. Figure 3-33
illustrates the variation of longitudinal and vertical stresses at four regions of the weld
under different ballast stiffness ranging from complete looseness to full support. Two
cases of central loading (tangent track) and eccentric loading (curved track) located 15
84
mm from the rail centerline towards the gauge side with an outward lateral traction
coefficient of 0.3 are considered.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3-33: Variation of longitudinal and vertical stresses versus different ballast stiffness under
the weld adjacent sleepers: (a) Tangent track (central loading); and (b) Field side in a curved track
(15 mm load eccentricity towards the gauge side including an outward traction coefficient of 0.3)
The graph shows an increase in the longitudinal tensile stress at the foot region (both
base fillet and top of the foot) and a reduction at the underhead radius as the track
stiffness decreases, for both tangent and curved tracks. The change in stress distribution
85
is attributed to an increase in the rail bending moment at the weld location, which
results in introduction of more tensile stress at the rail foot and more compressive stress
at the underhead. The complete loss of support at the sleepers immediately adjacent to
the weld is considered to be the worst case. Field observations support the mentioned
results since many of the fatigue failures initiating from the foot region occur at
locations were considerable ballast pumping has taken place.
By comparison with the top of the rail foot and the underhead region, the vertical stress
at the mid web seems to be virtually unresponsive to any change in the track stiffness
since the support stiffness does not have a noticeable effect on lateral or transverse
bending of the rail section. Nevertheless, it cannot be directly verified that the support
has no effect on the fatigue performance of the web region without a vehicle dynamic
analysis to investigate the amplification of the applied load under the simulated support
looseness, type of weld surface irregularity and vehicle speed. If the load impact factor
dramatically increases under a low support condition, the vertical stresses at the web
region may rise accordingly and hence the fatigue performance in curved tracks may
largely be affected. However, these analyses are well beyond the scope of this current
investigation.
In this chapter the bending behaviour of aluminothermic weld under the influence of
several operational parameters such as the contact patch eccentricity, lateral tractions
and support condition was investigated using a thermo-structural finite element
simulation. The results showed that the underhead region experiences a unique state of
stress known as tension spike which results from the local bending of the rail head on
the web section. This behaviour which has also been observed during in-track stress
measurements is exacerbated with the introduction of contact patch eccentricity. Lateral
traction was also proved to intensify the stress state at the underhead due mostly to the
twisting of the rail section. In the next chapter the stress state determined during a
loading cycle using the finite element method is used to investigate fatigue crack
initiation mainly at the weld collar edge. Dang Van multi-axial fatigue criterion based
on critical plane approach is utilized and the effect of some operational and welding
parameters is investigated.
86
CHAPTER 4 MULTI-AXIAL FATIGUE ANALYSIS
In Chapter 3, load bearing behaviour of the aluminothermic weld under static load
located at the centreline of the rail and the resulting stress distribution was studied
subject to different service conditions. It was pointed out that the underhead region, top
of the rail foot and rail base can experience high stresses due to bending behaviour of
the rail head and rail sections. However, static analysis alone cannot be used to examine
the most critical locations of the weld and the effect of service conditions in initiation
and propagation of straight breaks and horizontal split webs since these failures are
permanent fatigue damage resulting from the cyclic characteristic of the loading. In fact,
it is necessary to perform fatigue analysis based on the cyclic loading and the stresses
which represent the distress experienced by the weld under consecutive wheel passages.
It was pointed out in Chapter 2 that the multi-axial fatigue criteria based on the critical
plane approach are among the most reliable approaches incorporating the actual
mechanism of crack initiation controlled by the cyclic shear stresses and the role of the
surrounding normal or hydrostatic stresses. In this chapter fatigue analysis is performed
using the Dang Van critical plane approach which is a high cycle fatigue criterion
capable of coping with the problem of out-of-phase loading and rotating principal
stresses. At the beginning of the chapter the criterion and its implementation using
MATLAB software is extensively described. Following, the approach to determine the
fatigue parameters of the material and the residual stress distribution are introduced and
eventually the criterion is applied to study the fatigue behaviour of aluminothermic
weld under several service conditions.
4.1 Dang Van Original Criterion
It was earlier described that fatigue cracks in metallic materials initiate in intragranular
slip bands and so the cyclic shear stress at the grain scale is the governing factor.
Accordingly, Dang Van [130] in his original work proposed a criterion considering the
inelastic behaviour of material at micro-structural scale (at macro scale the behaviour of
87
material can be completely elastic). Two scales are introduced in this criterion; (a) a
macroscopic (or engineering) scale which is characterized by a volume surrounding the
point of material where the fatigue analysis is performed and (b) a mesoscopic scale (or
the micro-structural) scale defined as the subdivision of the previous scale (Figure 4-1).
Figure 4-1: Definition of macroscopic and mesoscopic scale and the associated macroscopic stress
(S¯° (V)) and the mesoscopic stress (±¯° (V))
The stresses at the mesoscopic scale are different from the macroscopic stresses since
the material in mesoscopic scale undergoes plastic deformation and hardening. In this
case the mesoscopic stress can be derived from the macroscopic stress superimposed by
the residual stress developed due to plastic deformation at the mesoscopic scale:
( )b ( ) + R∗ (4-1)
Where, ( ), ( ) and R∗ are the deviatoric parts of the mesoscopic stress,

macroscopic stress and the residual stress tensor. The condition for avoiding crack
initiation is that at the mesoscale the unfavourably oriented grains should reach a
shakedown condition [92]. Under such a condition, a stable constant mesoscopic
residual stress tensor (R∗ ) can be determined from fulfilment of the following min-max
optimization problem (Equation 4-2) [131]:
R∗ b min ´maxŸE6 ¶ ( )+R · ¸

,
(4-2)
88
Where, E6 is the second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor. The above equation can
also be described as finding the smallest hypersphere in the six-dimensional space
circumscribing the loading path formed by the deviatoric part of the macroscopic stress
( ( )). The centre of this hypersphere corresponds to −R∗ or the constant residual
stress tensor which enforces the shakedown at the mesoscopic level. The suitable
algorithm to determine the radius and centre of the hypersphere has been described
elsewhere [86]. The Dang Van criterion can then be written as:
€ P, { ( ) + CD ( )| > CD (4-3)
Where, ( ) is the instantaneous value of the maximum mesoscopic Tresca shear stress,
( ) is the instantaneous mesoscopic hydrostatic stress and CD and CD are material
parameters calculated from Equation 2-20. In this original criterion the critical plane on
which the fatigue crack is supposed to initiate is the plane of maximum mesoscopic
Tresca shear stress.
4.2 Minimum Circumscribed Circle (MCC)
Another form of the Dang Van criterion which is used in the current study is described
as follows [91, 131-132]. In this criterion the mesoscopic shear stress is replaced by the
shear stress amplitude ( ( )) on the considered shear plane in the following form as
described in Chapter 2:
( )+ CD ( )> CD (4-4)
In this case, the critical plane is the shear plane in which the above inequality is satisfied
at least once in the whole stress cycle. Although, the two criteria 4-3 and 4-4 are
described at two different material scales, they result in the same damage value and
critical plane. The effect of mean shear stress is truly absent in criterion 4-4 through the
implementation of shear stress amplitude (fluctuations around the mean shear stress). In
the same manner the definition and existence of a unique mesoscopic residual stress
tensor in Equation 4-2 leads to the removal of the mean shear stress from the criterion
89
4-3 [92, 131]. It is also proved that the mesoscopic and macroscopic hydrostatic stresses
in criteria 4-3 and 4-4 are the same [130]. The difference between the two criteria is that
in criterion 4-4 all the shear planes passing through the material point should be
checked for the fulfilment of the inequality in the whole stress cycle to find the critical
plane whereas in criterion 4-3 the critical plane is known as soon as the mesoscopic
stresses are defined.
If we consider a point of a structure subjected to cyclic loading and derive the stresses
acting on a plane ∆ passing through that material point, the resulting stress vector (S )
can be decomposed into two components; a normal stress vector perpendicular to the
plane (T ) and a shear stress vector (U) lying on the plane (Figure 4-2).
Figure 4-2: The stress components acting on the plane (∆) passing through the material point O
subjected to cyclic loading [133]
As Figure 4-2 illustrates, tip of the stress vector (S ) forms a closed spatial curve (Φ)
during the stress cycle. Similarly a closed planar curve (Ψ) is developed by the tip of the
shear stress vector (U) and lies on the considered plane. In this case, the shear stress
vector acting on the shear plane ∆ changes both in magnitude and direction during the
loading cycle. The main problem here is how to find the shear stress amplitude ( ( ))
on plane ∆. Since the shear stress is a vectorial function of time the determination of
mean shear stress and shear stress amplitude is not a trivial task [133]. It is also worth
mentioning that for other planes passing through point O the evolution of the shear
90
stress vector and the associated planar path (Ψ) will be different form one plane to
another and so the amount of shear stress amplitude should be defined for each plane
considered.
Several attempts have been made to define the mean shear stress and the shear stress
amplitude vectors among which the methods proposed by Grubisic and Simbürger (the
longest projection proposal) [134], Lemaitre and Chaboche (the longest chord proposal)
[135] and Papadopoulos (minimum circumscribed circle) [133] are noteworthy. In the
longest projection method, the projection of the shear path (Ψ) on all the lines passing
through the origin (O) and lying on the plane ∆ are defined and half the length of the
longest projection is determined as the shear stress amplitude (Figure 4-3a). On the
other hand, the longest chord proposal describes the shear stress amplitude as half of the
maximum distance between any two points on the shear path (Figure 4-3b).
Unfortunately there are examples where the two mentioned proposals fail to correctly
calculate the shear stress amplitude and so their application is limited to certain types of
shear path [136-137].
(a) (b)
Figure 4-3: Definition of the shear stress amplitude (UW ) and mean shear stress (UX ): (a) The longest
projection method; and (b) The longest chord method
The minimum circumscribed circle (MCC) was first introduced by Dang Van [138]
although the correct formulation was originally implemented by Papadopoulos [133].
The idea comes from the fact that the smallest circle encompassing a planar curve is
91
unique. The maximum shear stress amplitude in this method is described by the radius
of the smallest circle circumscribing the shear path Ψ (Equation 4-5) and the mean shear
stress vector is defined as the centre of this circle in plane ∆ (Equation 4-6) (Figure 4-
4). According to the literature the MCC method is currently the only correct method of
calculating the amplitude and mean shear stress in any periodic non-proportional or
proportional loading [133, 136-137].
b max ‖U(V) − UX ‖
,
(4-5)
b min max ‖U(V) − U„X ‖

ºŽ ,
(4-6)
Figure 4-4: Definition of the minimum circumscribed circle (MCC); U(V) − UX is the time
dependent shear stress amplitude (UW (V)) and UW in the figure is the maximum amplitude
Equation 4-6 implicitly describes how the minimum circumscribed circle is constructed.
One can assume a minimum circumscribed circle with the centre U„X the smallest radius
of which is described by the longest distance between its centre and any point on the
shear path written as max, ‖U(V) − U„X ‖. However, an infinite number of these circles
92
can be found with different location of the centre or different U„X vectors. The actual
minimum circumscribed circle which can be used for the determination of shear stress
amplitude and the mean shear stress vector is the one with the smallest radius or the
minimum value of max, ‖U(V) − U„X ‖ as defined in Equation 4-6. This is similar to the
definition previously introduced for the determination of the minimum circumscribed
hypersphere (Equation 4-2) in the original Dang Van criterion.
Before being able to construct the minimum circumscribed circle in a computer program
the continuous curved shear path Ψ should be approximated by an n-sided (or n-
vertices) polygon with its vertices lying on the shear path. As a matter of fact this has
already been done since finite element analysis has been used for determination of the
stress cycle. It was previously motioned that the passage of wheel is represented by
moving the axle load step by step along the track. This step wise determination of the
stress cycle leads to the development of a polygon shear path with the number of
vertices equal to the number of steps taken in finite element analysis.
From a mathematical point of view the smallest circle circumscribing an n-vertices

polygon can be defined using the following theorem [133, 139]: “The minimum-
circumscribed circle to a plane polygon Ψ is: either one of the circles drawn with a
diameter equal to a line segment joining any two vertices of Ψ or one of the
circumcircles of all the triangles generated from every three vertices of Ψ”. To find the
smallest circle all the triangles formed by the two points and three points on the path
should be drawn and checked. The number of circles that can be formed by two vertices
(Y6Z ) is calculated as the two-combinations from the n element set of vertices:
Y Y!
Y6Z b » ¼ b
2 2! (Y − 2)!
(4-7)
Similarly, the number of circumcircles of the triangles formed by three points (Y7Z ) on
the path is defined as the three-combinations from the n element set of vertices:
Y Y!
Y7Z b » ¼ b
3 3! (Y − 3)!
(4-8)
93
Accordingly, the algorithm to find the minimum circumscribed circle, time dependent
shear stress amplitude and the critical plane for the considered material point can be
written as follows:
1) As previously mentioned all the shear planes passing through the material point
should be considered for fatigue damage calculation or checking the fulfilment
of the criterion 4-4. For each shear plane the time dependent shear stress vector
is determined from the transformation of the obtained stress tensor from the
finite element analysis. The end points of the shear vectors are the vertices of the
loading path polygon Ψ on the plane considered.
2) The set of all line segments formed by connecting all pairs of the vertices on the
polygon is considered (Figure 4-5a). They comprise all the sides of the polygon
as well as all its chords. Each line segment can be the diameter of a circle and in
total Y6Z circles are drawn; the radius and the centre of each circle recorded.
3) Similarly all the triangles formed by any three vertices of the polygon are
considered (Figure 4-5b). The circumcircles of these triangles are drawn, the
radius and centre of which is recorded. In total Y7Z circles will be considered.
(a) (b)
Figure 4-5: Samples of circles for the combination of vertices of the shear polygon Ψ: (a) Two-point
circles; and (b) Three-point circles
4) For any of the circles drawn in steps 2 and 3 the circumscribability (whether the
circle contains the whole shear path Ψ) is checked. This is performed by finding
the distance from any of the polygon vertices to the centre of the circle
94
considered. If all the distances calculated are smaller or equal to the radius of the
circle, the circle is a circumscribing circle. The centre and radius of all the
circumscribing circles are recorded.
5) Among all the circumscribing circles, the circle with the smallest radius will be
the minimum circumscribing circle for the shear plane considered. The
coordinate of the centre is the mean shear stress vector and the distance from
each point of the polygon to the centre of the MCC is the shear stress amplitude
for the corresponding time in the stress cycle ( ( )).
6) The shear plane with the maximum value of ( )+ CD ( ) is the critical
plane. From now on this value is called the DV damage parameter. If this value
is greater than CD fatigue will occur and the mentioned plane is the fatigue
crack initiation plane.
7) Steps 1 to 6 are repeated for all material points considered for fatigue analysis.
Due to the directionality of the criterion and the associated repetitive algorithm, the
computational time can be fairly high especially if the number of material points and the
stress cycle steps are large. For each shear plane Y6Z two-point circles should be drawn
and for each circle the distance of (Y − 2) vertices should be checked from the centre of
that circle (for circumscribability). Similarly Y7Z three-point circles are formed and for
each circle the distance of (Y − 3) vertices to the centre is checked. If € is the number
of material points and ¾ is the number of planes investigated for each point, the total
number of operations (¿ ) can be approximately calculated using Equation 4-9. As an
example, for about 32400 shear planes investigated for one material point in this study
and a shear path polygon of 69 vertices the number of operations is about 1.171e11
which takes about 0.4 hours in a 3.2 GHz Quad core Xeon CPU.
Y! Y!
¿ b€∗¾∗À (Y − 2) + (Y − 3)Á
2! (Y − 2)! 3! (Y − 3)!
(4-9)
4.3 Estimation of Fatigue Parameters
Evaluation of the Dang Van fatigue parameters CD and CD in Equation 2-20 requires
the two fatigue parameters of the weld material ;<4 (fatigue limit in reverse bending)
95
and <4 (fatigue limit in alternating pure torsion). The common approach to measure the
mentioned fatigue limits is to perform separate reverse bending and alternating torsion
tests using a staircase algorithm first introduced by Dixon and Mood [140]. A condition
of the staircase analysis is that the number of samples should be large in the order of 40
to 50. According to Collins [141] at least 15 to 30 cylindrical samples are needed for
each of the fatigue tests mentioned to have a good estimate of the mean fatigue limits.
This number largely depends on the quality of samples and the associated repeatability
of the test. A couple of other conditions also exist in the staircase method such as the
fatigue limit being a normal distribution and some knowledge of the standard deviation
prior to testing [142]. In the case of aluminothermic welds the sampling method is
considered highly erratic and costly due to the following factors:
• The relatively large number of samples needed for fatigue limit evaluation
necessitates extraction from a number of welds. Since the whole fabrication
process of an aluminothermic weld is manual and operator dependent, no two
manufactured welds are exactly the same in terms of material properties. In the
meantime casting defects such as pores and inclusions are common in weld
materials however, the equality of defect contents in different samples cannot be
verified. This inevitably induces large errors in fatigue limit measurements.
• Different samples even from the same weld but various locations of the weld
may not exhibit identical fatigue properties since the thermal conditions
(preheat, cooling and post heating) and the solidification pattern of the weld
material may not be uniform throughout the weld section.
• Provision of the required number of samples (30 to 60 samples) with similar

surface quality suitable for staircase statistical analysis is costly. And also it
cannot be verified that the statistical data maintains a normal distribution.
Hence, a different approach was adopted to estimate the material fatigue parameters
based on more reproducible and reliable mechanical parameters such as hardness.
Experiments have shown that the ultimate tensile strength of metals correlates well with
96
their hardness values. In this study two experimental relations proposed by Umemoto et
al. [143], Equation 4-10 (for single structured pearlitic steel) and Callister [144],
Equation 4-11 are used to evaluate the ultimate strength of the weld material.
\] b KD ⁄3.27 KD gY " (4-10)
\] b 3.45K[ (4-11)
Where, \] is the ultimate strength of material, K[ and KD are the Brinell hardness and
the Vickers hardness respectively. Schroeder and Poirier [145] made some experiments
on the hardness and the ultimate strength relation of aluminothermic weld material
(different than the weld considered in this study) on standard and alloy mix portions
(Figure 4-6). The mean value of the two predictions 4-10 and 4-11 is found to be
consistent to the mean trend line of the measurements and accordingly this mean value
is used to estimate the ultimate strength of the current weld under investigation.
Figure 4-6: Tensile properties of weld material with respect to the hardness; red line represents the
trend line for the mean values of the ultimate strength [145]
97
Figure 4-7 shows the variation of Vickers hardness on the rail head, web and the foot
regions along the rail for the aluminothermic weld considered in this study. At the edge
of the weld collar (20 mm offset from the weld centerline for an overall collar width of
40 mm) which is under investigation for the straight break formation, the hardness value
of approximately 330-340 HV is observed at all regions of the weld.
Figure 4-7: Hardness distribution on the central longitudinal plane of the rail in head, web and foot
regions of the weld versus longitudinal distance from the weld centreline [19]
According to Lee et al. [146] in mild to high strength steels which have defects
approximately smaller than the grain size fatigue cracks initiate within grains and are
arrested by the grain boundary. The strength of this boundary is nearly proportional to
the hardness and the ultimate strength of the material. So the fatigue limit maintains an
approximate linear relation with the ultimate strength of material for strengths below a
critical value. The ratio of the reversed bending fatigue limit to the ultimate tensile
strength of material (;<4 / \] ) depends on the steel microstructure and varies between
0.25 and 0.6. For pearlitic microstructure of steel Juvinall [147] proposed the value of
0.38 at 106 cycles which is used in this study. According to experiments, fatigue limit in
pure torsion is approximately proportional to the fatigue limit in alternated bending. For
98
a defect free (unnotched) material the fatigue limit ratio <4 /;<4 has the value of about
0.58 [102, 146]. Under the above mentioned considerations the fatigue limit in
alternated bending (;<4 ) of the current weld is estimated at 405 MPa and in reversed
torsion ( <4 ) at 235 MPa which are used throughout this study unless otherwise stated.
4.4 Residual Stresses
Longitudinal and vertical residual stresses as a result of the welding procedure are
incorporated into the fatigue analysis since it was found in Chapter 2 that they have
large effects on the stress magnitude at different regions of the weld. The surface
residual stress values were obtained using strain gauging and trepanning or ring-core
technique [148].
In this method the strain gauge (or rosette) is attached to the surface of the component at
the point of interest. Then an annulus with a minimum diameter of 15 mm is machined
with a depth of about 10 mm around the strain gauge. Due to the isolation of the formed
core island from the surrounding surfaces the stresses on the surface are relaxed. The
associated relaxed strains are measured and by applying the generalized Hooke’s law
the residual stresses are determined.
For this study the longitudinal residual stresses have been measured at 3 mm offset from
the collar edge and the vertical residual stresses measured on collar centerline at the mid
web (Figure 4-8) [43]. Measurements were undertaken on a total of six additional test
welds; the resulting average residual stress values are superimposed with the stress
history at the outset of the multi-axial fatigue analysis through a piece-wise linear model
(similar to the method proposed by Josefson and Ringsberg [95] for flash butt welds)
based on the strain gauge measurements (Figure 4-9). The scatter in the latter
measurements is caused by different factors including the restriction in how close the
strain gauges could be attached to the weld collar edge, high gradient of residual stress
at the vicinity of the collar edge, the location of strain gauges with respect to the weld
fusion boundary and in general inequality of heating and cooling conditions in different
welds and even in different sides of the same weld.
99
L V
Figure 4-8: Trepanning technique for residual stress measurements and the measurement locations
[43]
To account for the variation in longitudinal and vertical residual stress among different
weld samples, a sensitivity analysis will be performed. The sensitivity analysis is based
on the residual stress modes depicted in Figure 4-9. The modes illustrated by piecewise
linear representations approximately cover the whole range of residual stress variation
in the type of weld considered i.e. between 100 to 300 MPa for the longitudinal residual
stress from top of the rail foot to the underhead region and about 100 to 200 MPa for the
vertical residual stress on the surface of the mid web. Although, the measured vertical
stresses used for the current study does not exhibit such high values, stresses up to 200
MPa has occasionally been reported and so is considered for sensitivity analysis. The
results and discussion of the pertaining analysis will be presented later in this chapter.
The minimum circumscribed circle (MCC) algorithm already introduced in Section 4-2
together with the superposition of the residual stresses were implemented in a computer
code developed in MATLAB programming software (Appendix A) to perform fatigue
analysis. The time dependent stress tensor (cyclic state of stress) obtained in finite
element analysis for each material point is exported to the mentioned code where the
Dang Van critical plane analysis is performed.
100
Figure 4-9: Residual stress measurements using strain gauge method (Mutton et al. [43]) and the
piece-wise linear models applied in analysis (Mode 1 horizontal and Mode 2 vertical residual
stresses are considered for fatigue analysis and other modes are implemented for residual stress
sensitivity analysis as will be described later): (a) Longitudinal residual stress at the collar edge;
and (b) Vertical residual stress on the centerline of the weld collar surface
101
4.5 Free Rolling Condition (Tangent Track)
Multi-axial fatigue analysis using the Dang Van critical plane approach was performed
primarily on the collar edge of the aluminothermic weld to define the critical locations
in terms of straight break formation. The first case under investigation is for a contact
patch located at the centerline of the weld with no lateral or longitudinal tractions
representing the free rolling condition or loading in a tangent track.
Figure 4-10 illustrates the DV damage parameter (the value of the left side of the Dang
Van inequality on the most critical shear plane) at the collar edge of the weld versus the
height from the rail foot. If the value of the damage parameter in any point of the collar
edge exceeds the critical value ( CD in inequality 4-4) fatigue crack will nucleate at the
associated point. In this study the value of CD is determined at 235 MPa based on the
estimation of <4 or the fatigue limit in reversed torsion (Equation 2-20).
Figure 4-10: DV damage parameter on collar edge versus height from rail foot in a tangent track
102
The damage figure shows a pronounced damage parameter at the underhead radius and
less severe damage parameter at the base region. This is in contrast to what was
illustrated in Chapter 3 that the bending stress was much higher at the base fillet than
the underhead radius (416 MPa versus 189 MPa). In fact this can be described by
considering the effect of residual stresses and the localized tension spike. The
longitudinal residual stress is highly compressive at the underside of the foot and tensile
throughout the upper foot up to the underhead region, which could alleviate the severity
of fatigue damage at the base and increase it at the underhead fillet. In addition to high
longitudinal residual stress and the localized tension spike the underhead region is very
prone to cold laps, a condition in which the weld metal leaks into the gap between the
mould and the parent rail and solidifies forming an unfused region. Figure 4-11 shows a
cold lap defect formed at the two sides of the underhead fillet of the considered weld.
The increased damage parameter evident in the mid-web in Figure 4-10 is also related to
high positive hydrostatic stress due to the increased residual stress in both longitudinal
and vertical directions.
Magnified view
from this side
Figure 4-11: Formation of cold lap at the underhead radius on both field and gauge sides of an AT
weld indicated by the white arrows. The cold lap can sometimes contain pores as magnified at the
bottom left figure. Pores at the tip of a cold lap could facilitate fatigue crack initiation [149].
103
The damage figure 4-10 also shows lower fatigue damage at the top of the foot
compared to the underhead radius and base fillet. The tensile longitudinal residual stress
at the top of the foot is similar to that of the underhead region. It was also illustrated in
Figure 3-17 that the total longitudinal stress (residual plus bending) at the top of the foot
may be higher than those in base fillet and underhead radius. So, what is the reason for
lower damage parameter at the top of the foot? The Dang Van criterion is described by
the superposition of shear stress amplitude ( ) and a small portion (about 24%) of the
hydrostatic stress ( ) on the most damaging shear plane. In fact the state of shear
stress fluctuation on the critical plane is the determining factor in high cycle fatigue
mechanism not necessarily the state of total stress at the point of material considered.
To find the answer for the question, the variation of shear stress amplitude and the
hydrostatic stress on the most damaging plane are considered in Figure 4-12 for both the
underhead radius and top of the foot (Point A and B in Figure 3-17 respectively).
Figure 4-12: Variation of shear stress amplitude UW (V), hydrostatic stress TÂ (V) and the DV damage
parameter on the most damaging plane at underhead and top of the rail foot versus longitudinal
distance of the axle load from the weld centreline; maximum DV damage values at the underhead
radius and upperfoot are depicted by small circles
104
As the figure suggests the hydrostatic stress is notably higher at the top of the foot
compared to that at the underhead radius. However, as described earlier the hydrostatic
stress has only a partial effect on the DV damage parameter. The shear stress amplitude
which has the biggest influence in damage parameter (see Equation 4-4) is much higher
at the underhead radius when the load is located between -50 mm to 150 mm distant
from the weld centerline. This will result in (by superposing the maximum shear stress
amplitude and the associated hydrostatic stress effect) a more pronounced damage at the
underhead region compared to the top side of the foot.
However, according to the Dang Van criterion and based on the damage values depicted
in Figure 4-10 no fatigue failure is predicted to initiate at the edge of the weld collar
(assuming that the weld geometry is as-designed and the material is defect free) in a
tangent track since the DV damage value is generally below the critical damage
parameter, CD b 235 " .
Curving or hunting causes the contact patch to move away from the rail centerline
towards the gauge side and lateral traction forces to develop at the patch. These two
effects are separately considered in Sections 4.6 and 4.7. This section solely discusses
the effect of contact patch lateral movement incorporating vertical wheel load at all
eccentric locations.
The results of the multi-axial fatigue analysis are depicted in Figure 4-13 for an
eccentric load located 25 mm offset from the rail centerline towards the gauge side. The
graph exhibits the contribution of high cyclic tensile stresses to fatigue damage, with an
abrupt increase at the underhead region. In fact, the displaced contact force induces high
local bending moment on the railhead and leads to a pronounced tension spike and
higher damage at the underhead radius. The predicted damage parameter even reaches
the critical damage, which implies that the fatigue failure is expected at the underhead
fillet in accordance to the Dang Van criterion. However, fatigue damage at the lower
web and foot regions are predicted to be less severe than under central loading.
105
Figure 4-13: DV damage parameter at the gauge side collar edge for both central and eccentric
loading located 25 mm distant from rail centerline towards the gauge side with no shear tractions;
Fatigue region represents the region in which fatigue crack initiation is expected
Figure 4-14 presents the results of fatigue analysis for three locations of interest on the
weld collar edge (underhead radius, top of the foot or web-base fillet and base fillet
depicted in Figure 4-13) according to the position of contact patch relative to the rail
centerline. The graph shows a near linear increase and a slight decrease in the damage
parameter of the underhead fillet and base region respectively. Only a minor change in
damage parameter is evident at the web-base fillet, confirming little effect of contact
patch lateral location at this region. In summary, all three regions of the weld are
predicted to remain in a safe condition in terms of fatigue failure, except for the
underhead fillet when the contact patch is displaced laterally by a large extent due to
curving or hunting behaviour (see the fatigue prone region in Figure 4-14).
106
Figure 4-14: DV damage parameter versus the contact patch lateral displacement for the
underhead radius, top of the rail foot and base fillet depicted by circles in Figure 4-13; Shaded area
shows the fatigue region where crack initiation is expected
4.7 Contact Tractions
As mentioned in the previous chapter lateral traction is considered in this study as

representing the steering or hunting behaviour while longitudinal traction is the result of
acceleration and braking of the wheel. A range of traction coefficients from 0 (free
rolling) to 0.4 were used for both longitudinal and lateral directions, and the lateral
traction was deemed to be outwards (towards the field side). The finite element results
presented in Chapter 3 showed that under a tractive force towards the field side, the
underhead radius undergoes severe twisting and lateral bending which substantially
increases the tensile stress at this region. As a result of the lateral bending moment
applied on the rail section, the base region also experienced pronounced tensile stresses
even higher than that of the underhead radius. The longitudinal traction was shown to
have a negligible effect on bending stresses throughout the collar edge from the
underhead radius to the base fillet. However, to have a thorough understanding of the
fatigue behaviour, multi-axial fatigue analysis is performed for both the cases of lateral
and longitudinal tractions.
107
The results of the fatigue analysis at the collar edge of the field side are presented in
Figure 4-15 for two cases of no lateral traction and traction coefficient of 0.4 towards
the field side (outward) on a contact patch located 15mm offset from the rail centerline
towards the gauge side. Lateral traction clearly increases the fatigue damage throughout
the collar edge except for a narrow band at the upper foot. DV damage parameter at the
underhead radius even exceeds the critical value of 235 MPa indicating that the fatigue
failure is highly expected at this region. Although, the base region is subject to higher
tensile stresses than the underhead the compressive state of residual stress at the base
region has resulted in reduced damage compared to the underhead. For other regions of
the weld except the underhead no fatigue failure is expected.
Figure 4-15: DV damage parameter at the collar edge of the field side for an eccentric load located
15 mm offset from the rail centerline with lateral traction coefficients of 0 and 0.4 outwards; shaded
area shows the fatigue crack initiation region
108
Figure 4-16 illustrates the variation of DV damage parameter at the three locations of
interest (underhead radius, web-base fillet and base fillet) for different lateral traction
coefficients. The figure shows a linear increase in fatigue damage at the base fillet while
the top of the foot remains nearly unaffected by the lateral traction. At the underhead
radius the effect of lateral traction is severe particularly for the traction coefficients
above 0.1 for which the damage parameter increases dramatically in a near linear trend.
For lateral traction coefficients of higher than 0.3 fatigue failure is predicted.
Figure 4-16: DV damage parameter versus the lateral traction coefficient for the underhead radius,
top of the rail foot and base fillet depicted by circles in Figure 4-13; contact patch located 15 mm
offset from the rail centerline towards the gauge side
4.7.1 Contact Patch Eccentricity, Tractions and In-Service Observations
As described in sections 3.3 and 3.4 steering in curved tracks and hunting during
tangent track operation can lead to contact patch displacement and development of
additional lateral tractions on the rail head. Although, direct comparison of damage
values predicted using this study with what occur in service is not possible the results
presented for the effect of contact patch lateral location and lateral traction are
consistent with the failure modes observed in-service. Fatigue cracking at the underhead
109
radius is a common failure mode in the type of weld considered, and mostly occurs in
short radius curves and tangent tracks prone to vehicle hunting. Figure 4-17 shows a
typical straight break failure initiated at the underhead of the studied AT weld type.
Figure 4-17: Straight break in the considered AT weld initiated at the underhead radius [16]
Figure 4-18: DV damage parameter for two longitudinal traction coefficients in a tangent track
110
The effect of longitudinal traction is illustrated in Figure 4-18 for the minimum and
maximum traction coefficients of 0 (free rolling) and 0.4 under a central loading. As the
figure suggests a high longitudinal traction has only a limited influence on the DV
damage parameter and the fatigue behaviour by slightly increasing the damage at the
underhead region (5% increases at the most critical point).
4.8 Track Support
It was described in chapter three that locations of the track at the vicinity of
aluminothermic weld suffer from lack of sufficient support due to the irregularities at
the weld surface and the resulting impact forces. Finite element analysis pointed out that
by losing substantial support the bending moment applied on the weld section is
dramatically increased which results in higher longitudinal stresses at the base region.
In this study the effect of ballast stiffness on the fatigue behaviour of AT welds is
investigated through changing the vertical stiffness of the foundation underneath the
adjacent sleepers. However, it is assumed in this study that the applied load is constant
irrespective of the support condition. Figure 4-19 presents the results of fatigue analysis
on the collar edge for four combinations of vertical and horizontal track stiffness in a
tangent track. The DV damage parameter as described by Equation 4-4 increases
dramatically at the base region when the sleepers loose substantial support stiffness.
This is in accordance to the condition of longitudinal stress at this region. Although, the
longitudinal tensile stress reaches about 650 MPa for completely loose sleepers, high
compressive residual stress at the base has managed to reduce the damage parameter
and contain it in the safe region (damage less than CD b 235 " ) where fatigue
crack initiation is not expected.
Nevertheless, the actual mechanism of failure under loosely supported track is more
complex. In fact, it depends on the dynamic behaviour of vehicle-track and cannot be
fully understood unless a comprehensive multi-body dynamics simulation is performed
which can describe the variation of the applied load influenced by the combination of
weld running surface irregularities, looseness in support and suspension configuration
111
of vehicle. However, the current analysis shows high sensitivity of the base region to
lack of support and indicates that deviation from the ideal condition assumed in this
study such as surface defect or roughness at the collar fillet may lead to fatigue failure.
It is worth mentioning that for some weld types the collar edge at the base region is
prone to cold lap or fin formation which is suspected to be correlated with the
nucleation of straight breaks (more on cold lap and its relation with straight break is
provided in Chapter 6). Moreover, in reality the surface finish of the weld exterior and
the collar edge is not smooth since the process is originally a sand casting process. Field
observations support the mentioned results since many of the fatigue failures initiating
from the foot region occur at locations were considerable ballast pumping has taken
place. At the underhead region the results are mixed; for the region between 120 to 140
mm above the rail foot the same behaviour as the base is observed i.e. the DV damage
parameter increases by reducing the track stiffness. However, between 140 to 150 mm,
damage parameter slightly decreases which could be attributed to the additional
compressive stress induced in the region as a result of the section bending behaviour.
Figure 4-19: DV damage parameter at the collar edge versus ballast horizontal stiffness (HS) and
vertical stiffness (VS) in a tangent track
112
4.9 Sensitivity to Residual Stresses
It is believed that the residual stresses developed during the welding procedure have
great influence in the fatigue life of the welded joints. Skyttebol et al. [61] has
investigated the effect of residual stress on the propagation of fatigue cracks in flash
butt welds (FBW) through finite element analysis and linear elastic fracture mechanics.
However, no quantitative assessment has been performed on the fatigue or fracture
behaviour of aluminothermic welds under the influence of residual stresses.
In this study the variation of both longitudinal and vertical residual stress fields is
considered for multi-axial fatigue analysis. As previously explained, a piece-wise linear
representation is used for several combinations of residual stress modes presented in
Figure 4-9. Accordingly, longitudinal residual stress affecting the upper foot to
underhead regions changes from 100 to 300 MPa and vertical residual stress from 100
to 200 MPa. Another analysis is performed for the zero longitudinal and vertical
residual stresses. This condition does not normally occur in service unless the weld is
subjected to stress-relieving treatments. However, inclusion of this case into the analysis
gives an insight into the effect of residual stresses. In this case the only influential
parameters are service and seasonal-dependent stresses.
The results of the fatigue analysis on the collar edge based on the presumed residual
stress modes are illustrated in Figure 4-20 for an eccentric load where the contact patch
is located 25 mm from the rail centerline with no lateral traction. The lowest damage
parameter throughout the collar edge correlates with zero residual stresses, except for
the foot region where the stress-free condition exhibits the highest damage. In fact the
absence of a compressive residual stress (which had a preventive role in fatigue crack
initiation) at the base leads to pronounced damage at this region. It is observed that the
longitudinal residual stress increases the fatigue damage parameter throughout the collar
edge of the weld. The damage parameter at the underhead region could even exceed the
critical damage value CD b 235 " in the presence of high residual stresses pointing
out the additive effect of longitudinal residual stress in fatigue crack initiation
particularly at the underhead.
113
Figure 4-20: DV damage parameter at the collar edge versus different longitudinal (L) and vertical
(V) residual stress modes depicted in Figure 4-9 for an eccentric load located 25 mm from rail
centerline towards the gauge side
The increase in the fatigue damage at the underhead region is greater than that at the
upper foot despite the similarity in the residual stress applied to both regions. The
current finding could be explained by inspecting the trend of fatigue damage at the
mentioned regions during the loading cycle (Figure 4-21a). As the graph suggests, the
underhead region experiences the maximum damage when the load is exactly at the top
of the weld while the upper foot exhibits the maximum damage when the load is 132
mm away from the weld centerline. The underhead radius shows much higher peaks in
fatigue damage parameter which is attributed to the increase in the shear stress
amplitude on the critical plane as the residual stress increases, whereas no evident
change of shear stress amplitude is seen at the upper foot region (Figure 4-21b).
114
(a)
(b)
Figure 4-21: (a) DV damage parameter on the critical plane at the underhead and upper foot
regions versus the relative location of axle load with respect to the weld centerline for different
longitudinal residual stress (LRS) values; vertical solid lines define the location of axle load when
the damage parameter at the mentioned weld regions achieves its highest value; and (b) Value of
shear stress amplitude, hydrostatic stress and damage parameter versus LRS
115
The severity of fatigue damage at different regions of the weld could be alleviated
through reducing the tensile residual stress or even inducing compressive residual
stresses where necessary. The applicable measures include (but not limited to) post-
weld thermal treatments such as normalizing or stress relieving and post-weld surface
peening [14].
In particular, the post weld surface peening or ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT) has
gained a good reputation by increasing the fatigue lives of aluminothermic welds
without notable side effects on other characteristics of the weld (the deficiency of some
post heat treatment techniques). In this method mechanical impulses generated at an
ultrasonic pulse generator are applied using a special hand tool to the toe of the weld
collar edge where it develops small plastic deformations (Figure 4-22). The result of
this local plastic deformation is a reduction in the severity of stress concentration by re-
profiling the toe geometric features and increasing the toe radius and also inducing local
compressive residual stress which has been shown to play a preventive role in fatigue
crack initiation. According to Gutscher [150] under a laboratory condition this process
has the potential of increasing the fatigue life of aluminothermic weld by 50 to 170
percent. The process is also time efficient since a full treatment can be performed in less
than ten minutes.
Figure 4-22: Application of ultrasonic impact treatment on collar edge of an aluminothermic weld
using the specialized hand tool [150]
116
4.10 Sensitivity to Seasonal Temperature
A sensitivity analysis was performed on the effect of seasonal temperature variations on

the fatigue behaviour of aluminothermic weld. Since the weld is generally under tensile
stress in temperatures below the weld installation temperature (colder months) and
compressive stress in temperatures above the installation temperature (warmer seasons),
it is expected that the probability of fatigue failure increases in colder months and
decreases in warmer months. A range of rail temperatures varying from 10 to 60 oC
was considered and the reference or installation temperature was assumed to be 35 oC.
Figure 4-23 presents the extent of fatigue damage parameter on the weld collar edge for
three different temperatures representing the mean of colder months, neutral
temperature (installation temperature) and mean of warmer months.
Figure 4-23: Damage parameter at the collar edge in a tangent track for three rail temperatures:
neutral temp=35oC, 17oC above neutral temp=52oC, and 16oC below neutral temp=19oC
117
The figure generally supports the preventive role of high temperatures on fatigue crack
nucleation. As expected the lowest damage parameter is associated to the temperatures
above the neutral temperature which develops longitudinal compressive stress
throughout the weld region and the highest damage relates to the temperatures below
the neutral temperature which induces longitudinal tensile stress on the collar edge.
Figure 4-24 illustrates the variation of shear stress amplitude, hydrostatic stress and the
DV damage parameter in two important regions of the weld i.e. underhead radius and
upper foot in terms of the rail temperature during service. As the figure suggests the
shear stress amplitude on the most damaging plane is constant for all rail temperatures
and does not have any effect on variation of damage parameter whereas the governing
factor is the hydrostatic stress which increases by reducing the rail temperature.
Figure 4-24: Variation of shear stress amplitude, hydrostatic stress and DV damage parameter on
the most damaging shear plane at the underhead and top side of the foot (depicted by circles in
Figure 4-23) for different rail temperatures; vertical solid line illustrates the neutral temperature
Therefore, it seems that a good practice for reducing the risk of fatigue failure is to
perform welding in lower ambient (neutral) temperatures so that the temperature
118
gradient in cold months is kept as small as possible. However, there are restrictions in
defining the optimum welding temperature among which are the risk of buckling during
warm months of the year and the maintenance schedule. Moreover, many of the
aluminothermic weld installations are performed for removing the defective rails and
welds in which case the weld installation temperature is more difficult to control.
In this chapter multi-axial fatigue analysis was performed on the collar edge of an
aluminothermic weld to investigate crack initiation under heavy haul conditions. Dang
Van critical plane approach was utilized using a developed computer code based on the
MCC algorithm for shear stress amplitude calculation. The results show that the
underhead region is the most critical location of the weld which experiences severe
fatigue damage particularly under the effect of displaced contact patch. It is believed
that a combination of factors including the tension spike, the successive change of
longitudinal stress from compressive to tensile (which results in increased shear stress
amplitude) and high longitudinal residual stress increase the risk of crack initiation at
this region. Lateral traction as the other effect of curving and hunting behaviour can also
dramatically increase the damage value at the underhead radius. Seasonal temperature
also plays an important role in fatigue performance through its effect in hydrostatic
stress parameter in Dang Van criterion. As expected lower ambient temperature
introduces positive hydrostatic stress throughout the collar edge and increases the
related damage index. Since the damage index evaluated in this study critically depends
on the stress concentration at the collar edge it is believed that the geometric features of
the surface could affect the fatigue behaviour. This parameter is going to be investigated
in the next chapter using the fatigue tool developed in this study.
119
CHAPTER 5 FATIGUE AND WELD COLLAR DESIGN
Analysis of weld bending and fatigue behaviour performed in Chapters 3 and 4 shows
that the stress concentration at the collar edge of the weld plays an important role in
increasing the fatigue damage and the likeliness to develop straight break failures.
Stress concentration arises from geometric irregularity at the surface of the rail-weld
boundary and is mainly related to the radius of the curve at the collar edge and the flank
angle or the angle between the collar and the rail surfaces at the edge. However, the
stress concentration is also influenced by the surface roughness at the collar edge and
the presence or otherwise of casting defects. Several attempts have been made by the
weld consumable manufacturers to design weld collar geometries with better features at
the collar boundary and lower stress concentrations. However, designing the ideal collar
geometry is always restricted by how the collar performs in the casting process. The
change in collar geometry may change the amount of heat received by the rail head
during the preheating step, the accessibility of molten metal to different parts of the
mould, the cooling condition at different regions of the weld and also the formation of
casting defects. Accordingly, only a limited number of weld collars are used around the
world which can fulfil all the requirements of non-defective production and safe railway
operation.
5.1 Design Alternatives and Geometric Features
In Australian heavy haul railway system the type of weld discussed earlier (hereinafter
referred to as Type A) is widely used. This weld type has shown acceptable resistance to
nucleation of HSW fatigue failures due to a smooth surface finish at the web region of
the collar and lower incidence of gross defects. However, as mentioned this type of
weld is prone to straight breaks resulting from fatigue cracking at the underhead and
upper foot regions. Recently, a further type of AT weld has been developed and this
type of weld, hereinafter referred to as Type B, features lower geometric complexities
and a smoother collar edge (lower flank angle and larger toe radius) which may relieve
120
the severity of stress and hence sensitivity to straight break initiation. The Type B weld
also incorporates the use of selective alloying of the rail head, in order to match the
weld hardness to that of the parent rail [151]. Figure 5-1 illustrates the two weld
samples and the associated Solidworks models used for bending and fatigue analysis.
(a) (a) (b)
(c) (d) (e)
Figure 5-1: Two weld collar designs under investigation: (a) Type A sample weld; (b) Type B
sample weld [43]; (c) Type A computer model; (d) Type B computer model; and (e) Section view
from top of the rail foot indicating the toe radius and flank angle in the two collar designs
121
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of geometric features at different
regions of the weld collar by comparing the stress distribution and the associated fatigue
behaviour in the two collar designs with emphasis on the straight break formation at the
collar edge and HSW at the web region.
Similar to the Type A weld, the model used in finite element analysis of Type B has
been constructed in Solidworks CAD design using the dimensions extracted from laser
scanned geometry of a sample weld. In this case, the weld is assumed to be defect free
with ideal exterior geometry and zero surface roughness (both assumptions apply to the
Type A weld). Figure 5-2 illustrates the finite element mesh of type B weld
incorporated in the analysis of the bending behaviour with high mesh concentration
throughout the collar edge where stress concentration and gradient are very high.
Similar to the approach described in Chapter 3 element sizing is based on related
sensitivity analysis. All other parameters including the track model, foundation stiffness
and the temperature settings are the same as Type A weld and summarized in Table 3-1.
Figure 5-2: Finite element mesh of the Type B weld with the collar edge of the upper foot magnified
at the bottom right figure
122
Based on the stress history obtained in the finite element analysis the Dang Van multi-
axial fatigue criterion is utilized to determine the critical locations in the new weld and
to evaluate the extent of effect induced by the collar edge geometric features (flank
angle and toe radius) of the two welds.
5.2 Residual Stress Distribution
Longitudinal and vertical residual stresses resulting from the Type B process has been
measured using the trepanning and strain gauging method similar to that applied to
Type A (Figure 5-3). The longitudinal residual stress features high compressive stresses
at the base region and tensile stress from top of the foot up to the underhead region
resembling the behaviour in Type A weld (Figure 4-9) although the tensile residual
stresses are slightly lower in the new weld. However, variable measurements are still
evident due to the limitations in the measurement technique and the variability of the
welding process. Result of the vertical residual stress measurements is less sporadic and
shows high tensile values at the mid web region with a similar range compared to those
observed in Type A weld. To incorporate the residual stresses in the multi-axial fatigue
analysis a piece-wise linear representation is used.
5.3 Performance in Tangent Tracks
The first comparison on the performance of the two collar designs is performed for the
case of a tangent track where the contact patch is located at the centerline of the rail
with no lateral or longitudinal tractions representing the free rolling condition. Figure 5-
4 shows the longitudinal bending stress for the two types of weld when the wheel load
is located at the centerline of the weld (exactly at the middle of the weld collar). Similar
to Type A weld, high stress concentration is visible throughout the collar edge of the
Type B weld with pronounced stresses at the base (due to the section bending
behaviour) and with lesser extent at the underhead region (tension spike resulting from
the rail head local bending). However, the magnitude of the stresses at the collar edge of
Type B weld is less pronounced than in Type A weld confirming lower stress
concentration for the weld type with larger toe radius and smaller flank angle.
123
Figure 5-3: Residual stress measurements using trepanning and strain gauge method (Mutton et al.
[43]) and the piece-wise linear model applied in fatigue analysis: (a) Longitudinal residual stress at
3 mm offset from the collar edge; and (b) Vertical residual stress measured on the surface of the
collar mid-web
124
(a) (b)
Figure 5-4: Longitudinal stress contour for a tangent track when the load is located at the
centerline of the weld: (a) Type A weld; and (b) Type B weld
Fatigue analysis is performed using the critical plane searching algorithm previously
described in Chapter 4. Figure 5-5 illustrates the DV damage parameter at the collar
edge from the base region up to the underhead determined on the most damaging plane
using Equation 4-4. The trend of damage parameter variation throughout the collar edge
is similar to that observed in Type A weld. Both welds experience lower damage
parameter at the base compared with the underhead despite the higher longitudinal
bending stress. In fact the beneficial effect of compressive residual stress at the base
region is also evident in the new Type B weld. The underhead region in both welds is
under a high tensile longitudinal residual stress and a tension spike associated to the rail
head bending behaviour and these two induce high damage values.
Nevertheless, it is apparent that the damage parameter at the collar edge of the Type B
weld is lower than that in Type A in most of the regions, particularly at the underhead
radius. This can be attributed to the better geometric features (lower flank angle and
larger toe radius) of the Type B weld and slightly lower longitudinal residual stress
developed in the welding process (Figure 5-3). In particular at the underhead region the
125
difference in the geometric features is very much evident (Figure 5-6). Type B weld
incorporates a widened collar at the underhead which has enabled a low flank angle and
a smoother transition of the rail-weld surfaces. For the standard gap weld, Type A has a
constant collar width of 40 mm whereas in Type B the collar width gradually increases
reaching a maximum width of about 55 mm. The collar design of the Type A weld at
the web region features a bulged geometry compared to the flatter shape of the Type B
and so induces higher stress concentration. Perhaps this is also influential in pronounced
reduction of damage at the mid web.
In any case no fatigue failures are predicted to initiate at the collar edge of a sound and
defect free weld of either types in a tangent track since the DV damage value does not
exceed the critical damage parameter ( CD b 235 " ). It is however assumed that the
fatigue characteristics of the two weld materials are the same.
Figure 5-5: DV damage parameter versus height above the rail foot at the collar edge of the two
weld types in a tangent track
126
Figure 5-6: Collar shape with the flank angle at the underhead region of the two weld types
The displacement of the contact patch under the effect of curving was described in
section 3.3 and it was mentioned that as the curve radius decreases the contact band
generally moves towards the gauge side and eventually flange contact occurs for very
sharp curves. In this section the effect of collar design on the fatigue performance is
studied as the contact patch is displaced towards the gauge side. A lateral displacement
of up to 25 mm from the rail centerline is considered for this purpose. Figure 5-7
illustrates the longitudinal stress contour for a contact patch located 25 mm from the rail
centerline above the weld collar with no lateral or longitudinal tractions. As expected
the stresses at the collar edge are less pronounced in Type B weld due to the different
geometric features of the collar edge.
Figure 5-8 shows the variation of longitudinal stress at the underhead region on a path
located 31 mm from the rail centerline with respect to the longitudinal distance from the
weld centerline for both cases of central and eccentric loadings. The wider gap between
the two tension spikes in the Type B weld compared to that of Type A weld is due to the
wider design of the collar at the underhead of the Type B (Figure 5-6). As expected, the
tension spikes in both welds are more severe in curved track (displaced contact patch)
than a tangent track due to the twisting moment applied to the rail section. However,
tension spikes in Type B weld are lower in both conditions due to the lower stress
concentration and mainly the more preferable flank angle and toe radius.
127
(a) (b)
Figure 5-7: Longitudinal stress contour on the gauge side for a curved track with contact patch
eccentricity of 25 mm with no tractions: (a) Type A weld; and (b) Type B weld
Figure 5-8: Variation of longitudinal stress at the underhead radius (at 31mm from rail centerline)
of the gauge side under central loading (tangent track) and eccentric load located 25mm from rail
centerline towards the gauge side
128
The results of the multi-axial fatigue analysis on the collar edge of both weld types are
depicted in Figure 5-9 for a contact patch located 25mm from the rail centerline towards
the gauge side. The graph exhibits the contribution of high cyclic tensile stress to the
increased damage value at the underhead region. The DV damage parameter at the
underhead radius of the Type A weld even exceeds the critical limit according to the
Dang Van criterion. However, the damage values for the Type B weld are less
pronounced and located in a safe margin provided that the weld material is sound and
defect free. For other regions of the collar edge DV damage values are expected to be
lower in Type B weld compared to those in Type A as a result of better geometric
design and slightly lower longitudinal residual stresses. However, it is important to
mention that the in-service weld performance largely depends on the extent by which
the as-built weld collar features and the roughness deviates from the ideal conditions
assumed in this study and also on the residual stresses observed in that specific weld.
Figure 5-9: DV damage parameter on the collar edge versus height above rail foot for a contact
patch located 25mm offset from rail centerline towards the gauge side
129
5.5 Contact Lateral Traction
Development of lateral tractions on the contact patch is another effect of steering in

curved tracks and hunting behaviour which was discussed in section 3.4. To study the
role of collar design under such conditions traction forces with coefficients (lateral to
vertical load ratio, L/V) ranging from zero (free rolling) to 0.4 were applied to the rail
head towards the field side of the rail. Figure 5-10 illustrates the longitudinal tensile
stress contour on the field side of the weld collar for a traction coefficient of 0.4 applied
on a contact patch located 15mm from the rail centerline towards the gauge side. The
contours show elevated tensile stresses at the underhead region and base of the weld
collar in both weld types which are due to the increased lateral bending moment and
torsion as the applied load inclines towards the field side. As mentioned in Chapter 3
the trend evident in the longitudinal stress data suggests that the underhead radius is
more sensitive to lateral traction than the base, although the magnitude of the
longitudinal stress is generally higher at the base region (Figure 5-11).
(a) (b)
Figure 5-10: Longitudinal stress contour at the field side of the weld for an eccentric load located 15
mm from the rail centerline with lateral traction coefficient of 0.4: (a) Type A; and (b) Type B
In any case the stress values obtained are less pronounced in Type B weld which
suggests lower stress concentration at the collar edge arising from the more preferable
collar edge geometric design.
130
Figure 5-11: Variation of longitudinal stress at the under head and base fillet of the two weld types
under different lateral traction coefficients
The results of the fatigue analysis at the collar edge of the field side are presented in
Figure 5-12 for both Type A and Type B welds for a lateral traction coefficient of 0.4.
The damage is severe at the underhead fillet due to the increased longitudinal and high
residual stresses at this location. The damage values are lower in Type B weld
compared to Type A for most of the collar regions which proves the favorable effect of
lower geometric complexities at the collar edge of Type B and the lower longitudinal
residual stress. While the state of fatigue at the underhead radius of the Type B weld is
still in the safe region, the damage parameter at the underhead of the Type A weld
exceeds the critical value, indicating that the fatigue failure is expected at this location.
However, a lower damage value is observed at the base fillet compared to the underhead
region since the state of the longitudinal residual stress is compressive. The effect of the
longitudinal traction on the fatigue behaviour of the weld collar edge was shown in
Chapter 4 to be insignificant for various traction values and hence is not considered for
the comparison of the two weld types. Summing up the effect of contact eccentricity
and the lateral traction, it can be shown that under the simulated conditions, the Type B
weld performs more preferably in curved tracks and tracks prone to vehicle hunting.
131
Figure 5-12: DV damage parameter at the collar edge of the two weld types for an eccentric load
located 15mm from the rail centerline with lateral traction coefficient of 0.4 towards the field side
5.6 Track Support Condition
As part of the comparison of the two weld geometric designs the performance of weld
in a deteriorated or ill-supported track is important since this condition occurs for a
majority of aluminothermic welds due to the running surface irregularities. In this study
the effect of ballast stiffness on the fatigue behaviour of the two welds is investigated
through altering the vertical and horizontal stiffness levels of the foundation underneath
the weld adjacent sleepers.
Figure 5-13 presents the results of the fatigue analysis on the collar edge for four
combinations of vertical and horizontal track stiffness levels in a tangent track. The DV
damage parameter increases dramatically at the base region of both AT welds and
reduces smoothly at the underhead when the sleepers loose support stiffness.
132
Figure 5-13: Damage parameter at the collar edge versus ballast vertical and horizontal stiffness
for a tangent track (a) Type A; and (b) Type B
133
This fatigue behaviour is attributed to an increase in the rail bending moment at the
weld location, which results in an increased tensile stress at the foot and more
compressive stress at the rail head. However, the damage parameter at the collar edge of
the Type B weld is less pronounced than that of the Type A weld due to the better
geometric features at the root of the collar edge. Even though the damage values are
below the critical limit, any dynamic event (high impact forces as a result of weld head
irregularities and poor support) may cause the stress state to move to fatigue region. A
comparison of Type A and Type B welds shows that the Type B weld has better
capacity to absorb such dynamic loading events. Also the Type B weld features head
alloying in which the hardness characteristic of the running surface is improved through
incorporating an alloy material locally at the rail head. This local hardening method
does not affect the ductility of the underhead regions which is particularly important in
fatigue behaviour of the weld material. The local hardening of the running surface in
Type B weld may be able to prevent or reduce cyclic plastic deformation at the rail
running surface and so reduce the battering phenomenon. Under such condition the
weld will experience lower impact forces and the damage induced in the track
foundation will diminish. Consequently, the bending behaviour of the rail is improved
and the longitudinal stress and the resulting damage parameter may be decreased.
5.7 Web Fatigue Behaviour
Horizontal split web (HSW) failures mostly occur in short-radius curves and tracks
prone to vehicle hunting. Under such conditions the contact patch is displaced towards
the gauge side of the rail imposing high vertical bending stresses on the web region of
the weld collar. The contribution of bending stress, vertical residual stress and the
presence of gross defects has been shown to facilitate the occurrence of fatigue or
overload failures in the web region [14]. In this study the fatigue behaviour of the two
weld types is investigated on the web collar surface for the case of an eccentric load
located 25mm from the rail centerline towards the gauge side with no tractive forces. In
this case, vertical residual stresses are implemented in the fatigue code through a
quadratic interpolation of the experimental data to better determine the effect of residual
stress variation along the centerline of the weld on the collar surface.
134
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 5-14: Vertical stress contour on the field side of the weld for an eccentric load located 25mm
from the rail centerline with no lateral traction: (a) Type A weld, (b) Type B weld; and (c) Section
view of the collar at the location of maximum bending stress and the effective bending moment
Figure 5-14a and 5-14b show the vertical bending stress contours at the field side of the
two welds. The contours show maximum tensile stress at the mid web of the Type A
weld and close to web-head fillet of the Type B weld. Vertical stress is also less
pronounced and more localized in Type A weld than Type B weld. The difference in the
location and magnitude of the maximum stress relates to the collar design of the web
region (the collar shapes shown in Figure 5-1). Type A weld features a reinforced collar
135
at the mid to upper web region (compared to Type B welds) which increases the second
moment of inertia and reduces the vertical bending stress in this area. However, less
stress localization is observed in the Type B weld collar since the collar surface is flatter
and the stresses are better distributed compared to the bulged collar design of the Type
A (Figure 5-14c).
Figure 5-15 depicts the variation of vertical stress along the web and the contribution of
the residual stress to the total vertical stress observed on the web region of the two weld
types. The effect of the reinforced collar design is noteworthy particularly at the upper
web region in which the total stresses differ by up to 125MPa (at 120 mm above the rail
foot) between the two weld types. For both weld types the vertical residual stress
variably increases the total vertical stress throughout the region.
Figure 5-15: Vertical stress versus height from rail base and the contribution of residual stresses
for an eccentric load located 25 mm from the rail centerline
136
The results of the multi-axial fatigue analysis on the web are presented in Figure 5-16.
The graph closely follows the trend of vertical bending stress, with residual stresses
having only a small effect. Maximum damage value in the Type B weld is around 17%
higher than in the Type A weld and occurs around 30 mm above the location of
maximum damage in the Type A weld. It may be concluded that the collar in Type B
weld is more sensitive to presence of defects in its critical location although it also
depends on the type of defect, its geometric features, size and the type of loading. A
separate study is necessary to determine the influence of defects in formation of
horizontal split webs and the performance of the two weld types. A relevant study is
performed and reported in Chapter 7 considering specific defect types using defect
surface fatigue analysis and linear elastic fracture mechanics. However, as the figure
suggests and also practically observed no fatigue failure develops on the smooth surface
of the web under a defect free condition.
Figure 5-16: DV damage parameter on the centerline of the web surface for an eccentric load
located 25 mm from the rail centerline
137
In this chapter multi-axial fatigue analysis was undertaken to compare the fatigue
behaviour of two AT weld types in order to evaluate the effect of geometric features and
operational conditions on fatigue damage at the edge of the weld collar and surface of
the web. The severity of fatigue damage under all the simulated loading conditions was
lower in Type B weld than in Type A weld, which was mainly due to the better
geometric features (lower flank angle and larger toe radius) and partly due to the lower
longitudinal residual stress. While fatigue crack initiation was expected at the underhead
region of the Type A weld under severe curving and hunting behaviour, Type B welds
remained safe provided that the weld material is defect free and the surface finish is
similar for the two processes. It was also concluded that the collar design of the web
region has a substantial effect on the bending and fatigue behaviour of the weld with
respect to HSW. However, for a defect-free weld no fatigue failure is expected under
normal heavy haul conditions.
The fatigue problem investigated so far primarily focused on crack formation in defect
free weld and idealized weld geometry. In the next two chapters effort is made to study
the straight break and horizontal split web formation under the influence of certain
welding defects using both multi-axial fatigue analysis and fracture mechanics.
138
CHAPTER 6 COLD LAP DEFECT
Previous analysis on the fatigue behaviour of the aluminothermic weld showed that the
underhead radius is a critical location for the initiation of straight break failures. In
particular, under harsh operational conditions such as negotiating short radius curves
and severe vehicle hunting where the contact patch is extensively displaced towards
either sides of the weld and high lateral traction emerges crack initiation is inevitable.
Practical observations are consistent to this fact since many of failure reports for the
specific weld type considered relate to straight breaks initiating at the underhead radius.
Nevertheless, failure reports also denote the top of the rail foot as one of the most
common straight break initiation sites in this type of weld. Straight breaks may initiate
at the collar edge or in its vicinity of one or both sides of the weld and develop in
vertical or near vertical direction until they lead to the final brittle fracture of the rail
section (Figure 6-1). However, multi-axial fatigue analysis reported in Chapter 4 was
unable to detect any severe condition at the upperfoot region in a defect free weld under
the simulated loading conditions. The longitudinal residual stress is high at the top of
the rail foot and the region occasionally experiences high cyclic longitudinal stresses.
However, since the cyclic component of the shear stress on the most damaging plane
(shear stress amplitude) is not high enough, the shear based failure according to the
Dang Van criterion seems improbable.
So, what is the main reason for possible straight break failure at the upperfoot and the
web base fillet? According to site observations and failure reports straight break failures
at the upperfoot have usually been accompanied with the presence of a specific welding
defect known as heavy flashing or cold lap. This defect has also been reported to be
responsible for many straight break failures at the foot regions for aluminothermic weld
types in other heavy haul systems overseas [17, 46]. In this chapter effort is made on
defining the role of cold lap in the formation of straight break at top of the rail foot
considering the effect of some cold lap geometric features and loading conditions.
139
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 6-1: Fatigue crack propagation at top of the rail foot underneath the associated cold lap
defects in three weld samples; arrows show the fatigue crack propagation regions [44, 152]
6.1 Cold Lap Defect
Cold lap is a condition which arises from the lack of sufficient melt back on the rail
ends subject to welding which eventually leads to lack of fusion between parts of the
weld block. Two different cases may be considered: (a) Finning or flashing (EN 14730-
1:2010 [10]) which occurs due to the lack of fitness between the mold and the rail end
surfaces. In this case the molten metal seeps out of the resulting gap and solidifies on
the rail surface forming an unfused fin (Figure 6-2a). The fin is fused to the rail surface
for part of its length beyond which the fusion does not take place due to the lack of melt
back or molten metal penetration into the rail ends. Accordingly, the apex of the
separation region also corresponds to the location of fusion boundary of the weld
section. (b) Cold lap which does not relate to the fitness of the mold. In fact, the mold
140
can be perfectly fit while the cold lap emerges. In this case because of the insufficient
heat input, the melt back length of the rail ends cannot extend beyond the edges of the
weld collar and so the separation takes place inside the collar (Figure 6-2b). In contrast
to the finning condition, cold laps may be invisible and the weld may seem
geometrically perfect. However, both these cases are referred to as cold lap due to the
nature of the defects which incorporate lack of fusion on the surface of the rail ends.
(a)
Lap Apex
(b)
Lap Apex
Figure 6-2: Section view from the top of the rail foot illustrating two types of cold lap defect: (a)
Leaking of weld material and formation of an unfused appendix (finning); and (b) Lack of fusion
on the rail surface inside collar boundaries (cold lap)
141
The problem with cold laps is the initiation of fatigue cracks from the apex or tip of the
defect where the two unfused surfaces meet and fuse to each other. In aluminothermic
welds, the crack extends in a vertical or near vertical direction into the weld (or rail)
section forming a straight break failure. As a matter of fact cold lap is not exclusive to
aluminothermic welding procedure and any type of welding or casting which
incorporates melting and fusion of a third welding agent to the parent components may
suffer from this defect. In particular, butt and T-joint arc weldments are susceptible for
the occurrence of cold laps [153-154]. Among the contributing factors in formation of
cold laps in aluminothermic welds are preheating duration, stick-out length of the rail
ends, flank angle of the collar, contamination on the rail surface, sealing of the mold,
dissimilarity in rail heights, cooling and solidification pattern.
6.2 Analysis of Cold Lap
Close examination of the cold lap defect shows that this planar defect is very similar to
a crack. The unfused surfaces of the rail and the lap act as the two faces of a crack and
the cold lap apex as the crack tip since it has an extremely small notch radius with very
high stress concentration. Accordingly, it is possible to investigate the effect of cold lap
on fatigue behaviour by replacing the defect by a pertinent planar crack. As explained in
Section 2.3.3 this standard procedure is widely used in damage tolerance investigations
when the defect features high stress concentration under which the fatigue failure is
governed by the non propagation of cracks emanating from the defect. Under this
assumption the formation or otherwise of a straight break from the tip of a cold lap
defect is mainly a fatigue crack propagation problem (Figure 6-3). This would be the
basis for the analysis of cold lap and the effect of its geometric features.
For this purpose, it is assumed that the behaviour of material in the vicinity of the crack
is predominantly elastic with only limited plasticity confined in the singularity
dominated region of the crack tip. In fact this is a true assumption considering the cast-
like nature of the process and the noticeably low ductility of the weld material compared
to that of the rail. In this case linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) approach can be
implemented to investigate the propagation of the presumed crack (cold lap defect).
142
Figure 6-3: The unfused surfaces of a cold lap and its apex may resemble the faces and tip of an
existing crack which can propagate under fatigue loading and form a straight break fracture
An advantage of the LEFM approach is the ability to characterize the crack tip condition
with one single parameter, stress intensity factor ( ) or the energy release rate (H) both
referred to as the driving forces of the crack. Either of these parameters can determine
whether the original crack will become destabilized under a static loading and lead to an
unconditional rupture. Under a fatigue loading (cyclic loading) the range of the stress
intensity factor variation or the stress intensity factor range (∆ ) can determine the
cyclic propagation of the presumed crack.
Only a limited number of structures and crack types have analytical solutions for the
calculation of stress intensity factors. For most of the practical and complex structures
and crack shapes numerical methods such as finite element (FE), boundary element
(BE) or mesh free methods should be used. Among special purpose packages to handle
crack analysis are ZENCRACK (FEM), BEASY (BEM) and FRANC2D, 3D (FEM).
Crack analysis may also be performed in general purpose packages such as ANSYS or
ABAQUS although a special post-processing and manipulation technique may be
necessary to achieve stress intensity factors. Some techniques are exclusive to LEFM
while others can be used for elastic-plastic and the dynamic fracture problems. Some of
the widely used numerical methods are the displacement extrapolation or the crack
opening displacement (COD) [155], force method [156], J-integral [157] and virtual
crack closure technique (VCCT) [158] which is utilized in this study.
143
6.2.1 Virtual Crack Closure Technique (VCCT)
Among different numerical methods to calculate mixed-mode stress intensity factors

and strain energy release rates from finite element simulation results, virtual or modified
crack closure technique (VCCT or MCCT) has gained popularity among researchers
and scientists due to its simplicity and applicability. The application of virtual crack
closure technique to finite element analysis was originally introduced by Rybicki and
Kanninen [159]. The method is based on the crack closure integral of Irwin [160] which
states that the energy released due to the extension of the crack by a very small length is
the same as the work required to close the crack back to its original length. Based on
this assumption the technique was initially implemented in a two-step form which is
+ ∆ (Figure 6-4) is equal to the

referred to as the crack closure technique (CCT). Accordingly, the energy released
during the extension of the crack from length to
energy required to close the same extension (∆ ) which is written in the following from
[158]:
1
∆3 b { 8Ã . ∆i8Ã c 9 . ∆i9 |
Ã Ã
2
(6-1)
Ã Ã
8 9
first step of the simulation when the crack tip is located at . ∆i8Ã and ∆i9Ã are the
where and are the shear and opening forces at point which are calculated at the
differences in shear and opening displacements of the two crack faces at point which
c ∆ ) and the crack tip is located at point g. In this case the forces necessary to
are obtained at the second simulation when the crack has been extended (from length
to
close the crack are the same forces available at the crack tip before extension (when the
crack is closed). The main problem with this technique is the requirement for simulating
two configurations of a crack (original and extended) to be able to calculate the stress
intensity factors of the crack tip.
The virtual crack closure technique (VCCT) enjoys the same assumption of the Irwin
c ∆ to c 2∆ does
crack closure algorithm furthermore it overcomes the two-step analysis requirement. In
not noticeably change the condition at the crack tip provided that ∆ is a small value.
this technique it is assumed that the extension of crack from
144
Accordingly, it is assumed that the displacements at node g when the crack tip is located
at node Œ are approximately the same as the displacements at node when the crack tip
is located at node g.
(a) (b)
Figure 6-4: Crack closure technique (CCT) using two step finite element simulations: (a) Step one,
original crack (separation forces are calculated at Ä); and (b) Step two, crack is grown and the
displacements at Ä are obtained
Under such assumption it is possible to obtain energy release rate for a specified crack
in one single simulation of the original crack using the separation forces at the crack tip
and the displacements behind the crack tip. In the case of the three dimensional cracks
where all the crack modes (I, II, III) are present VCCT can be formulated for both 8-
node and 20-node brick elements. For 8-node brick elements the separated energy
release rates (H , H and H ) for any point of the crack front can be obtained using
Equation set 6-2 [158].
1
H b 9 (i9
Ã
− i9Ã )
∗
2Å .
1
H b 8 (i8
Ã
− i8Ã )
∗
2Å .
(6-2)
1
H b (iÃ − iÃ )
∗
2Å .
is the opening force at node g. (iÃ − iÃ ),

∗
where 8, 9 are the shear forces and
(i8Ã − i8Ã ) and (i9Ã − i9Ã ) are the relative displacements of the two nodal points l and l*
∗ ∗
145
located on the two crack faces, ∆ is the element length in the crack front and is the
width of the elements adjacent to the crack front (Figure 6-5).
Figure 6-5: Virtual crack closure technique (VCCT or MCCT) for 8-node brick elements
However, there are some conditions to be met before the Equation set 6-2 can safely be
implemented without the need to apply any specific corrections:
• The element length (∆ ) in front of the crack tip and behind the crack tip should
be equal.
• The element width ( ) should remain constant along the crack front.
• For the case of an irregular crack front all the elements at the crack tip should be
perpendicular to the crack front.
• If the crack front is not straight a separate coordinate system should be used for
any node on the crack front and the displacements and forces at that node should
be calculated in the new coordinate system.
One of the VCCT advantages is the determination of separated energy release rates for
mixed mode cracks. Subsequently, the stress intensity factor at any point of the crack
146
front can be obtained for each crack loading mode from general LEFM equations
relating energy release rates with the associated stress intensity factors (Equations 6-3).
b ‡‰. H
b ‡‰. H (6-3)
b ‡2. H. H
where ‰ is equal to the modulus of elasticity (3) for plane stress condition and equal to
3/(1 − : 6 ) for plane strain stress state and Hand : are shear modulus and the Poisson’s
ratio respectively.
6.2.2 Mixed-Mode Fracture Criteria
In pure mode I the condition for fast fracture is to have the first mode stress intensity
factor above or equal to the fracture toughness of the material ( ≥ % ). In this case
the crack generally propagates in the direction where maintains its maximum value.
However, most of the engineering structures have multiple loading types imposed on
the crack or the crack is oriented in such a direction that two or three loading modes are
applied on the crack tip. Similar to the failure criteria (for example Tresca and von
Misses yield criteria) which introduce critical conditions for materials under multi-axial
loading, suitable criteria should be available to determine the critical conditions for the
mixed-mode loadings of cracks.
A number of fracture criteria have been proposed to determine when a presumed mixed-
mode crack becomes unstable and to what direction the crack propagates. Among well
known criteria are the ones introduced by Erdogan and Sih [161], Schöllmann [162],
Hussain at al. [163] and Richard [164]. Richard criterion is based on approximation
formulae and has shown to be numerically accurate and practically simple to apply. The
criterion has also proved to be in good agreement with the experiments and other
accurate criteria such as the Schöllmann maximum principal stress criterion [165-167].
Richard proposes an equivalent stress intensity factor which superposes the effect of all
147
loading modes. According to this criterion, unstable (fast) fracture occurs when
becomes equal to the fracture toughness of the material (Equation 6-4) [165]:
b
1 6
c ’ c 4 O4 6 c 4 O6 6 b % (6-4)
2 2
Where O4 b %/ %, O6 b %/ % and % and % are the critical stress intensity

factors for mode II and III shear loading respectively. By considering the values of
O4 b 1.155 and O6 b 1.0 the Equation 6-4 is in perfect agreement with the equivalent
intensity factor determined by Schöllmann [165]. Richard also proposes two functions
for the determination of crack growth angles (kinking angle) and (Figure 6-6):
6
| | | |
r b ∓ È- c¡… † É (6-5)
c| |c| | c| |c| |
where r is negative for positive values of and positive for negative values of
and when b 0.
6
| | | |
r b ∓ ÈÊ cË… † É (6-6)
c| |c| | c| |c| |
where r is negative for positive values of and positive for negative values of
and when b 0.
Figure 6-6: Crack deflection angles ÌÍ and ÎÍ for mixed-mode crack problem [166]
148
Considering - b 140° , ¡ b −70° , Ê b 78° and Ë b −33° the Equations 6-5 and 6-6
are in good agreement with the direction angles derived by Schöllmann [165].
∆ exceeds the threshold stress intensity factor range ∆

Under fatigue loading, single mode I crack propagates if the stress intensity factor range
, which is a property of the
material. According to Richard criterion, in mixed-mode cyclic loading the propagation
factor range ∆ (Equation 6-7) with the threshold value ∆

or otherwise of the crack can be predicted by comparing the equivalent stress intensity
, . However, fast fracture
is still governed by the maximum value of the equivalent stress intensity factor in
comparison with the fracture toughness of the material ( % ).
∆ 1
∆ b c ’∆ 6
c 4(O4 ∆ )6 c 4(O6 ∆ )6
2 2
(6-7)
6.2.3 Local Stress Intensity Factors
Cracks usually propagate and kink in a direction where the resistance is the lowest or
the driving force has the maximum value. The stress intensity factors at the tip of an
infinitesimal kink just emanated from the crack are different from those of the original
crack tip and depend on the direction of the prospective kink (Figure 6-7). For the case
of a plane mixed-mode crack the local stress intensity factors are obtained using the
following relations [168]:
(O) b Ê44 c Ê46
(O) b Ê64 c Ê66

(6-8)
(O) and (O) are the stress intensity factors at the kink tip and
the stress intensity factors at the original crack tip. Ê44 , Ê46 , Ê64 and Ê66 are obtained
Where and are
using the following relations:
3 O 1 3O
Ê44 b cos » ¼ c cos ” •
4 2 4 2
(6-9)
149
3 O 3O
Ê46 b − Àsin » ¼ + sin ” •Á
4 2 2
1 O 3O
Ê64 b Àsin » ¼ + sin ” •Á
4 2 2
1 O 3 3O
Ê66 b cos » ¼ + cos ” •
4 2 4 2
Figure 6-7: Kinking at a crack tip and the local stress intensity factors (a) Original crack; and (b)
Crack with a kink at the tip
The local stress intensity factors may be used to determine the variation of energy
release rate with respect to the kink angle and to predict the direction of crack
propagation using the maximum energy release rate criterion [163].
6.2.4 Cold Lap Finite Element Model
The modeling of the cold lap as a planar crack is performed in the general finite element
package ANSYS 12.0 as was used for the previous investigations. For the sake of
simplicity the presence of cold lap on the top of the rail foot is modelled as a rectangular
parallelepiped appendix with specific dimensions depicted on Figure 6-8. Lap thickness,
unfused length (extension of lap from its tip), width and the edge offset (distance
between collar edge and the lap tip) are variable and related sensitivity analyses are
performed later in the chapter to determine the influence of the geometric features on
the behaviour of cold lap.
As previously explained in section 6.2.1, to determine the stress intensity factors at the
crack front (lap tip) separation forces comprising the opening and shear forces of the
nodes lying on the crack front should be extracted. For this purpose the interaction
between the cold lap surface and the rail surface is modelled as a contact boundary
150
condition (a feature of the software package). For the unfused region, a frictional
contact with a coefficient of 0.3 is defined between the two surfaces (crack faces).
However, it is worth noting that as will be seen later the crack is generally open during
the whole stress cycle and the closure phenomenon never occurs and the variation of the
friction coefficient has virtually no effect on the growth characteristics. For the rest of
the interaction (where the lap is fully fused to the rail surface) a bonded contact is
introduced which virtually bonds the two surfaces into one body. The benefit of this
method is that the separation forces can be obtained from the bonded contact reaction
forces (as a post-processing feature) at the crack front.
Figure 6-8: Cold lap model as a simple rectangular parallelepiped and its geometric features
To investigate whether fatigue crack propagates from the lap tip, the equivalent stress
intensity factor range (∆ ) is required and to extract this parameter the simulation of
at least one load cycle is necessary. To achieve this, the same approach as the one
proposed in Chapter 3 for the wheel passage is used where the rail-wheel contact load
moves from one end to the other end of the track by sequentially moving the load from
one patch to the adjacent patch (Figure 3-6). Thereby, for each load step the force and
displacements at the crack tip are extracted and the stress intensity factors are calculated
through VCCT. The variation of stress intensity factors during the load passage will
determine the stress intensity factor range for the associated crack loading mode and
then the equivalent stress intensity factor range is extracted through Richard’s criterion.
151
The finite element mesh applied to the weld and rail sections are similar to the ones
used in Chapter 3 with 8-node brick elements for the rail and sleepers and 10-node
tetrahedral elements for the weld region. However, no mesh refinement is used at the
collar edge of the weld since the stresses at these regions are not of interest in this study
and also the computational time is enhanced substantially. For the lap region cubic 8-
node brick elements are applied with special refinement at the crack tip. A small block
of highly refined mesh is used at the crack tip featuring equal element widths and
lengths and perpendicularity to the crack front (Figure 6-9). These conditions guarantee
the safe application of the VCCT.
Figure 6-9: Finite element mesh and the refined block at the crack tip
152
All the model parameters including the loading, seasonal and reference temperatures,
boundary conditions and the track foundation levels are similar to the main model
introduced in Chapters 3 and 4. However, in this analysis the effect of rail running
surface irregularity is introduced into the model through a contact load magnification
factor of 1.3 applied directly to the contact patch located exactly above the weld region.
This magnification factor is the average impact factor which aluminothermic welds
usually experience during normal operation and varies from 1.1 to about 1.5 (Figure 2-
5). As mentioned in Chapter 4 the longitudinal residual stress at the location of cold lap
may vary between 100 to 300 MPa depending on the welding procedure and the thermal
conditions. In this study the average value of 200 MPa is considered for fracture
analysis. As Figure 4-9 suggests the vertical residual stress at this location is zero. Table
6-1 summarizes important simulation parameters and the lap dimensions used
throughout this chapter. Any deviation from the values mentioned will be advised in the
related section.
Table 6-1: Summary of the finite element model parameters
Track length (mm) 3237 Lap thickness (mm) 2
Axle load (kN) 343.4 Lap width (mm) 20
Reference temperature (oC) 35 Edge offset (mm) 5
Simulation temperature (oC) 19 Unfused length (mm) 5
6.2.5 Element Size of the Crack Tip
The main condition in the VCCT is the assumption that the growth of the crack by the
size of an element (∆ ) does not noticeably change the condition at the crack tip.
Accordingly, the size of the element used in the crack tip block should be small enough
to satisfy such assumption. However, very small element size should also be avoided to
limit the increase in simulation time and maintain the solution efficiency. A sensitivity
analysis is performed on the element size (length and width are equal) of the crack tip to
evaluate the optimum size. Table 6-2 presents the stress intensity factors of the crack tip
at the middle of the lap versus the element sizing when the load is located exactly at the
centreline of the rail and weld representing free rolling in a tangent track.
153
Table 6-2: Crack tip stress intensity factors versus the element size at the crack tip block
Element Size (m) ÑÒ (ÓW√X) ÑÒÒ (ÓW√X) ÑÒÒÒ (ÓW√X)
0.0001 6141493 6774717 506939
0.00025 6146586 6787869 507147
0.0005 6205724 6790984 508060
0.001 6709883 6791567 516342
As the table suggests all the element sizes perform well with low deviation (less than
2%) in determining the mode ÔÔ and mode ÔÔÔ stress intensity factors. For mode Ô except
the 1mm element which has a high error (about 8.5% with respect to the smallest
element) all the other three sizes are in good correlation. In fact, the stress intensity
factors obtained with the 0.25 mm element show negligible difference with those of the
0.1 mm element while the larger element results in a better computational efficiency.
The simulation of a full loading cycle with 0.25 mm element takes 3.1 hours compared
to 4.2 hours with 0.1 mm element in a 3.2 GHz Quad core Xeon CPU. Accordingly, the
0.25 mm element size is adopted for the analysis of cold lap throughout this study.
6.3 Influence of Cold Lap on Fatigue Behaviour
Initial analysis is performed on a cold lap located at the top of the rail foot under a
tangent track operation where the contact patch is located at the centerline of the rail
with no lateral and longitudinal tractions. Figure 6-10 illustrates the equivalent stress
contour on the lap and the surrounding region when the wheel load is located exactly at
the centerline of the weld. As the figure suggests, the crack mouth opens under the
applied load and high stress concentration emerges at the crack tip. In fact the reason for
the opening of the crack is the load applied to the left surface or the bearing surface of
the lap from the weld collar. This load results from the bending stresses at the top of the
weld foot as well as the longitudinal residual and seasonal-dependent tensile stresses.
However, the lap itself (depicted by an ellipse) is not subject to any significant stresses
since no external load or support exists on the other three surfaces of the lap (top side,
bottom side and the right side) and so it lacks the ability to transfer any load.
154
It is worth mentioning that the crack tip stresses in LEFM are theoretically infinite and a
singularity exists at the tip. However, the stress values predicted by finite element
method with the VCCT meshing pattern are limited since no singular element is used in
this method. The absence of singular elements in VCCT is an advantage and it does not
affect the accuracy of the stress intensity factors derived in this technique.
Figure 6-10: Equivalent (von Mises) stress in the cold lap region under a central load (tangent
track) and the lap cross section showing crack mouth opening
As mentioned in the VCCT, the stress intensity factors are calculated from the forces
between the two nodes in contact at the crack tip and the opening displacements of the
nodes behind the crack tip. Figure 6-11 illustrates the variation of stress intensity factors
at the centre of the lap in the three loading modes when the wheel load passes over the
rail running surface. As the figure shows the values of the stress intensity factors in
opening ( ) and the sliding ( ) modes are much higher than the out of plane tearing
( ) mode suggesting that the propagation of the cold lap defect is mainly driven by
the in-plane opening and shear forces. The stress intensity factors of the two prominent
155
fracture modes start and end at a fixed value rather than zero. This is due to the presence
of constant longitudinal residual and seasonal-induced thermal stresses during the load
cycle. The maximum stress intensity factors in the two in-plane modes correspond to
the position of the wheel at the centreline of the weld and the distinguished peak at this
point refers to the load amplification factor applied at this region.
Figure 6-11: Variation of stress intensity factors and the resulting stress intensity factor ranges at
the middle point of the cold lap during one wheel passage (loading cycle)
). Based on Richard’s criterion, ∆

As mentioned in Section 6-2-2 crack propagation is governed by the value of the
equivalent stress intensity factor range (∆ is
(∆ , ∆ ,∆
written as a function of the stress intensity factor ranges in the three loading modes
, Equation 6-7). According to the corresponding values depicted in
Figure 6-11, the equivalent stress intensity factor range is obtained as 3.01 MPa√m. The
threshold stress intensity factor range (∆ , ) or the critical limit for the propagation of a
crack under fatigue loading is a material characteristic and is obtained using cyclic
loading of notched specimens extracted from the parent material. However, this value
also depends on the applied stress ratio (). ) which is the ratio of the minimum stress
156
8)
loading cycle. The correct measurement of ∆

intensity factor ( ) to the maximum stress intensity factor ( during one
, for aluminothermic weld is quite
difficult due to the variability of material characteristics as well as microstructure and
the defect content throughout the weld section and between different weld samples. The
problem becomes more complex and even impossible to solve when the measurements
need to be performed on the material properties of the cold lap tip region. The cold lap
tip is located on the fusion boundary of the weld (the border of the fusion and heat
affected zones) where the material properties may change drastically across the border.
In addition, material sampling at this narrow band for the purpose of fatigue testing
seems unfeasible.
Dudley et al. [52] made limited experiments on fracture properties of aluminothermic

weld at the web region for the purpose of determining damage tolerance with respect to
the web defects. According to his measurements, the threshold stress intensity factor
range can be written as a function of stress ratio (). ) in the following form:
∆ }
, b∆ r
, (1 − ). )• (6-10)
where ∆ r
, is the threshold stress intensity factor range at ). b 0 and = is a material
constant. Based on the measurements ∆ r
, and = are derived at 10.4 MPa√m and 0.62
respectively. Although, the location of measurements are different from the cold lap
region the values estimated using Equation 6-10 are used for the purpose of crack
propagation from the lap tip. The stress ratio obtained under the simulated conditions is
about 0.75 calculated using the values in Figure 6-11. The high value of the stress ratio
results from the large contribution of the longitudinal residual stress and the seasonal-
b 3.01) and the

induced thermal stress. The corresponding threshold stress intensity factor range is
b 4.4) it can be concluded that the crack may not propagate from
estimated at 4.4 MPa√m. Comparing the simulated condition (∆
the tip of the cold lap under the simulated conditions. However, ∆
threshold value (∆
, is sensitive to the
stress ratio and the stress ratio is also a function of the constant stress components of
the ambient temperature the stress ratio increases and ∆

residual and thermal stresses. By increasing the longitudinal residual stress or reducing
, decreases. In a simple
157
values) ). exceeds 0.8 and ∆
example if the longitudinal residual stress reaches 300 MPa (upper limit of measured
, drops to 3.8. On the other hand, the crack tip is a
suitable location for the congestion of defects including contaminations of the rail
surface and porosities entrapped at the crack tip as well as on the contact of the lap and
rail surfaces. The presence of defects inevitably reduces the threshold stress intensity
factor range and increases the risk of crack propagation. Fracture reports suggest that
many of the straight breaks initiate from cold laps having entrapped porosity at the tip.
Since the lap tip is located on the fusion boundary, it may also be suitable to consider
the threshold stress intensity factor range of the rail steel (However, the HAZ material
et al. [61] for very high Rs-ratios (0.7-0.9) the value of ∆ b 2 "
fracture toughness may be different from that of the parent rail). According to Skyttebol
, √€ may be used
for rail steel. In this case the equivalent intensity factor range of the current problem
∆ = 3.01 is beyond the threshold value and the crack will propagate from the lap
tip. However, the correct value of ∆ , at the crack tip may considerably vary
according to the loading ratio, defect content and the welding procedure and conditions.
Under the assumption of crack propagation it is important to determine the angle of

kinking or crack initial growth. Several criteria are available for the estimation of crack
growth among which the Richard’s criterion was mentioned earlier. According to
Richard’s criterion the predicted kink angle for the current simulation parameters is
about -53o which is obtained through Equation 6-5. For the sake of comparison, two
other criteria are explained and used for kink angle determination. According to the
maximum circumferential tensile stress criterion [161], the crack propagates in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of maximum tensile stress. The kink angle can then be
obtained using the following relation:
3 6
+ ‡ 6+8 6
= − cos <4 È É
+9 6
r 6 (6-11)
The kink angle predicted by this criterion for the current analysis is about -55o. Another
widely used criterion is the maximum energy release rate (MERR) proposed by Hussain
158
et al. [163]. According to this criterion the crack propagates in the direction where the
strain energy release rate H( ) achieves its maximum value:
ÕH( ) Õ 6 H( )
b 0 , < 0
Õ Õ 6
(6-11)
Figure 6-12 illustrates the variation of energy release rate versus the direction of
kinking. The kink angle corresponding to the maximum energy release rate is about -55o
similar to the one proposed by the maximum circumferential tensile stress criterion.
Figure 6-12: Variation of energy release rate (G) with respect to the kink angle. Maximum energy
release rate corresponds to the kink angle of 55o
As previously mentioned, the stress intensity factors at the kink tip are different from
those of the original crack tip and depend on the kink angle. Figure 6-13 illustrates the
variation of stress intensity factor ranges versus prospective kink angle. The kink angles
the predictions are consistent to the kink angle which provides the highest ∆
predicted by the three criteria are also depicted in the figure. It is important to note that
∆
and zero
. In fact, the crack propagates in such way that the mode II propagation changes
into mode I. The kink angle may change further during the propagation phase in order
to maintain the mode I growth. The propagation of straight break in real life is also
159
subject to the same condition since it eventually propagates in vertical direction where
the crack opening mode I achieves the maximum value.
angle. Note that the kink angle predicted using different criteria is consistent to the maximum ∆ÑÒ
Figure 6-13: Variation of stress intensity factor range at the tip of a kink with respect to the kink
6.3.1 Sensitivity to Lap Thickness
Depending on the size of gap between the mold and the rail surface and the extent of
dissimilarity in rail heights, the thickness of the produced cold lap may vary. It is
important to determine the effect of lap thickness in order to gain an insight into the
damage tolerance of AT weld. For this purpose a range of thickness values between 1
mm to 3 mm is considered while other geometric parameters of the lap are kept
unchanged. Figure 6-14 illustrates the variation of stress intensity factors at the middle
point of the lap for two lap thickness of 1 mm and 3 mm during one load cycle. For both
loading modes I and II the stress intensity factors increase dramatically with the
thickening of the lap. In fact as the lap enlarges, the forces are better transferred from
the collar to the bearing surface of the lap and the crack opening and sliding increase.
Similarly, the stress intensity factor ranges for both prominent modes rise with an
160
increase in the lap thickness. It is also apparent in Figure 6-14 that the mode I stress
intensity factor values for the thicker lap are much closer to those of the mode II and it
suggests that higher vertical forces (opening forces) are applied to the lap. However, the
effect is very limited on the mode III tearing and this mode does not play an important
role in the propagation of the crack.
Figure 6-14: Variation of stress intensity factors and the resulting stress intensity factor ranges at
the middle point of the cold lap for two lap thickness values
Figure 6-15 depicts the variation of equivalent stress intensity factor range (∆ )
increase in ∆
obtained by Equation 6-7 with respect to different lap thickness values. A dramatic
is evident with respect to the cold lap thickens and it suggests that the
risk of crack propagation from the lap tip rises for thicker laps. Ross [45] has also
reported high dependence of stress concentration at the lap apex on the lap thickness
based on a simplified analytical model.
The two threshold stress intensity factor ranges mentioned earlier for the weld web
region and the rail steel are also illustrated in the figure by the two dashed lines. For all
161
the thickness values considered ∆ is beyond the steel threshold limit of 2 MPa√m
and it may imply the risk of crack propagation for all the thickness values considered.
However, even for the thickest lap the equivalent stress intensity factor range is still
below the threshold limit of the weld material measured at the web region (4.4 MPa√m)
and it may suggest a safe operation. Nevertheless, as previously mentioned there are
many uncertainties at the lap region which may affect the threshold values as well as the
risk of crack development. Based on the experimental data reported by Lawrence et al.
[46] even a 1 mm lap can reduce fatigue life of the weldment by 80%.
Figure 6-15: Equivalent stress intensity factor range at the middle point of the lap versus the cold
lap thickness. The two threshold values are included in the figure
6.3.2 Sensitivity to Lap Unfused Length and Width
A sensitivity analysis is performed on two geometric features of the lap, unfused length
and lap width. The unfused length refers to the extension of the leaked material beyond
6-16 illustrates the variation of ∆

the fusion boundary of the weld and in a way it may represent the crack length. Figure
with respect to the unfused length ranging from 2
mm to 12 mm. The influence of the lap length is quite limited with only a slight
162
decrease of ∆ for the unfused length of 2 mm to 8 mm and lack of sensitivity to
increase of length beyond 8 mm. In fact, the load transferred to the lap by the weld
collar only affects a small portion of the lap at the vicinity of the lap tip and the rest of
the lap length does not support any load. In this case the unfused length should not be
referred to as the crack length since most of the lap length has no role on opening or
sliding of the crack mouth. The insensitivity of the cold lap fatigue behaviour to its
length has also been reported in the analytical work by Ross [45].
Figure 6-16: Equivalent stress intensity factor range at the middle point of the lap with respect to
lap unfused length
variation of ∆
The sensitivity analysis on the lap width leads to similar results. Figure 6-17 depicts the
for different width values ranging from 5 mm to 30 mm. Figure shows
a slight decrease of the equivalent stress intensity factor range from about 3.2 MPa√m
for a 5 mm lap down to 3 MPa√m for a 30 mm lap. Insensitivity to the lap width is also
observed for laps with widths beyond 20 mm. Nevertheless, the increase in the width of
the lap may result in higher probability for the entrapment of contamination, defects and
in ∆
porosities at the lap tip along its long width. This eventually leads to an abrupt decrease
, values of the local material and the higher probability of crack propagation.
163
Figure 6-17: Equivalent stress intensity factor range at the middle point of the lap with respect to
lap width
6.3.3 Sensitivity to Edge Offset
As described in Section 6-1 according to the heat input, rail stick-out length and other
welding parameters the fusion boundary of the weld may either form inside or outside
of the weld collar. Since the location of the lap apex coincides with that of the fusion
boundary, the lap tip can also emerge in or out of the collar forming one of the two
cases depicted in Figure 6-2. It is important to determine the effect of lap tip location
(distance of the lap tip from the collar edge) on the fatigue behaviour of the crack. This
sensitivity analysis is performed for a range of distances from -5 mm (representing an
internal lap tip located 5 mm from the collar edge) to +10 mm (external lap tip located
10 mm from the collar edge). Lap thickness is set to 2 mm and the width to 20 mm.
Figure 6-18 illustrates the variation of stress intensity factor ranges in all three loading
tip locations. As the figure suggests ∆

modes as well as the equivalent stress intensity factor range with respect to different lap
dramatically increases with the lap tip
approaching the collar edge from outside the weld collar. An increase of more than 40%
is evident for the lap tip located at the collar edge compared to a tip having 10 mm
distance from the edge. Moving the lap apex from the collar edge location inward (into
164
the weld collar) causes a slight relief of ∆
decrease of about 4%. The crack tip located on the collar edge has the highest ∆
from about 3.74 to 3.58 MPa√m, a
suggesting the highest risk of crack propagation for such laps. This may be attributed to
the high stress concentration at the collar edge which affects the loading of the crack at
its tip. The figure also suggests that laps with apexes located out of the collar (when the
fusion zone is wide and the fusion boundaries are far from the collar edge) are safer for
the operation than those in the inside.
the current findings. The trend of ∆ which prominently governs the value of ∆
The variation of separated stress intensity factor ranges provides some explanation for
particularly from the inside of the collar. However, the variation of ∆

through Equation 6-7 shows a great increase for the lap tip approaching the collar edge
tips at the left side of the collar edge is not as severe as ∆

for the crack
∆
due to the adverse trend of
. In fact, for crack tips located inside the collar the in-plane tearing or sliding mode
is the governing factor for crack propagation.
Figure 6-18: Variation of stress intensity factor ranges and the equivalent parameter with respect
to the distance of the lap tip from the collar edge. Negative values relate to lap tips inside the collar
while positive values imply lap tips located outside
165
6.3.4 Contact Patch Displacement and Lateral Traction
Among important parameters to investigate is the fatigue behaviour of cold laps in

curved tracks or tangent tracks prone to vehicle hunting. It was earlier described that the
effect could be simulated by two distinct representative conditions; contact patch lateral
displacement and lateral tractions with various ratio of the lateral load to vertical load.
In this study cold lap on both field and gauge sides of the weld is considered and the
traction is deemed to be inwards as well as outwards.
Contact patch lateral displacement is considered for a patch moving from the centerline
of the weld to 25 mm distant from the centerline towards the gauge side. Figure 6-19
illustrates the variation of separated stress intensity factor ranges as well as the
equivalent value at the middle point of the lap located on the gauge side (left side of the
graph) and the field side (right side of the graph).
Figure 6-19: Variation of separated stress intensity factor ranges as well as the equivalent value
with respect to the contact patch eccentricity from the centerline towards the gauge side for the lap
located on the field and gauge side of the weld
166
evident. The value of ∆
A linear trend for all the crack modes and the equivalent stress intensity factor range is
increases dramatically as the patch makes distance from the
increase of in-plane opening and sliding driving forces; ∆ and ∆

weld centreline for the laps located on the field side. This is in fact due to the linear
respectively. For
contact patch towards the gauge side ∆ , ∆ and ∆

the laps located on the gauge side an opposite behaviour is observed. By moving the
decrease linearly. The most
critical condition (∆ b 3.74 " √€) is observed for a lap located on the field side
when the patch is displaced 25 mm from the centreline and the least critical condition
(∆ = 2.31 " √€) for a patch located on the gauge side with the same eccentricity
of the loading. This suggests that the highest driving forces are applied to the laps on the
field side. However, the contact patch eccentricity has virtually no effect on the out of
plane tearing mode and ∆ maintains a constant value.
Similar to the approach in the load eccentricity the effect of lateral traction is considered
for laps on both field and gauge sides. Lateral traction coefficients of 0 to 0.4 is applied
on a contact patch located 15 mm from the weld centreline towards the gauge side and
both inwards (towards the gauge side) and outwards (towards the field side) directions
are incorporated in the model. Figure 6-20 depicts the variation of separated stress
intensity factor ranges and the equivalent value at the midpoint of the lap located on the
field side of the weld for different load ratios. The figure generally shows a near linear
dramatic increase in ∆ when the total applied load is inclined more towards the
gauge side. From traction coefficient of 0.2 to -0.4 the value of ∆ changes from 3.19
to 4.38 MPa√m which is a 37% increase. This value is also very close to the threshold
reported for the weld material sampled form the web region (∆ , = 4.4 MPa√m). The
main reason for this notable increase is the linear growth of ∆ and ∆ which is
consistent to the variation of longitudinal stress at the top of the foot previously
depicted in Figure 3-31. For traction coefficients of 0.2 to 0.4 (towards the field side) a
slight increase in ∆ is observed mainly attributed to the dramatic growth of ∆
while ∆ and ∆ maintain a near constant value. At traction ratio of 0.4 all the crack
loading modes (I, II, III) have comparable stress intensity factor range values suggesting
a multi-axial crack loading.
167
Figure 6-20: Variation of ∆ÑÒ , ∆ÑÒÒ , ∆ÑÒÒÒ and ∆Ñ×Ø with respect to lateral traction coefficient of
both inward and outward directions for a lap located on the field side of the weld
Figure 6-21: Variation of ∆ÑÒ , ∆ÑÒÒ , ∆ÑÒÒÒ and ∆Ñ×Ø with respect to lateral traction coefficient of
both inward and outward directions for a lap located on the gauge side of the weld
168
Figure 6-21 illustrates the same parameters for the lap located on the gauge side of the
in ∆
weld. In contrast to the trend observed in the previous section, the main increasing trend
location of lap). From traction coefficient of -0.1 to 0.4 ∆

relates to the tractions more inclined towards the field side (opposite to the
varies between 2.51 to
increase of ∆ and ∆
3.44 MPa√m, an increase of 37%. Similarly, this trend is mainly attributed to the linear
longitudinal stress depicted in Figure 3-31. Although, the values of ∆ and ∆

which is also consistent to the increasing trend of the
notably change for inward traction ratios of -0.1 to -0.4 a slight increase of ∆
do not
observed which is related to the increasing trend of ∆

is
. For high inward tractions (-
0.3 to -0.4) all the crack loading modes have similar values of stress intensity factor
range implying a multi-axial crack loading.
Summing up the sensitivity analysis on the patch eccentricity and tractions it can be
concluded that the laps on the field side of the weld are under a more critical condition
than those on the gauge side with similar loading scenarios. The most damaging loading
is attributed to the extensive contact patch eccentricity with high lateral tractions which
are inclined towards the rail side which is opposite to the side of the lap.
6.3.5 Track Support
Degradation of ballast and lack of consistent track support in the vicinity of AT welds
was shown to reduce the fatigue performance of the base region using multi-axial
fatigue analysis. In this section the effect of track support on the fatigue behaviour of
cold lap is investigated through the variation of ballast stiffness supporting the two weld
adjacent sleepers.
Figure 6-22 illustrates the variation of ∆ , ∆ ,∆ and ∆ with respect to the
stiffness due to the degradation increases the value of ∆

ballast vertical stiffness in a tangent track. As the figure suggests the reduction of ballast
which indeed increases the
chance of crack propagation from the lap tip. This is consistent with the trend of the
longitudinal stress depicted in Figure 3-33. The higher bending moment and the
longitudinal stresses in ill-supported track results in the higher in-plane opening (∆ )
169
and shear (∆ ) driving forces and consequently larger ∆ values. However, as
expected the out of plane tearing mode is not affected by the condition of track support
since no related loading scenario is altered.
Figure 6-22: Variation of ∆ÑÒ , ∆ÑÒÒ , ∆ÑÒÒÒ and ∆Ñ×Ø with respect to ballast vertical stiffness in a
tangent track (central loading)
6.3.6 Crack Kinking
It was assumed throughout the study that the lap apex (crack front) is free from any type
of defect or impurities. However, in some instances the material at the tip of the lap
defects can lead to the reduction of ∆

contains traces of casting defects such as pores or contamination. The presence of
, and possible formation of a kink (small crack
effect on the crack loading and the final value of ∆

extension) at the lap tip. The formed kink may or may not propagate according to its
at the tip of the kink. In this
section, the effect of a presumed kink and its initial length on the fatigue behaviour of
the original lap is of interest. The direction of the kink considered in this study is set to
55o which is the crack propagation angle predicted by Richard’s or the similar criteria
such as the maximum circumferential stress.
170
Figure 6-23 presents the variation of separated stress intensity factor ranges at the tip of
a presumed kink for kink lengths varying from 0.5 mm to 3 mm. Since the kink
load applied on the crack faces is the opening force. Accordingly, the value of ∆
direction corresponds to the plane of the maximum circumferential stress the largest
an absolute prominence over the in-plane sliding mode ∆

has
parameter governing the equivalent stress intensity factor range ∆

and so it is the main
trend of ∆ and consequently ∆

. As expected the
shows a notable increase with the extension of the
value of ∆
kink. An increase of the kink length from 0.5 mm to 3 mm leads to a 56% rise in the
from 5.02 to 7.82 MPa√m.
lap. Even a very short 0.5 mm kink can increase ∆

The important finding is the substantial effect of kinking on the fatigue behaviour of the
from 3.01 MPa√m (at the original
crack tip) to 5.02 MPa√m which is beyond the threshold value of the weld sample
material (4.4 MPa√m). This can be considered a good indication for the strong effect of
casting defects on the initiation of fatigue failures from the tip of cold laps.
Figure 6-23: Variation of ∆ÑÒ , ∆ÑÒÒ , ∆ÑÒÒÒ and ∆Ñ×Ø at the tip of an existing kink with respect to
the kink length
171
Site observations support the idea since the majority of failures associated with the cold
lap defect relate to entrapment of pores at its apex. Figure 6-24 illustrates a straight
break failure at the top of the rail foot underneath a cold lap defect. Straight break has
initiated from the apex of the lap where large area of porosity is evident.
Cold Lap
Porosity
Figure 6-24: Straight break at the top of the rail foot associated with a cold lap defect with high
content of porosity at its apex [169]
In this chapter the formation of straight break under the influence of cold lap defect
located at the top of the rail foot was investigated through modelling the defect as an
equivalent planar crack and the utilisation of linear elastic fracture mechanics. It was
shown that the equivalent stress intensity factor range can reach the threshold value
geometric features revealed that the lap thickness has a great effect on ∆
suggesting possible crack initiation from the apex of the cold lap. The study on the lap
. In fact
thicker laps are more influential in the formation of straight breaks. It was also shown
that as the fusion boundary or the lap apex moves further from the collar edge the
possibility of crack initiation is reduced. According to the analysis of the contact
conditions cold laps on the field side are more damaging than those on the gauge side.
Inward (towards the gauge side) tractions also apply high driving forces on the field-
side located laps whereas outward tractions are effective on the laps located on the
gauge-side of the rail.
172
CHAPTER 7 TOLERANCE TO WEB DEFECTS
Practical observations show that the occurrence of horizontal split web failures in
aluminothermic welds is mainly attributed to the presence of large surface or near-
surface defects at the web region of the weld collar. High vertical service and residual
stresses usually play an important role in developing fatigue or overload failures at the
surface of these large defects. Hence, it is crucial to characterize the sensitivity of the
collar web design to different defect geometries and sizes and determine a collar
geometry having the highest tolerance to casting defects. It is however important to note
that a suitable collar design in terms of damage tolerance does not necessarily provide
the highest fatigue performance. The collar geometric design also affects the
solidification characteristics, defect formation and the cooling behaviour which
determines the distribution of vertical residual stresses on the web region.
As described in Chapter 2 a number of techniques have been developed to investigate

the effect of specific defects on fatigue strength and determine the damage tolerance of
the material. The selection of a suitable approach mainly depends on the size of the
defect and its geometric characteristics which defines its stress concentration factor. The
large defects responsible for HSW formation may be categorized into large defects with
smooth surface and low stress concentration factors and defects with high surface
irregularities and high stress concentration factors. In the low stress concentration
regime, stress gradient (variation of stress from the defect surface to the interior of
material) is relatively low and the fatigue limit may be described by the initiation of
fatigue cracks from the defect surface. In such cases the defect can be considered as a
notch and the multi-axial fatigue analysis may be performed on the surface of the defect
to determine the initiation of fatigue cracks.
Defects with high stress concentration factors usually feature high stress gradients and
so the fatigue cracks formed on the surface of the defect may not propagate further
when the crack tip approaches the low stress region at the vicinity of the defect. The
173
fatigue failure and strength of material in this case depends on the propagation or non-
propagation of these peripheral cracks and so the initiation of the crack at the surface of
the defect may not solely provide the failure condition for the structure. For such defects
a widely used approach is to substitute the defect with a crack of the same size and
perform fracture mechanics analysis.
In Chapter 5 the fatigue performance of two weld collar designs in absence of casting
defects was investigated. It was shown that under similar conditions, Type A collar
performs better since the web is reinforced by a buttress which reduces the cyclic
vertical stress and damage parameter at the critical point of the collar. The main purpose
of this chapter is to analyze the reduction of fatigue performance due to the presence of
surface defects with specific predefined geometric shapes and sizes. Both collar designs
Type A and Type B are considered to provide a better insight into the effect of collar
design with respect to the HSW formation. The difference in collar shape may also
affect the propensity of the collar to develop surface defects such as shrinkage cracks,
hot tears and inclusions. However, this aspect is not considered in this study.
7.1 Defects as Notches (Multi-axial Fatigue)
In this approach the crack initiation at the surface of the defect is investigated using
multi-axial fatigue analysis similar to the analysis performed on the collar edge for
straight break formation. The first step is to model the defect on the surface of the weld
collar and perform a stress distribution analysis on the surface of the defect to achieve
the stress state during one loading cycle. The stress history at the critical points of the
defect is inserted into the Dang Van multi-axial fatigue code and the damage parameter
on the most critical shear plane of the corresponding point is determined. Fry et al.
[107] has also applied a similar approach (using Findley’s criterion) on the casting
defects responsible for different failure modes of rail head in aluminothermic welds.
The focus of this section is on pore defects with three different geometric shapes:
spherical, ellipsoidal and coin-shape. To investigate the most critical condition, the
defects are modelled at the location of the web which experiences the highest fatigue
174
damage or DV damage parameter. Previous analysis in Chapter 5 revealed that this
location in Type A weld is about 90 mm and in Type B about 120 mm above the rail
foot (Figure 7-1). Throughout the analysis in this chapter the contact load is applied at
25 mm offset from the rail centerline towards the gauge side in order to provide the
highest vertical stress on the field side where the defects are located. No lateral or
longitudinal tractive forces are considered on the wheel-rail contact patch. The vertical
residual stress is also derived from the measurement trend lines depicted in Figure 5-15.
All other simulation parameters including the track stiffness, axle load and boundary
conditions are the same as previous analysis in Chapter 3.
Figure 7-1: Variation of the DV damage parameter on the web centerline of the Type A and Type B
welds and the corresponding locations of the maximum damage where the defects are modelled
(a) Ú (b) (c)
Ù `
Figure 7-2: Defect models used in the damage tolerance analysis: (a) Spherical defect; (b)
Ellipsoidal defect; and (c) Coin-shape defect
175
Figure 7-2 illustrates the ideal geometries considered for modeling the pore defects.
Since surface defects are the focus of this study only half of the depicted geometries are
engraved on the web surface.
7.1.1 Spherical Defects
A set of spherical defects with radius ranging from 0.5 mm to 4 mm was modelled on
the surface of the two collar shapes. To correctly simulate the stress concentration and
extract the stress history a fine mesh is applied to the surface of the defect. The element
size on the defect surface varies between 3.5e-5 m and 2.5e-4 m according to the defect
size. Figure 7-3 depicts the finite element mesh for a 3 mm radius defect.
Figure 7-3: Finite element mesh of the 3 mm radius spherical defect
Due to the important role of the vertical stress distribution in initiation of fatigue cracks,
the corresponding stress component on the surface of a 0.5 mm and 4 mm radius defects
are compared in Figure 7-4 for both weld types. The contours generally show high
stress concentration on a horizontal band around the spherical defect due to the notch
effect. For the 0.5 mm defect located on Type B collar higher value of stress is observed
compared to that of Type A which is in fact attributed to the larger cyclic vertical stress
176
on the web region of the Type B compared to Type A which has reinforcement in the
collar (Figure 5-15). The large 4 mm radius defect generally shows lower stress
concentration compared to the smaller defect except at the region close to the collar web
surface in Type A weld. In fact, a larger radius at the notch root decreases the notch
effect and the corresponding stress concentration factor. However, this effect is
overridden in Type A weld by the increase of the local stress as the defect surface
approaches the boundaries of the collar.
The variation of vertical stress with respect to the defect radius and the type of collar is
more clearly illustrated in Figure 7-5. Two important points on the defect are
investigated; point D at the deepest location on the defect surface and point S on the
intersection of the defect surface and the collar exterior surface. The highest vertical
stress corresponds to the smallest defect with the minimum radius and maximum notch
effect. As expected the vertical stress decreases with the enlargement of the defect at
both locations on the defect surface. For small to medium sized defects the severity of
stress concentration is more pronounced in Type B weld. However, this trend is
reversed for larger defects implying the increasing effect of the collar shape on the
stress distribution of the defect surface. In particular, vertical stress at point S of the
defect on Type A weld increases with an increase in the defect size which is unexpected
(based on the relation between notch radius and stress concentration). The reason for
this unexpected increase is the interaction of the defect surface and the collar boundaries
as shown in Figure 7-6 which provides a geometric complexity at the region and
accordingly a high stress concentration. Due to the localized bulge shape of the Type A
collar a large defect causes the internal force lines to become very dense at the surface
and this results in an increased stress concentration. In contrast, the Type B weld
features a flatter collar design which provides lower geometric complexity, a better
redistribution of the internal force lines and lower stress concentration.
Figure 7-7 depicts the results of multi-axial fatigue analysis on the two points of the
defect surface. The DV damage parameter for both welds nearly follows the same trend
observed in the vertical stress variation. The highest damage relates to the deepest point
of the smallest defect on Type B weld collar. However, opposite to the behaviour in
177
Type B weld the fatigue damage parameter increases at Point S of the defect on Type A
weld as the defect radius increases (due to the mentioned effect of the collar design). It
can be concluded that for a smooth spherical defect, Type A weld is sensitive to larger
defects while Type B is more sensitive to smaller defects.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 7-4: Vertical stress contour on a spherical defect when the contact load is located exactly at
the top of the weld: (a) R=0.5 mm Type A weld, (b) R=0.5 mm Type B, (c) R=4 mm Type A; and (d)
R=4 mm Type B
178
Figure 7-5: Variation of vertical stress (σz) at two points on the surface of the defect with respect to
the defect radius: point D at the deepest point of the defect and Point S at the intersection of the
defect and collar web surfaces
(a) (b)
Geometric complexity
causing the stress
concentration
Figure 7-6: Lines of force on the surface of the collar around a spherical defect and the location of
stress concentration: (a) Type A weld; and (b) Type B weld
179
Figure 7-7: Variation of DV damage parameter at two points on the surface of the spherical defect
with respect to the defect radius
In any case, the initiation of fatigue cracks on the surface of the defect may not
necessarily imply crack propagation and total failure of the web region. In fact, fatigue
cracks emanated from small defects are less likely to propagate than cracks on the
surface of large defects and this is due to the lower driving force on smaller cracks. In
this case fracture mechanics and crack analysis (reported in the last section of this
chapter) can provide a better understanding on the tolerance of each collar design to
defect sizes. It is worth mentioning that multi-axial fatigue analysis mentioned earlier
does not predict fatigue crack initiation from any size of a smooth spherical defect since
the damage parameter is generally below the threshold value of bDV=235 MPa.
However, real casting defects, particularly inclusions, shrinkage defects and hot tears,
may be far from ideal geometric shapes. Defect surface roughness, irregularities and
existence of micro cracks and microstructure impurities on the periphery of the defect
have also great influence on the nucleation of fatigue cracks. Nevertheless, the above
analysis provides an insight into the interaction of the defect and collar geometry and
the comparative damage tolerance with respect to the collar design.
180
7.1.2 Ellipsoidal Defects
The ellipsoidal defect considered in this study follows the general Equation in Figure 7-
8 with the condition that semi-principal axes b and c are equal and semi-principal axis a
is fixed during the analysis. Similar to spherical defects, half of the ellipsoid is engraved
on the surface of the collar. The value of a is set to 2 mm while b and c are variable
changing from 0.1 mm to 1.25 mm.
Figure 7-8: Equation of the considered ellipsoidal defect with conditions: b=c and a=cte
The vertical stress contour on the surface of the defect is depicted in Figure 7-9 for two
semi-axis values of 0.25 mm and 1.25mm. Similar to the spherical defect the stress is
concentrated on a horizontal band around the defect surface. However, for the small
0.25 mm defect the stress concentration reduces from its maximum value at the deepest
point of the defect towards the two ends on the right and left side. Since, for the small
defect the semi-axis b is much smaller than a the defect is very much stretched and the
two end points on the x-axis (Figure 7-8) are very shallow on the collar surface and so
they impose a very small stress concentration. For large semi-axis b the vertical stress
component seems to be similar on the deepest point and the two ends close to the collar
surface. In any case the stress values are higher on the Type B collar compared to Type
A and this is mainly attributed to the higher cyclic vertical stress observed on the collar
Type B (Figure 5-15). Figure 7-10 illustrates the trend of cyclic vertical stress at two
points of the defect with respect to the variation of semi-minor axis b. For both the
collar designs the normal stress at the deepest point of the defect decreases in a near
linear way as the defect enlarges. This is similar to the behaviour observed in spherical
defects and is associated to the mitigation of stress concentration (and the notch effect)
for larger radius notch roots. For point S at the surface of the collar a mixed behaviour
181
influenced by the effect of depth and radius is observed. As the semi-axis b increases
the depth of the defect at point S increases and so the stress becomes more concentrated.
This behaviour continues up to a certain defect size (b≈0.6 mm) for which the effect of
defect radius (which is a decrease in stress concentration) at point S overrides the effect
of depth and so the notch effect starts to diminish.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 7-9: Vertical stress contour on an ellipsoidal defect (a) b=0.25 mm Type A weld, (b) b=0.25
mm Type B, (c) b=1.25 mm Type A; and (d) b=1.25 mm Type B
182
Figure 7-10: Variation of vertical stress (σz) at two points on the surface of the defect with respect
to the semi-minor axis b
Figure 7-11: Variation of DV damage parameter at two points on the surface of the defect with
respect to the semi-minor axis b
183
The results of the multi-axial fatigue analysis is reported on Figure 7-11 with very much
similar trends as the ones depicted in vertical stress component in Figure 7-10. The
highest damage parameter relates to the deepest point of the smallest defect (b=0.1 mm)
located on collar Type B. However, damage values are below the threshold fatigue
damage parameter of 235 MPa required for crack initiation. It is worth mentioning that
the interaction of collar border and the defect described for large spherical defects is not
notably observed for the ellipsoidal defects investigated since the defect size (semi-
major axis a) is too small for such interaction.
7.1.3 Coin-Shape Defects
For analysis of the coin-shape defect specific type of geometry with the cross section
shown in Figure 7-12 is considered. The following geometry has the advantage that the
defect notch radius remains constant regardless of the defect size and the coin-shape
form of the section is maintained. In this case the effect of defect size and its depth can
solely be investigated. Defect widths (w) varying from 1 mm to 6 mm are considered
and like other surface defects, half of the geometry is engraved on the collar surface.
Figure 7-12: Geometric parameters of the coin-shape defect considered in this study (w is variable)
Figure 7-13 illustrates the vertical stress contour on the surface of 1 mm and 6 mm wide
defects when the contact load is exactly at the top of the weld. Very high stress
concentration factors (between 4 and 9) are visible for all the defect sizes and on both
collar designs which is mainly attributed to the small notch radius. For both small and
large defects the stress concentration is more notable at the shallow points of the defect
close to the surface of the collar and in this region Type B weld exhibits higher stresses
184
than Type A. The stress concentration observed on the large defect is much higher than
on the small one and this solely shows the influence of defect size (depth) on the stress
values keeping in mind that the defect notch radius is constant. This is different to what
was observed in spherical defects where the increase of the defect (sphere) depth also
increases the defect radius which has a relieving effect on the stress concentration.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 7-13: Vertical stress contour on a coin-shape defect: (a) w=1 mm Type A weld, (b) w=1 mm
Type B, (c) w=6 mm Type A; and (d) w=6 mm Type B weld
185
The trend of equivalent stress (von Mises stress) variation on the two points of the
defect surface is presented in Figure 7-14. It is clear that by increasing the defect size
(depth) the stress on both regions of the defect surface increases and in occasions the
stress exceeds the yield strength of the material. The yield strength of the current weld
material is estimated according to the previous experiments on relationship between
hardness and 0.2% proof stress for different regions of the weld presented by Mutton
[34] (Figure 7-15). For hardness value of 340 HV the proof stress is estimated at about
740 MPa. Accordingly, signs of plastic deformation are observed in some regions of the
defect surface as the defect enlarges. The most critical locations are the defect surface
on Type B, defect surface on Type A, deepest points on Type A and deepest point on
Type B respectively.
Figure 7-14: Variation of the equivalent (von Mises) stress at two points on the surface of the coin-
shape defect with respect to the defect width (w)
The results of the multi-axial fatigue analysis are illustrated in Figure 7-16. As part of
the conditions in the safe usage of the Dan Van multi-axial fatigue criterion is the
assumption of elastic shakedown. Since the current analysis does not provide enough
basis for the investigation of shakedown on the surface of the defect after initial yielding
186
and also due to the lack of information on the constitutive behaviour of the weld
material it may be unsuitable to apply the criterion to regions with plastic deformation.
Accordingly, the mentioned regions have been shown on Figure 7-16 by dashed lines
and although the damage values have been calculated for the whole range of defect sizes
they cannot be referred to for fatigue analysis purposes. In this case the damage graph is
only applicable to defect sizes below 2 mm width on the surface of Type B and 2.4 mm
on the surface of the Type A collar. To be able to use the multi-axial fatigue criterion,
the stress state after shakedown should be considered and if elastic shakedown does not
occur other approaches applicable to fatigue under ratchetting or plastic shakedown
conditions should be applied. However, in Section 2.3.3 it was mentioned that defects
with high stress concentration behave in a similar way as cracks with the same size. In
this condition the methods based on fracture mechanics can better predict the failure of
the structure compared to the methods based on the notch effect and stress state on the
surface of the defect (Figure 2-23). This is in fact the reason for the wide usage of
fracture mechanics technique to characterize defects and damage tolerance of structures.
In the following section the fracture mechanics approach is exploited to determine the
severity of high stress concentration defects such as the coin-shape defects and also the
propagation of existing cracks on the surface of the web.
Figure 7-15: Determination of relationship between hardness and yield strength of rail welds [34]
187
Figure 7-16: Variation of the DV damage parameter at two points on the surface of the coin-shape
defect with respect to the defect width (w)
7.2 Fracture Mechanics Approach
It was earlier described that even if the multi-axial fatigue analysis predicts crack
initiation on the surface of the defect it does not necessarily mean a failure particularly
for very small defects. In fact most of the defects with very high stress concentration at
their periphery include cracks at or close to the fatigue limit of the material but the
failure depends on the propagation of these existing cracks. The application of fracture
mechanics has the advantage that it can characterize both high stress concentration
defects (large defects with severe irregularities on the surface and very small defects)
and also cases where cracks themselves are embedded in the structure.
For the purpose of this study semi-circular cracks with radius ranging from 1 mm to 4
mm are modelled on the surface of the two collars at the most critical location of the
web. These semi-circular cracks may also represent high stress concentration coin-shape
defects and also spherical defects with peripheral cracks with the same total projection
area. Similar to what was applied for the analysis of cold lap defect linear elastic
188
fracture mechanics is exploited and the values of the separated stress intensity factors
during a loading cycle is extracted using the virtual crack closure technique (VCCT). As
a condition for the accurate usage of the VCCT brick elements should be applied all the
way perpendicular to the crack front. For this purpose a semi-circular crack block as
depicted in Figure 7-17 is embedded on the surface of the web. In contrast to the
meshing of the surrounding areas on the weld collar, the crack block features radial
meshing using 8-node brick elements which can satisfy the requirements of the VCCT.
Figure 7-17: Finite element mesh of the crack block and the application of radial meshing suitable
for virtual crack closure technique
Since the vertical stress acts as the main driving force on the crack, the contour of
vertical stress on a 5 mm radius crack block and the lower crack face is depicted in
Figure 7-18 for both collar designs. The figure suggests a stress singularity at the tip of
the crack throughout the crack front which is more pronounced on the region close to
the surface of the collar. It is also apparent that the severity of stress intensity is higher
in the Type A collar compared to that of Type B. However, to investigate whether the
existing crack can develop into a horizontal split web failure, the chance of crack
propagation should be estimated by comparing the equivalent stress intensity factor
,
property. The value of ∆ also depends on the stress ratio ). and as suggested by
range (∆ ) with the threshold stress intensity factor range (∆ ) which is a material
Equation 6-10 its value increases by a decrease in stress ratio. According to the current
189
loading parameters the stress ratio ). at the crack front is estimated at about 0.5 and
∆ , values at 6.77 MPa√m.
(a) (b)
Figure 7-18: Vertical stress contour on the crack block and the lower crack face when contact load
is located exactly at the top of the weld: (a) R=5 mm Type A weld, (b) R=5 mm Type B weld
The trend of the equivalent stress intensity factor range at two limit points on the crack
observed on the vertical stress contour ∆

front with respect to the crack radius is illustrated in Figure 7-19. Similar to what is
is more pronounced on the regions of the
crack front close to the collar surface. The collar type B is more sensitive to small to
shows higher ∆
medium sized cracks while for larger cracks (radius bigger than 3 mm) Type A weld
values which can be attributed to the interaction between the crack
front and the collar boundaries previously described in section 7.1.1. According to the
current loading parameters the damage tolerance of Type A weld is defined as crack
radius below 1.69 mm and for Type B as crack radius below 1.36 mm. So even if
fatigue cracks initiate on the surface of a 1 mm radius spherical or coin-shape defect it is
less likely that the crack could propagate and lead to a total failure.
190
Figure 7-19: Variation of equivalent stress intensity factor range with respect to the crack radius:
point D at the deepest point of the crack and Point S at the intersection of the crack front and the
collar surface
In order to determine the collar performance in terms of the fast or brittle fracture, mode
I stress intensity factor ( ) can be studied. In fact most of the HSW failures observed in
Type A weld develop under an overload condition with no sign of fatigue crack growth.
Under such condition the fracture toughness of the material ( %) becomes very
important. According to the data reported by Mutton and Alvarez [15] % in different
regions of the weld can vary between 25-35 MPa√m and based on measurements by
Dudley et al. [52] the dynamic fracture toughness more preferably used for fast fracture
under high strain conditions ( ) ranges between 24-36 MPa√m. Figure 7-20 illustrates
the variation of on two points of the crack front with respect to the crack radius for
both collar designs. As expected, by increasing the crack size the value of for both
points on the crack front increases. However, the severity of is more pronounced on
the regions close to the collar surface which implies that these regions undergo fast
fracture sooner than the deeper points on the crack front. For most of the crack sizes, the
condition in Type A weld is more critical since the slope of the increase of is higher
191
compared to that of Type B particularly at the regions of the crack front close to the
collar surface. This is in fact a sign of interaction between the crack front close to the
collar surface and the boundaries of the collar design Type A which introduces higher
stress concentration at this region. Figure 7-20 suggests that larger cracks on collar
Type A can more readily cause overload fractures than those on Type B and this is of
great importance since the main cause of the HSW failure in Type A are overload
fractures initiated from large defects including inclusions, shrinkage defects and hot
tears.
Figure 7-20: Variation of mode I stress intensity factor (KI) with respect to the crack radius
Nevertheless, a comprehensive damage tolerance comparison between different weld

collar designs needs to consider other parameters including the likelihood of each collar
design and the welding process to develop large defects suitable for HSW initiation, the
of ∆
strength of the microstructure at the regions of interest on the web and the correct values
, and in each structure. The vertical residual stress and the microstructure
defect content can also be very variable from one manufactured weld to the other and all
of these arise from the operator dependability of the process.
192
In this chapter the fatigue performance of weld in terms of HSW formation was
investigated under the influence of several predefined web defect geometries. The two
collar designs studied in chapter 5 were also included in the analysis to further clarify
the effect of collar design of the web. The results shows that for small to medium sized
defects the stress concentration and fatigue damage are mainly controlled by the defect
surface features and the remote stress on the web surface. For large defects the
interaction of the defect surface and collar boundaries particularly for weld Type A
increases the local stress and the resulting fatigue damage index. To investigate the
effect of planar defects such as coin shape defects linear elastic fracture mechanics was
utilised and a sensitivity analysis was performed on the simulated semicircular crack
radius. It was shown that the collar Type B is more sensitive to small to medium sized
cracks while collar Type A shows higher values of equivalent stress intensity factor
range and the mode I stress intensity factor for larger defects suggesting higher
probability of crack propagation and earlier overload fracture in this collar design.
193
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
8.1 Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to investigate the fatigue behaviour of aluminothermic
weld with respect to two major failure modes observed in Australian heavy haul railway
systems: straight breaks and horizontal split webs (HSW). The risk of fatigue crack
initiation and the associated critical locations on the weld surface were determined
through stress and multi-axial fatigue analysis. The effect of several operational and
loading parameters including the residual stress distribution arising from the welding
process, rail-wheel contact patch location, lateral tractive forces on the contact patch
and the track support conditions were evaluated. An attempt was made to characterize
the influence of the weld collar design on the risk of fatigue crack formation particularly
in relation to straight breaks. The connection between the existence of cold lap or
finning defects and the nucleation of straight breaks at the collar edge was demonstrated
using linear elastic fracture mechanics. The sensitivity of two different collar designs to
specific defect geometries and predefined cracks on the surface of the collar web was
evaluated using both notch method and fracture mechanics.
8.1.1 In-Track Bending Behaviour
As the first step in fatigue analysis of the weld, the stress distribution on a specific type
of weld widely used in Australian heavy haul railway systems was studied using finite
element method. The FE model was generated from the geometric data of the weld
collar which was obtained by laser scanning of a representative weld sample and
incorporated into a modelled track including sleepers and elastic foundation. The stress
analysis shows high stress concentration throughout the collar edge with pronounced
stress values at the base and underhead region. High longitudinal stress at the base
results from the rail section bending behaviour. However, it was found that the
unexpected localized tensile stress (tension spike) at the underhead relates to the local
194
bending of the rail head on the web which develops tensile stress in this region. The
presence of tension spike at the underhead has been shown to be associated with greater
risk of RCF cracks growing downward and leading to detail fracture. However, to date
no analysis on its effect on the performance of welds has been published. The
longitudinal tensile stress as a result of the seasonal temperature variation in winter
seasons was shown to greatly intensify this tension spike.
The effect of curving and hunting behaviour was investigated through contact patch
lateral displacement and tractions applied on the patch. Results of the analysis suggest
that the lateral displacement of the patch greatly intensifies the severity of tension spike
at the underhead due to the development of a local torsion on the weld cross section.
The lateral bending of the rail section due to the eccentricity of the applied load also
increases the cyclic vertical stress on the web region which plays an important role in
occurrence of the horizontal split web fatigue mode. Tractions towards the field side of
the weld increase the severity of tension spike at the underhead region and longitudinal
stress of the field side. Inward tractions (towards the gauge side) were shown to be
highly detrimental due to which the longitudinal stress at the underhead of the gauge
side may even exceed the yield strength of the material. This is in fact attributed to the
combination of the local rail head bending and the torsion of the rail section. Lack of
vertical support on the sleepers adjacent to the aluminothermic weld affects the base
region of the weld by increasing the longitudinal tensile stress.
8.1.2 Fatigue Behaviour
To investigate the fatigue behaviour the Dang Van multi-axial fatigue criterion based on
the critical plane concept was exploited. In this method, the shear stress amplitude on
the investigated shear plane passing through the material point is evaluated as a vector
parameter based on the minimum circumscribed circle (MCC) approach. The shear
plane with the highest damage value (linear combination of shear stress amplitude and
the hydrostatic stress) is defined as the critical plane. For this analysis the stress history
during one loading cycle at the point of interest on the surface of the structure is inserted
into the developed MATLAB computer code where critical plane analysis is performed.
195
The fatigue damage analysis was mainly performed on the collar edge of the weld with
respect to the initiation of straight breaks. The results suggest a pronounced damage
value at the underhead region and less severe damage at the underside of the foot. In
fact, the high damage value at the underhead relates to the tension spike in this region
and the high tensile longitudinal residual stress. The highly compressive residual stress
at the base region was shown to have a mitigating effect on the damage parameter
observed. Lateral displacement of the contact patch increases the damage at the
underhead and for highly displaced contact patch which may happen in short radius
curves the damage even exceeds the critical limit indicating a high risk of failure. The
effect of lateral traction on the underhead region is noteworthy. Under an outward
traction (towards the field side) with L/V ratio (ratio of lateral to vertical force) of more
than 0.3 the damage value exceeds the critical limit. The results presented for the effect
of contact patch eccentricity and tractions are consistent with the straight break failures
observed in service. In fact most of straight breaks initiating at the underhead occur in
short radius curves or hunting-prone tangent tracks.
The results of the sensitivity analysis on residual stress indicate that high longitudinal
residual stress can provide suitable condition for straight break failure at the underhead
while a compressive residual stress has a favourable effect on the base region. High
longitudinal residual stress also increases the stress ratio (). ) and reduces the threshold
stress intensity factor range of the material (ability to tolerate cracks and defects) as
shown in the analysis of cold laps. Ultrasonic impact treatment has recently been
proposed to apply post-weld compressive residual stresses to mitigate the risk of crack
initiation. Lack of support was shown to increase the fatigue damage parameter at the
base region. Rail failure reports from the service conditions of relevance to this study
also suggest high failure probability at locations where extensive ballast deterioration
has taken place.
8.1.3 Straight Break at Top of the Rail Foot
Besides at the underhead region, the straight break on the investigated weld has been
widely reported at the top of the rail foot. However, the multi-axial fatigue analysis of
196
the sound and defect-free weld did not predict any sign of failure in this region.
Examination of the fractured regions of failed welds suggests that the failure at the top
of the foot is often accompanied by presence of a welding defect called cold lap. To
investigate the effect of cold lap on formation of straight break linear elastic fracture
mechanics using the virtual crack closure technique (VCCT) was exploited. Analyses
show that due mostly to the in-plane shearing and opening force on the lap (which is
studied as a planar crack with a straight front) the equivalent stress intensity factor range
can reach the threshold value with possible crack initiation from the apex of the cold
lap. Based on all the investigated propagation criteria the initiated crack quickly turns
down which is also a sign of possible straight break failure. The study on the lap
greatest effect on ∆
geometric features reveals that among all the dimensions, the lap thickness has the
. In fact thicker laps are more influential in the formation of
straight breaks. Rise of thickness from 1 to 3 mm can increase the equivalent stress
intensity factor range by 65%. It was also shown that as the fusion boundary or the lap
apex moves further from the collar edge the possibility of crack initiation is reduced.
It is found that cold laps on the field side are more damaging than those on the gauge
side. The highest damage relates to the lap on the field side when the contact patch is
severely displaced towards the gauge side. Inward (towards the gauge side) tractions
also apply high driving forces on the field-side located laps whereas outward tractions
are effective on the gauge-side located ones. In addition, lack of support increases the
driving force on the lap and the chance of lap-related straight breaks.
8.1.4 Collar Design
The collar geometric design of the weld is among important parameters which can
influence the fatigue behaviour. However, the variability of designs is limited by how
the proposed collar performs in terms of the molten metal accessibility, defect
formation, post-weld cooling and residual stress distribution. Beside the Type A which
is currently the most widely used collar in Australian heavy haul railway system, a
further design, Type B is under investigation for possible introduction to the industry.
The Type B weld features lower flank angle and bigger toe radius on the collar edge. It
197
also incorporates a flatter collar design on the web and lacks the buttress used in Type
A. The multi-axial fatigue analysis performed on the collar edge of both welds reveals
that the Type B presents lower damage values in this location which is mainly due to
the lower stress concentration throughout the collar edge and partly resulting from the
lower longitudinal residual stress measured in its vicinity. In spite of what is observed in
Type A weld, Type B weld is less sensitive to the displacement of the contact patch and
the transverse forces and no failure is predicted in any of the loading conditions
investigated. For a very high lateral traction coefficient of 0.4 adoption of Type B
design can decrease the fatigue damage value at the underhead by up to 30%. This
results from the tension spike on Type B being much less severe than on Type A which
is in fact due to the better geometric features at the collar edge of Type B. The Type B
weld also performs better under a defective support by showing less damage value on
the base region compared to Type A.
Nevertheless, the Type A weld features a buttress at the web region which increases the
moment of area and lowers the vertical stress. Stress analysis of the web surface
indicates that the maximum value of the cyclic vertical stress is higher in Type B weld
and accordingly the Dang Van damage parameter has a higher value compared to that of
Type A. However, no fatigue failure is expected since the web surface studied is defect
free and the damage parameter is too low. In fact presence of a large defect is necessary
for HSW to initiate and grow and this necessitates further analysis with defects
involved.
8.1.5 HSW and Web Defects
A study on the damage tolerance analysis of the web region was conducted based on
three large pore defects of spherical, ellipsoidal and coin-shape. Initiation of fatigue
cracks on the surface of the defects was investigated through multi-axial fatigue analysis
and the Dang Van criterion. For small to medium sized defects on Type A weld vertical
stress and damage is lower than those on Type B due to the use of buttress and hence
lower bending stresses on Type A collar. However, as the defect enlarges and the defect
surface approaches the collar boundary in Type A damage values increase and exceed
198
those of the Type B. The fatigue criterion used fails to solve the crack initiation problem
for coin-shape defects as the stress concentration at the notch root is too high and
plasticity emerges. For such defects and for defects with peripheral cracks the fracture
mechanics approach was applied in which the defect is represented by a crack with the
same size (projected area). The results generally support the idea that as the crack
enlarges the tolerance of Type A weld is reduced more progressively than the Type B.
Apparently, large defects can more readily cause fast fractures in Type A weld and this
relates to the interaction of the crack front and the collar boundary which intensifies the
stress concentration.
Based on the analysis reported in this thesis the following measures can be proposed to
improve the fatigue performance of aluminothermic welds:
• It is favourable to reduce the lateral displacement of the rail-wheel contact patch

and the transverse forces. This may be achieved by selection of a suitable wheel
profile, re-profiling and timely grinding of the rail head and also through
application of lubricant or other friction management products to the rail-wheel
interface particularly in short radius curve tracks.
• Collar edge features particularly at the underhead region have strong influence
in formation of straight breaks. Lower flank angle and larger toe radius provide
better fatigue performance.
• Tensile residual stress should be kept as low as possible through redesigning the
weld process, cooling and post-cooling heat treatment or by manually imposing
compressive residual stresses to the collar edge.
• Cold laps should be avoided by using better sealing methods and materials. The
amount of melt-back on the rail heads should be enough to provide wider fusion
regions and to move the lap apex farther from the weld collar edge. This may be
achieved by widening the gap between the rail heads and providing longer
preheats. However, this may affect the hardness distribution of the rail head and
increase the chance of battering and high load amplification factors.
• It is favourable to have a collar design with a high moment of area to reduce
lateral bending stress on the web region and the risk of HSW formation.
199
However, a flatter design in the web region is proposed to reduce the stress
concentration at the periphery of large defects. This may delay or even prevent
the occurrence of fast and overload fractures.
8.2 Future Work
Several aspects of the aluminothermic weld fatigue performance were studied in this
research. However, there are certain topics in which further investigation seems
necessary and are pointed out in this section.
The fatigue strength of the material required for the multi-axial fatigue analysis were
estimated based on the material hardness and this may not precisely reflect the actual
values. At least two fatigue tests such as the reversed bending and alternative torsion are
necessary to evaluate the two required fatigue parameters. However, the feasibility of
testing is questionable considering the uncertainties and variability of the manufactured
welds and the test samples extracted from different regions of the weld. If the testing
can be performed a consistent S-N curve could also provide the possibility to calculate
the life to crack initiation at the critical locations of the weld. Although, similar fatigue
strength was assumed in this study, it is suggested that the tests are performed for both
Type A and Type B welds.
The fracture analysis performed on the cold lap and crack like defects incorporated
threshold stress intensity factor range and the fracture toughness based on previous
limited measurements on different types of aluminothermic weld. Further work may
include the measurement of these parameters for the two welding processes studied. In
fact, if a crack growth law such as the Paris law can be developed for the weld material
it will be possible to investigate the crack propagation and the life to fracture for cold
lap defects and the cracks responsible for HSW fractures. However, similar restrictions
as mentioned above may apply.
The analysis on the damage tolerance of the collar with respect to HSW formation
provided an insight into the fatigue behaviour of the web. Further work is required to
200
investigate the findings through laboratory experiments. The crack growth behaviour
can be studied through 3-point bending fatigue test. A high stress concentration notch
can be machined on the web surface and the structure cyclically loaded until a pre-crack
emerges at the periphery of the notch. A comparison between the crack growth
behaviour on the two collar designs can then be performed.
The numerical study can also be further developed by considering different crack shapes
and sizes. Since the defects on the web region feature complex geometries it is also of
interest to investigate defects with some type of geometric irregularities. However, the
current multi-axial analysis cannot be directly used since plasticity forms at the surface
of the defect. In this case finite element analysis should be extended to simulate several
load cycles in order to achieve an elastic shakedown condition after which the multi-
axial criterion can be applied. This needs a fairly accurate constitutive equation
incorporating the hardening behaviour. Alternatively, other damage prediction models
using the strain based approach such as the Coffin-Manson can be exploited.
It is also proposed that a comprehensive analysis is performed on the effect of track

support considering the vehicle/track dynamics and hence the variation of wheel/rail
contact position and load. The lack of support in presence of running surface
irregularities may amplify the contact load and this has a direct effect on the fatigue
behaviour with respect to both straight break and horizontal split web formation.
Another important issue which can be considered with or without the lack of track
support is the difference in rail height across the weld (arising from welding two rails
with different heights). The difference in rail height which is quite a common issue can
exacerbate stress concentration at the collar edge and may also develop thicker cold laps
at regions of the weld.
Current study primarily discusses fatigue behaviour of welds installed in rails without
any wear. It is also important to examine the behaviour as rail wears or is ground
(progressive removal of material from the rail head) until such time as it is replaced.
Such an approach would provide valuable information on which to assess or review rail
wear limits under the relevant service conditions.
201
REFERENCES
1. Lonsdale, C.P., Thermite rail welding: history, process developments, current

practices and outlook for the 21st century, 1999, The Americal Railway
Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association.
2. Uchino, K., Okazaki, A., Wada, Y., Sugino, K., and Karimine, K., Development
of rail welding techniques, 53, 1992, Nippon Steel.
3. Okumura, M., Uchino, K., Karimine, K., and Yurioka, N., Development of field
fusion welding technology for railroad rails, 65, 1995, Nippon Steel.
4. Yamamoto, R., Ueyama, K., Oishibashi, H., and Tatsumi, M. Gas pressure
welding of rail in Japan. in 6th Int. Heavy Haul Conference. 1997. South Africa.
5. Goldschmidt, H., Verfahren zur herstellung von metallen oder metalloiden oder
legierungen derselben (Process for the production of metals or metalloids or
alloys thereof), in Deutsche Reichs Patent no. 96317. 1895: Germany.
6. Goldschmidt, H., Ueber ein neues verfahren zur darstellung von metallen und
legirungen mittelst aluminiums (On a new method for the preparation of metals
and alloys by means of aluminum). Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie, 1898.
301(1): p. 19-28.
7. Goldschmidt, H. and Vautin, C., Aluminium as a heating and reducing agent.

The Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1898. 6(17): p. 543-545.
8. RTS 3602, Aluminothermic welding manual, Issue B, Revision 2. 2007,

Australian Rail Track Corporation (ARTC).
9. AS 1085.20, Railway track material Part 20: Welding of steel rail. 2006,
Standards Australia.
202
10. BS EN 14730-1, Railway applications, Track, Aluminothermic welding of rails,
Approval of welding processes. 2010, BSI British Standards.
11. Thermit welding methods, general product information, THERMIT Australia

Pty Ltd.
12. Mutton, P., Battisti, C., Swartz, M., and Gutscher, D., Rail Welds, Guidelines to
best practices for heavy haul railway operations: Infrastructures construction
and maintenance issues. 2009: International Heavy Haul Association.
13. Offereins, G.A. and Mutton, P. Recent experiences with the performance of
aluminothermic rail welds under high axle loads. in Proc. 13th Int. Rail Track
Conference. 2001. Canberra, Australia: Railway Technical Society of
Australasia.
14. Mutton, P.J. Horizontal split web fatigue failure of rail welds. in Failure
Analysis in Materials Engineering. 1994. Melbourne, Australia: Institute of
Metals and Materials Australasia (IMMA).
15. Mutton, P.J. and Alvarez, E.F., Failure modes in aluminothermic rail welds
under high axle load conditions. Engineering Failure Analysis, 2004. 11(2): p.
151-166.
16. Mutton, P., Confidential report, 2011, Institute of Railway Technology, Monash
University.
17. Lawrence, F.V., Ross, E.T., and Barkan, C.P.L., Reliability of improved thermite
welds, 2004, Transportation Research Board of the National Academics.
18. Terashita, Y. and Tatsumi, M., Analysis of damaged rail weld. Quarterly Report
of Railway Technical Research Institute May. 2003. 44(2): p. 59-64.
19. Examination of two thermit welded rail sections, 6P4 / MET 28 rev 1, 2006,
Metlabs.
203
20. Grassie, S.L. and Kalousek, J., Rail corrugation: characteristics, causes and
treatments. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F:
Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit, 1993. 207(1): p. 57-68.
21. Mair, R.I., Jupp, R.A., and Groenhout, R., The characteristics and control of
long pich corrugations at heavy axle loads, in Proc. Int. Heavy Haul Railway
Conference. 1978: Perth, IE Aust.
22. Steenbergen, M.J.M.M., Quantification of dynamic wheel-rail contact forces at

short rail irregularities and application to measured rail welds. Journal of
Sound and Vibration, 2008. 312(4-5): p. 606-629.
23. Jenkins, H.H., Stephenson, J.E., Clayton, G.A., Morland, G.W., and Lyon, D.,
The effect of track and vehicle parameters on wheel/rail vertical dynamic forces
Railway Engineering Journal, 1974. 3(1): p. 2-16.
24. Frederick, C.O., The effect of wheel and rail irregularities on the track, in Int.
Heavy Haul Railway Conference. 1978: Perth, IE Aust.
25. Steenbergen, M.J.M.M. and Esveld, C., Relation between the geometry of rail
welds and the dynamic wheel - rail response: numerical simulations for
measured welds, in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers --
Part F -- Journal of Rail & Rapid Transit. 2006, Professional Engineering
Publishing. p. 409-423.
26. Steenbergen, M.J.M.M. and Esveld, C., Rail weld geometry and assessment
concepts, in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers -- Part F --
Journal of Rail & Rapid Transit. 2006, Professional Engineering Publishing. p.
257-271.
27. Ishida, M. and Miura, S. Relationship between rail surface irregularity and
dynamic wheel load. in 10th Int. Wheelset Congress, IEAuat. 1992. Sydney,
Australia.
204
28. Wen, Z., Xiao, G., Xiao, X., Jin, X., and Zhu, M., Dynamic vehicle-track
interaction and plastic deformation of rail at rail welds. Engineering Failure
Analysis, 2009. 16(4): p. 1221-1237.
29. Griffiths, D. and Miness, C., Impact response at aluminothermic welds, 1997,
BHP Research Report BHPR/MP/R/G/026.
30. Franklin, F. and Kapoor, A., Modelling wear and crack initiation in rails.
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail
and Rapid Transit, 2007. 221(1): p. 23-33.
31. Franklin, F.J., Garnham, J.E., Fletcher, D.I., Davis, C.L., and Kapoor, A.,
Modelling rail steel microstructure and its effect on crack initiation. Wear,
2008. 265(9-10): p. 1332-1341.
32. Franklin, F.J., Widiyarta, I., and Kapoor, A., Computer simulation of wear and
rolling contact fatigue. Wear, 2001. 251(1-12): p. 949-955.
33. Myers, J., Geiger, G.H., and Poirier, D.R., Structure and properties of thermite
welds. Welding Journal Research Supplement, 1982. 61: p. 258-268.
34. Mutton, P., Material aspects of weld behaviour in wheel-rail contact, in 5th Int.
Conference on Contact Mechanics and Wear of Rail/Wheel Systems. 2000:
Tokyo, Japan.
35. Lonsdale, C.P. and Lewandowski, J.J., Fracture toughness of thermite rail weld
steel, in Proc. 39th Metal Working and Steel Processing Conference. 1998, Iron
& Steel Society. p. 1083-1090.
36. Mutton, P.J., Tan, M., Bartle, P., and Kapoor, A. The effect of severe head wear
on rolling contact fatigue in heavy haul operations. in 8th International
Conference on Contact Mechanics and Wear of Rail/Wheel Systems (CM2009).
2009. Firenze, Italy.
205
37. Bogdanski, S. and Trajer, M., A dimensionless multi-size finite element model of
a rolling contact fatigue crack. Wear, 2005. 258(7-8): p. 1265-1272.
38. Ringsberg, J.W., Bjarnehed, H., Johansson, A., and Josefson, B.L., Rolling
Contact Fatigue of Rails---Finite Element Modelling of Residual Stresses,
Strains and Crack Initiation, in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers -- Part F -- Journal of Rail & Rapid Transit. 2000, Professional
Engineering Publishing. p. 7-19.
39. Ringsberg, J.W., Life prediction of rolling contact fatigue crack initiation.
International Journal of Fatigue, 2001. 23(7): p. 575-586.
40. Ringsberg, J.W. and Josefson, B.L., Finite element analyses of rolling contact
fatigue crack initiation in railheads, in Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers -- Part F -- Journal of Rail & Rapid Transit. 2001,
Professional Engineering Publishing. p. 243-259.
41. Dang Van, K. and Maitournam, M.H., Rolling contact in railways: modelling,
simulation and damage prediction. Fatigue Fract. Engng Mater. Struct., 2003.
26(10): p. 939-948.
42. Dang Van, K. and Maitournam, M.H., On some recent trends in modelling of
contact fatigue and wear in rail. Wear, 2002. 253(1-2): p. 219-227.
43. Mutton, P.J., Tew, G.P., and Alserda, J., Confidential report, 2006, Institute of
Railway Technology, Monash University.
44. Examination of a fractured thermit weld-272.784 km, 5P4/Met 62, 2005,

Metlabs.
45. Ross, E.T., A statistical study of improved thermite rail welds. 2004, Master
Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign.
206
46. Lawrence, F.V., Chen, Y.-R., Cyre, J.P., and Barkan, C.P.L., Strategies for
improving the fatigue resistance of thermite weldments, in Proc. of the American
Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association. 2001: Chicago, IL.
47. Dimitrakis, S.D., Improving the fatigue life of weldments with longitudinal
attachments. 1999, PhD Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
48. Metallurgical examination of defective thermit welds-72.222 and 94.150 km,

5P4/Met 59, 2005, Metlabs.
49. Chen, Y., Lawrence, F.V., Barkan, C.P.L., and Dantzig, J.A., Weld defect
formation in rail thermite welds, in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers -- Part F -- Journal of Rail & Rapid Transit. 2006, Professional
Engineering Publishing. p. 373-384.
50. Chen, Y., Lawrence, F.V., Barkan, C.P.L., and Dantzig, J.A., Heat transfer
modelling of rail thermite welding, in Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers -- Part F -- Journal of Rail & Rapid Transit. 2006,
Professional Engineering Publishing. p. 207-217.
51. Chen, Y.R., A heat transfer modeling study of rail thermite welds. 2004, PhD
Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
52. Dudley, N., Oswald, S., and Vines, M.J. Rail welding for heavy axle load unit
operations. in Proc. Joint Australasian Welding and Testing Conference. 1984.
Perth, Australia: Australian Welding Institute/AINDT.
53. Mutton, P.J. and Soeleiman, S., Performance of aluminothermic welds under
high axle loads, in 4th International Heavy Haul Railway Conference 1989,
IEAust: Brisbane, Australia. p. 180-187.
54. Sergejevs, D. and Mikhaylovs, S., Analysis of factors affecting fractures of rails
welded by aluminothermic welding. Transport Problems, 2008. 3(4): p. 33-37.
55. Examination of a fractured thermit weld-69.493 km, 6P4/Met 10, 2006, Metlabs.
207
56. Marich, S., Vines, M., and Baggott, M. Examination of big dipper failures
initiated at flash butt welds. in Proc. Symp. Railroad Rail Welding, Association
of American Railroads. 1983.
57. Mutton, P.J. and Moller, R.H. Improved aluminothermic rail welding
technology. in Proc. 10th Int. Rail Track Conference. 1994. Brisbane, IEAust.
58. Bulloch, J.H., Fatigue crack growth studies in rail steels and associated weld
metal. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, 1986. 6(2): p. 75-84.
59. Beretta, S., Boniardi, M., Carboni, M., and Desimone, H., Mode II fatigue
failures at rail butt-welds. Engineering Failure Analysis, 2005. 12(1): p. 157-
165.
60. Desimone, H. and Beretta, S., Mechanisms of mixed mode fatigue crack
propagation at rail butt-welds. International Journal of Fatigue, 2006. 28(5-6):
p. 635-642.
61. Skyttebol, A., Josefson, B.L., and Ringsberg, J.W., Fatigue crack growth in a
welded rail under the influence of residual stresses. Engineering Fracture
Mechanics, 2005. 72(2): p. 271-285.
62. Stephens, R.I., Fatemi, A., Stephens, R.R., and Fuchs, H.O., Metal fatigue in
engineering. 2nd ed. 2001: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
63. Forsyth, P.J.E., The physical basis of metal fatigue. 1969, New York: Americal
Elsevier Publishing Co.
64. Nicholas, T., High cycle fatigue, a mechanics of materials prospective. 2006:
Elsevier Ltd.
65. Basquin, O.H., The exponential law of endurance tests. Proc. ASTM, 1910. 10,
Part II: p. 625.
208
66. Bannantine, J.A., Commer, J.J., and Handrock, J.L., Fundamentals of metal
fatigue analysis. 1989, Englewood cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
67. Tavernelli, J.F. and Coffin Jr, L.F., Experimental support for generalized
equation predicting low cycle fatigue. Trans. ASME, 1962. 84(4): p. 533-537.
68. Manson, S.S., Discussion. Trans. ASME, 1962. 84(4): p. 537-541.
69. Dowling, N.E., Mechanical behavior of materials, engineering methods for

deformation, fracture and fatigue. 3rd ed. 2007, Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
70. Morrow, J., Fatigue design handbook. Advances in Engineering. Vol. 4. 1968,
Warrendale: Society of Automotive Engineers.
71. Kapoor, A., A re-evaluation of the life to rupture of ductile metals by cyclic
plastic strain. Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures, 1994.
17(2): p. 201-219.
72. Williams, J.A., Wear modelling: analytical, computational and mapping: a

continuum mechanics approach. Wear, 1999. 225–229, Part 1(0): p. 1-17.
73. Sines, G., Behavior of metals under complex static and alternating stresses, in
Metal Fatigue, G. Sines and J.L. Waisman, Editors. 1959, McGraw-Hill: New
York.
74. Crossland, B. Effect of large hydrostatic pressures on the torsional fatigue

strength of an alloy steel. in Proc. of the International Conference on Fatigue of
Metals. 1956. London: Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
75. Findley, W.N., A theory for the effect of mean stress on fatigue of metals under
combined torsion and axial load or bending. Trans. ASME Journal of
Engineering for Industry, 1959. 81: p. 301.
209
76. Carpinteri, A. and Spagnoli, A., Multiaxial high-cycle fatigue criterion for hard
metals. International Journal of Fatigue, 2001. 23(2): p. 135-145.
77. Brown, M.W. and Miller, K.J., A theory for fatigue failure under multiaxial
stress-strain conditions. Proceedings of The Institute of Mechanical Engineers,
1973. 187: p. 745-755.
78. Kandil, F.A., Brown, M.W., and Miller, K.J., Biaxial low cycle fatigue fracture
of 316 stainless steel at elevated temperatures. Book 280, The Metal Society.
1982, London.
79. Fatemi, A. and Socie, D.F., A critical plane approach to multiaxial fatigue
damage including out-of-phase loading. Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering
Materials & Structures, 1988. 11: p. 149-165.
80. Socie, D.F., Critical plane approaches for multiaxial fatigue damage assessment
in Advances in Multiaxial Fatigue, ASTM STP 1191, D.L. McDowell and R.
Ellis, Editors. 1993, ASTM: West Conshohocken, P A. p. 7.
81. Kurath, P. and Fatemi, A., Cracking mechanisms for mean stress/strain low-
cycle multiaxial loadings, in Quantitative Methods in Fractography, ASTM STP
1085, B.M. Strauss and S.K. Putatunda, Editors. 1990, ASTM: West
Conshohocken, P A. p. 123.
82. Liu, Y. and Mahadevan, S., Multiaxial high-cycle fatigue criterion and life
prediction for metals. International Journal of Fatigue, 2005. 27(7): p. 790-800.
83. Liu, Y., Stratman, B., and Mahadevan, S., Fatigue crack initiation life
prediction of railroad wheels. International Journal of Fatigue, 2006. 28(7): p.
747-756.
84. Liu, Y., Liu, L., Stratman, B., and Mahadevan, S., Multiaxial fatigue reliability
analysis of railroad wheels. Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 2008.
93(3): p. 456-467.
210
85. Dang Van, K., Sur la résistance à la fatigue des métaux. Sciences et Techniques
de l’Armement, Mémorial de l’artillerie française, Imprimerie nationale, 1973.
47.
86. Dang Van, K., Griveau, B., and Message, O. On a new multiaxial fatigue
criterion; therory and application. in 2nd Int. Conference on Biaxial/Multiaxial
Fatigue. 1985. Sheffield, UK.
87. Dang Van, K., Catilletaud, G., Flavenot, J.F., Le Douaron, A., and Lieurade,
H.P., Criterion for high cycle fatigue failure under multiaxial loading. Biaxial
and Multiaxial Fatigue, EGF 3. Mechanical Engineering Publications, 1989: p.
459-478.
88. Ballard, P., Van, K.D., Deperrois, A., and Papadopoulos, Y.V., HIGH CYCLE
FATIGUE AND A FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS. Fatigue & Fracture of
Engineering Materials & Structures, 1995. 18(3): p. 397-411.
89. Ekberg, A., Bjarnehed, H., and Lundbéan, R., A fatigue life model for general
rolling contact with application to wheel/rail damage. Fatigue & Fracture of
Engineering Materials & Structures, 1995. 18(10): p. 1189-1199.
90. Dang Van, K., Maitournam, M.H., Moumni, Z., and Roger, F., A comprehensive
approach for modeling fatigue and fracture of rails. Engineering Fracture
Mechanics, 2009. 76(17): p. 2626-2636.
91. Ekberg, A., Rolling contact fatigue of railway wheels - A parametric study.
Wear, 1997. 211(2): p. 280-288.
92. Desimone, H., Bernasconi, A., and Beretta, S., On the application of Dang Van
criterion to rolling contact fatigue. Wear, 2006. 260(4-5): p. 567-572.
93. Ciavarella, M., Monno, F., and Demelio, G., On the Dang Van fatigue limit in
rolling contact fatigue. International Journal of Fatigue, 2006. 28(8): p. 852-863.
211
94. Ciavarella, M. and Maitournam, H., On the Ekberg, Kabo and Andersson
calculation of the Dang Van high cycle fatigue limit for rolling contact fatigue.
Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures, 2004. 27(6): p. 523-
526.
95. Josefson, B.L. and Ringsberg, J.W., Assessment of uncertainties in life

prediction of fatigue crack initiation and propagation in welded rails.
International Journal of Fatigue, 2009. 31(8-9): p. 1413-1421.
96. Mrzyglod, M. and Zielinski, A.P., Multiaxial high-cycle fatigue constraints in

structural optimization. International Journal of Fatigue. 29(9-11): p. 1920-
1926.
97. Nadot, Y. and Denier, V., Fatigue failure of suspension arm: Experimental
analysis and multiaxial criterion. Engineering Failure Analysis, 2004. 11(4): p.
485-499.
98. Béranger, A.-S., Bérard, J.-Y., and Vittori, J.-F., A fatigue life assessment
methodology for automotive components, in European Structural Integrity
Society, G. Marquis and J. Solin, Editors. 1997, Elsevier. p. 17-25.
99. Isibasi, T., Prevention of fatigue and fracture of metals. 1954, Tokyo: Yokendo.
100. Siebel, E. and Stieler, M., Ungleichformige spannungsverteilung bei

schwingender beanspruchung. VDI Z, 1955. 97(5): p. 121–126.
101. Nisitani, H., Size effects of branch point and fatigue limit of carbon steel in
rotary bending tests. Trans. Japan. Soc. Mech. Eng., 1968. 34(259): p. 371–382.
102. Murakami, Y., Metal fatigue: Effects of small defects and nonmetallic
inclusions. 2002, Oxford: Elsevier Science.
103. Ekberg, A. and Marais, J., Effects of Imperfections on Fatigue Initiation in

Railway Wheels, in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers --
212
Part F -- Journal of Rail & Rapid Transit. 2000, Professional Engineering
Publishing. p. 45-54.
104. Sigl, K.M., Hardin, R.A., Stephens, R.I., and Beckermann, C., Fatigue of 8630
cast steel in the presence of porosity. International Journal of Cast Metals
Research, 2004. 17(3): p. 130-146.
105. Nadot, Y. and Billaudeau, T., Multiaxial fatigue limit criterion for defective
materials. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 2006. 73(1): p. 112-133.
106. Billaudeau, T., Nadot, Y., and Bezine, G., Multiaxial fatigue limit for defective
materials: mechanisms and experiments. Acta Materialia, 2004. 52(13): p. 3911-
3920.
107. Fry, G.T., Lawrence, F.V., and Robinson, A.R., A model for fatigue defect
nucleation in thermite rail welds. Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials
& Structures, 1996. 19(6): p. 655-668.
108. Taylor, D., Hughes, M., and Allen, D., Notch fatigue behaviour in cast irons
explained using a fracture mechanics approach. International Journal of
Fatigue, 1996. 18(7): p. 439-445.
109. Smith, R.A. and Miller, K.J., Prediction of fatigue regimes in notched
components. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 1978. 20(4): p. 201-
206.
110. El Haddad, M.H., Topper, T.H., and Smith, K.N., Prediction of non propagating
cracks. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 1979. 11(3): p. 573-584.
111. Tanaka, K., Nakai, Y., and Yamashita, M., Fatigue growth threshold of small
cracks. International Journal of Fracture, 1981. 17(5): p. 519-533.
112. Zerbst, U., Schödel, M., and Heyder, R., Damage tolerance investigations on
rails. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 2009. 76(17): p. 2637-2653.
213
113. Murakami, Y., Analysis of stress intensity factors of modes I, II and III for
inclined surface cracks of arbitrary shape. Engineering Fracture Mechanics,
1985. 22(1): p. 101-114.
114. Murakami, Y. and Endo, M., Effects of hardness and crack geometries on ∆Kth
of small cracks emanating from small defects, in The Behaviour of Short Fatigue
Cracks, EGF Publ. 1. 1986, Mechanical Engineering Publications Ltd.: London.
p. 275–293.
115. AS 1085.1, Railway track materials Part 1: Steel rails. 2002, Standards
Australia.
116. Kaewunruen, S. and Remennikov, A.M. Nonlinear finite element modelling of

railway prestressed concrete sleeper. in Proc. of the Tenth East Asia-Pacific
Conference on Structural Engineering & Construction (EASEC-10). 2006.
Bangkok, Thailand.
117. Himebaugh, A.K., Plaut, R.H., and Dillard, D.A., Finite element analysis of
bonded insulated rail joints. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives,
2008. 28(3): p. 142-150.
118. Profillidis, V.A., Railway engineering. 2000, Burlington, VT: Ashgate Pub. Co.
119. Zhai, W.M., Wang, K.Y., and Lin, J.H., Modelling and experiment of railway
ballast vibrations. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 2004. 270(4-5): p. 673-683.
120. Esveld, C., A better understanding of continuous welded rail track. Rail
Engineering International, 1996. 25(4): p. 13-16.
121. Iwnicki, S., Handbook of railway vehicle dynamics, ed. S. Iwnicki. 2006: Taylor
& Francis.
122. ANSYS Inc, Release 12.1 Documentation. 2009.
214
123. Eisenmann, J., Stresses acting on the rail-Recent findings, 1967, International
Railway Congress Association.
124. Sugiyama, T., Yamazaki, T., and Umeda, S., Measurement of Local Stress on
Outer Rail Head, 1971,
125. Telliskivi, T., Olofsson, U., Sellgren, U., and Kruse, P. A tool and a method for
FE analysis of wheel and rail interaction. in ANSYS Conference. 2000.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA: ANSYS Corp. Publishers.
126. Evans, J. and Iwnicki, S.D. Vehicle dynamics and the wheel/rail interface. in
Wheels on rails – An update, Understanding and Managing the Wheel/Rail
Interface. 2002. London: Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
127. Zhang, S., Xiao, X., Wen, Z., and Jin, X., Effect of unsupported sleepers on
wheel/rail normal load. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 2008.
28(8): p. 662-673.
128. Ishida, M., Moto, T., Kono, A., and Jin, Y., Influence of loose sleeper on track
dynamics and bending fatigue of rail welds. Quarterly Report of RTRI, 1999.
40(2): p. 80-85.
129. Lundqvist, A. and Dahlberg, T., Load impact on railway track due to
unsupported sleepers. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit, 2005. 219(2): p. 67-77.
130. Dang Van, K., Macro-micro approach in high cycle fatigue, in Advances in
Multiaxial Fatigue ASTM STP 1191, D.L. McDowell and R. Ellis, Editors. 1993,
American Society of Testing and Materials: Philadelphia. p. 120-130.
131. Ekberg, A., Rolling contact fatigue of railway wheels, in Solid Mechanics. 2000,
Ph.D. Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology.
132. Dang Van, K., Griveau, B., and Message, O., On a new multi-axial fatigue limit
criterion: theory and application, in Biaxial and Multiaxial Fatigue, EGF3,
215
M.W. Brown and K.J. Miller, Editors. 1989, Mechanical Engineering
Publications: London. p. 479-496.
133. Papadopoulos, I.V., Critical plane approaches in high-cycle fatigue: on the

definition of the amplitude and mean value of the shear stress acting on the
critical plane. Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures, 1998.
21(3): p. 269-285.
134. Grubisic, V. and Simburger, A. Fatigue under combined out of phase multiaxial
stresses. in Proc. Int. Conference on fatigue testing and Design. 1976. London:
Society of Environmental Engineers.
135. Lemaitre, J. and Chaboche, J.L., Mechanics of solid materials. 1990,

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
136. Bernasconi, A., Efficient algorithms for calculation of shear stress amplitude
and amplitude of the second invariant of the stress deviator in fatigue criteria
applications. International Journal of Fatigue, 2002. 24(6): p. 649-657.
137. Bernasconi, A. and Papadopoulos, I.V., Efficiency of algorithms for shear stress
amplitude calculation in critical plane class fatigue criteria. Computational
Materials Science, 2005. 34(4): p. 355-368.
138. Dang Van, K., Le Douaron, A., and Lieurade, H.P. Multiaxial fatigue limit: A
new approach. in Advances in Fracture Research, Proc. 6th Int. Conf. Fract.
(I.C.F., 6). 1984. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
139. Papadopoulos, I.V., Fatigue polycyclique des me´taux: Une nouvelle approche
(Annexe A-1: La plus petite hypersphere circonscrite a` une courbe donneé).
1987, The`se de Doctorat, Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chausseés: Paris.
140. Dixon, W.J. and Mood, A.M., A Method for Obtaining and Analyzing Sensitivity
Data. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 1948. 43(241): p. 109-
126.
216
141. Collins, J.A., Failure of Materials in Mechanical Design: Analysis, Prediction,
Prevention. 2nd ed. 1993, New York: Wiley-Interscience.
142. Pollak, R., Palazotto, A., and Nicholas, T., A simulation-based investigation of
the staircase method for fatigue strength testing. Mechanics of Materials, 2006.
38(12): p. 1170-1181.
143. Umemoto, M., Liu, Z.G., Tsuchiya, K., Sugimoto, S., and Bepari, M.M.A.,
Relationship between hardness and tensile properties in various single
structured steels. Materials Science and Technology, 2001. 17: p. 505-511.
144. Callister, W.D., Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction 6th ed.
2002, New York: Wiley.
145. Schroeder, L.C. and Poirier, D.R., The mechanical properties of thermite welds
in premium alloy rails. Materials Science and Engineering, 1984. 63(1): p. 1-21.
146. Lee, Y.L., Pan, J., Hathaway, R., and Barkey, M., Fatigue Testing and Analysis:
Theory and Practice. 2004, Massachusetts: Butterworth-Heinemann.
147. Juvinall, R.C., Engineering considerations of stress, strain and strength. 1967,
New York: McGraw-Hill.
148. Procter, E. and Beaney, E.M., The trepan or ring core method, centre-hole
method, Sach's method, blind hole methods, deep hole technique, in Advances in
Surface Treatment Technology. 1987, Permagon Press: New York p. 165-198.
149. Metallurgical examination of a fractured thermit weld- 247.493 km, 5P4/Met 32,
2005, Metlabs.
150. Gutscher, D. AAR rail welding research-recent developments. in AREMA

Annual Conference Proceedings. 2008. Salt Lake City, Utah: Americal Raiway
Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association.
217
151. Moller, R., Mutton, P., and Steinhorst, M. Improving the performance of
aluminothermic rail welding technology, through selective alloying of the rail
head. in 7th Int. Heavy Haul Conference. 2001. Brisbane, Australia.
152. Examination of a fractured thermit weld-191.832 km, 6P4/Met 1, 2006, Metlabs.
153. Bhatti, A.A., 3D Fracture analysis of cold lap weld defect in welded structures,
in Department of Aeronautical and Vehicle Engineering, Division of
Lightweight Structures. 2010, Master Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology:
Stockholm, Sweden.
154. Heiskanen, M., A parametric fracture mechanics study of the effect of a cold lap
defect on fatigue strength. Rakenteiden Mekaniikka (Journal of Structural
Mechanics), 2008. 41(3): p. 119-136.
155. Guinea, G.V., Planas, J., and Elices, M., KI evaluation by the displacement
extrapolation technique. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 2000. 66(3): p. 243-
255.
156. Smith, S.A. and Raju, I.S., Evaluation of stress-intensity factors using general
finite element models, in Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics, T.L. Panontin,
Editor. 1998, Americal Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM STP 1321. p.
176-200.
157. Rice, J.R., Mathematical analysis in the mechanics of fracture, in Fracture: An

Advanced Treatise, H. Liebowitz, Editor. 1968, Academic Press: N. Y. p. 191-
308.
158. Krueger, R., Virtual crack closure technique: History, approach, and
applications. Applied Mechanics Reviews, 2004. 57(2): p. 109-143.
159. Rybicki, E.F. and Kanninen, M.F., A finite element calculation of stress intensity
factors by a modified crack closure integral. Engineering Fracture Mechanics,
1977. 9(4): p. 931-938.
218
160. Irwin, G.R., Fracture I, in Handbuch der Physik VI, Flu¨gge, Editor. 1958,
Springer Verlag: Berlin, Germany. p. 558-590.
161. Erdogan, F. and Sih, G.C., On the crack extension in plates under plane loading
and transverse shear. Journal of Basic Engineering, 1963. 85: p. 519-527.
162. Schöllmann, M., Richard, H.A., Kullmer, G., and Fulland, M., A new criterion
for the prediction of crack development in multiaxially loaded structures.
International Journal of Fracture, 2002. 117(2): p. 129-141.
163. Hussain, M., Pu, S., and Underwood, J., Strain energy release rate for a crack
under combined mode I and mode II. ASTM, STP, 1974. 560: p. 2-28.
164. Richard, H.A. in CD-Rom Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on

Fracture (ICF10). 2001. Honolulu, USA.
165. Richard, H.A., Buchholz, F.G., Kullmer, G., and Schöllmann, M., 2D- and 3D-
Mixed Mode Fracture Criteria. Key Engineering Materials, 2003. 251(1): p.
251-260.
166. Richard, H.A., Fulland, M., and Sander, M., Theoretical crack path prediction.
Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures, 2005. 28(1-2): p. 3-
12.
167. Hosseini-Toudeshky, H., Saber, M., and Mohammadi, B., Mixed-mode 3-D
crack propagation of repaired thin aluminum panels using single-side composite
patches. International Journal of Fracture, 2008. 153(2): p. 105-116.
168. Anderson, T.L., Fracture Mechanics, Fundamentals and Applications. Third ed.
2005: Taylor & Francis.
169. Metallurgical examination of fractured thermit weld-169.434, 5P4/Met 21,

2005, Metlabs.
219
APPENDIX: Implementation of the Multi-axial Dang Van
Criterion in a MATLAB Program
% Multi-axial fatigue analysis using Dang Van criterion

implemented in MATLAB programming language
% Copyright © 2012 IMAN SALEHI, Swinburne University of

Technology
% Build the stress matrix from the finite element input

data
%
% data_mat=three dimensional matrix comprising stress
tensor at each investigated material point in all load
steps which form one stress cycle
% X=number of load steps
% Z=number of material points (nodes) investigated
data_mat=zeros(X,9,Z);
%
nnodes=size(data_mat,3); % Number of nodes
ntimes=size(data_mat,1); % Number of load steps
%
% Fill data_mat with finite element data
da=0;
for ii=1:nnodes
data_mat(:,:,ii)=x1(:,1+da:9+da); %
x1=stress/coordinate matrix from finite element
software
da=da+9;
end
%
% End of building the stress matrix
% Build the total stress matrix including the residual

stresses
%
% Stressmatrix=same as data_mat with residual stresses
superimposed through linear representation
stressmatrix=data_mat;
for jj=1:nnodes
220
if data_mat(1,9,jj)<=24 % 3 sets of linear
equations have been specified for longitudinal residual
stress based on vertical distance from the rail foot
stressmatrix(:,1,jj)=stressmatrix(:,1,jj)+(17.083*d
ata_mat(1,9,jj)-230)*(10^6);
else
stressmatrix(:,1,jj)=stressmatrix(:,1,jj)+180*(10^6
);
end
if data_mat(1,9,jj)<=40 % 3 sets of linear

equations have been specified for vertical residual
stress based on vertical distance from the rail foot
stressmatrix(:,3,jj)=stressmatrix(:,3,jj)+0;
elseif data_mat(1,9,jj)<=70
stressmatrix(:,3,jj)=stressmatrix(:,3,jj)+(5*data_m
at(1,9,jj)-200)*(10^6);
stressmatrix(:,3,jj)=stressmatrix(:,3,jj)+150*(10^6
);
stressmatrix(:,3,jj)=stressmatrix(:,3,jj)+(-
5*data_mat(1,9,jj)+600)*(10^6);
else
stressmatrix(:,3,jj)=stressmatrix(:,3,jj)+0;
end
end
%
% End of building the total stress matrix
% Calculate the Dang Van fatigue parameters (aDV and bDV)

%
Sfl=input('Enter the fatigue limit for tension-compression
test:');
Tfl=input('Enter the fatigue limit for torsion test:');
aDV=3*((Tfl/Sfl)-0.5);
bDV=Tfl;
% Definition of parameters for stress transformation of the

considered shear plane and construction of the shear path
%
221
transform=zeros(3,3); % Transformation
matrix to find the coordinate system of the considered
shear plane
% Unit vectors of the global coordinate system
oldx=[1;0;0];
oldy=[0;1;0];
oldz=[0;0;1];
% Unit vectors of the coordinate system of the considered
shear plane
newx=zeros(3,1);
newy=zeros(3,1);
newz=zeros(3,1);
newstress=zeros(ntimes,6); % New stress tensor
in the coordinate system of the considered shear plane
pathpoints=zeros(ntimes,2); % Coordinates of
the end point of the shear stress vector on the considered
shear plane (these points define the shear path which is
used to define the minimum circumscribed circle)
% Definition of parameters for minimum circumscribed circle

%
centre2=zeros(2,1); % Centre of the
constructed two point circle by any two point on the shear
path
centre3=zeros(2,1); % Centre of the
constructed three point circle by any three point on the
shear path
centre2p=zeros(2,1); % Centre of the two
point circle which satisfies the minimum circumscribed
circle condition
centre3p=zeros(2,1); % Centre of the
three point circle which satisfies the minimum
circumscribed circle condition
centre2p3p=zeros(2,2); % Both centres in
one matrix
mincentre=zeros(2,1); % Centre of the
smallest circle between the 2-point and 3-point circles
% Definition of parameters for hydrostatic stress, shear

stress amplitude and damage parameter on the considered
shear plane
%
Shyd=zeros(ntimes,1); % Time dependent
hydrostatic stress
222
Ta=zeros(ntimes,1); % Time dependent
shear stress amplitude on the considered shear plane (value
of the shear stress amplitude vector)
Dv=zeros(ntimes,1); % Time dependent
damage parameter for the shear plane considered
Shydcrit=zeros(ntimes,nnodes); % Hydrostatic stress
on the critical plane in all load steps and in all nodes
Tacrit=zeros(ntimes,nnodes); % Shear stress
amplitude on the critical plane in all load steps and in
all nodes
Dvcrit=zeros(ntimes,nnodes); % Damage on the
critical plane in all load steps and in all nodes
Anglescrit=zeros(3,nnodes); % Unit vector of
normal to the critical plane in all nodes
DVpoints=zeros(nnodes,1); % Maximum damage
parameter in all nodes considered
% Shear path on the critical plane for all nodes
pathcritx=zeros(ntimes,nnodes);
pathcrity=zeros(ntimes,nnodes);
hnn=zeros(nnodes,1); % Parameter to define
weather the minimum circumscribed circle on the critical
plane has been a 2-ponit circle (hnn=1) or a 3-point
circle(hnn=2)
mincentrecrit=zeros(2,nnodes); % Centre of the
smallest circle on the critical plane
minradiuscrit=zeros(nnodes,1); % Radius of the
smallest circle on the critical plane
% Critical plane analysis for all nodes: the aim is to

consider all the shear planes passing through the
considered node
%
for nn=1:nnodes % Critical plane
analysis is performed for all nodes
for alpha=0:359 % Angle of rotation
(around x-axis) of the coordinate system (each
investigated shear plane is the same as the xy plane of
the new rotated coordinate system and the normal to the
shear plane is the z-axis of the new coordinate system)
for beta=0:90 % Angle of rotation
(around y-axis) of the coordinate system
radius2p=1e30; % A very large number
for the radius of the two point circle (for the
sake of comparison and finding the smallest 2-
point circle)
radius3p=1e30; % A very large number
for the radius of the three point circle (for
223
the sake of comparison and finding the smallest
3-point circle)
transform=[cosd(beta) sind(beta)*sind(alpha)
sind(beta)*cosd(alpha);0 cosd(alpha) -
sind(alpha);-sind(beta) cosd(beta)*sind(alpha)
cosd(beta)*cosd(alpha)];
% New coordinate system after rotation
newx=transform*oldx;
newy=transform*oldy;
newz=transform*oldz;
a11=newx(1);
a12=newx(2);
a13=newx(3);
a21=newy(1);
a22=newy(2);
a23=newy(3);
a31=newz(1);
a32=newz(2);
a33=newz(3);
% New stress tensor in the rotated coordinate
system
for nt=1:ntimes
s11=stressmatrix(nt,1,nn);
newstress(nt,1)=a11^2*s11+a12^2*s22+a13^2*s
33+2*a11*a12*s12+2*a11*a13*s13+2*a12*a13*s2
3;
33+2*a21*a22*s12+2*a21*a23*s13+2*a22*a23*s2
3;
33+2*a31*a32*s12+2*a31*a33*s13+2*a32*a33*s2
3;
newstress(nt,4)=a11*a21*s11+a12*a22*s22+a13
*a23*s33+(a11*a22+a12*a21)*s12+(a12*a23+a13
*a22)*s23+(a11*a23+a13*a21)*s13;
*a33*s33+(a21*a32+a22*a31)*s12+(a22*a33+a23
*a32)*s23+(a21*a33+a23*a31)*s13;
224
*a33*s33+(a11*a32+a12*a31)*s12+(a12*a33+a13
*a32)*s23+(a11*a33+a13*a31)*s13;
end
% Coordinate of the end point of the shear

vector on the shear plane or the xy plane of
the rotated coordinate system (these points
form the shear path)
%
pathpoints(:,1)=newstress(:,6);
pathpoints(:,2)=newstress(:,5);
% Find the smallest 2-point circle

%
for hh=1:(ntimes-1)
for gg=(hh+1):ntimes
out2=0;
% Construct the 2-point circle
radius2=0.5*sqrt((pathpoints(hh,1)-
pathpoints(gg,1))^2+(pathpoints(hh,2)-
pathpoints(gg,2))^2);
centre2=[(pathpoints(hh,1)+pathpoints(g
g,1))/2;(pathpoints(hh,2)+pathpoints(gg
,2))/2];
for zz=1:ntimes % Check to
determine if the 2-point circle
contains all the points of the shear
path
ch2p=sqrt((pathpoints(zz,1)-
centre2(1,1))^2+(pathpoints(zz,2)-
centre2(2,1))^2);
if (ch2p)>(radius2+100)
out2=1;
break
end
end
if (out2==0)&&(radius2<radius2p) %
Check to determine if the circle
contains the whole shear path and is
the smallest among all other 2-point
circles
radius2p=radius2;
225
centre2p=centre2;
end
end
end
% Find the smallest 3-point circle

%
for kk=1:(ntimes-2)
for ll=(kk+1):(ntimes-1)
for mm=(ll+1):ntimes
% a,b,c are the sides of the
triangle formed by the considered
three points
a=sqrt((pathpoints(kk,1)-
pathpoints(ll,1))^2+(pathpoints(kk,
2)-pathpoints(ll,2))^2);
b=sqrt((pathpoints(ll,1)-
pathpoints(mm,1))^2+(pathpoints(ll,
2)-pathpoints(mm,2))^2);
c=sqrt((pathpoints(mm,1)-
pathpoints(kk,1))^2+(pathpoints(mm,
2)-pathpoints(kk,2))^2);
if (-a+b+c)*(a-b+c)*(a+b-c)~=0 %
Check to determine if the three
considered points of the shear path
form a circle
out3=0;
% Construct the 3-point circle
radius3=a*b*c/(sqrt((a+b+c)*(-
a+b+c)*(a-b+c)*(a+b-c)));
ax=pathpoints(kk,1);
ay=pathpoints(kk,2);
bx=pathpoints(ll,1);
by=pathpoints(ll,2);
cx=pathpoints(mm,1);
cy=pathpoints(mm,2);
centre3(1,1)=((ay^2+ax^2)*(by-
cy)+(by^2+bx^2)*(cy-
ay)+(cy^2+cx^2)*(ay-
by))/(2*(ax*(by-cy)+bx*(cy-
ay)+cx*(ay-by)));
centre3(2,1)=((ay^2+ax^2)*(cx-
226
bx)+(by^2+bx^2)*(ax-
cx)+(cy^2+cx^2)*(bx-
ax))/(2*(ax*(by-cy)+bx*(cy-
ay)+cx*(ay-by)));
for pp=1:ntimes %
Check to determine if the 3-
point circle contains all the
points of the shear path
ch3p=sqrt((pathpoints(pp,1)-
centre3(1))^2+(pathpoints(pp,2)
-centre3(2))^2);
if ch3p>(radius3+100)
out3=1;
break
end
end
else
out3=1;
end
if (out3==0)&&(radius3<radius3p) %
Check to determine if the circle
contains the whole shear path and
is the smallest among all other 3-
point circles
radius3p=radius3;
centre3p=centre3;
end
end
end
end
% Find the minimum circumscribed circle among

the smallest circumscribing 2-point and 3-point
circles
%
centre2p3p=[centre2p centre3p];
[minradius,h]=min([radius2p radius3p]);
% Radius of the minimum circumscribed circle
defined
mincentre=centre2p3p(:,h);
% Centre of the minimum circumscribed circle
defined
227
% Calculate the time dependent damage parameter
for the considered shear plane
%
for bb=1:ntimes
Shyd(bb,1)=(newstress(bb,1)+newstress(bb,2)
+newstress(bb,3))/3;
% Time dependent hydrostatic stress for the
considered shear plane
Ta(bb,1)=sqrt((pathpoints(bb,1)-
mincentre(1,1))^2+(pathpoints(bb,2)-
mincentre(2,1))^2); % Time dependent
shear stress amplitude for the considered
shear plane
end
Dv=Ta+aDV*Shyd; % Time dependent damage
parameter for the considered shear plane
% Determine the maximum damage on the

considered shear plane and compare with the
maximum damage of other shear planes passing
through that point to extract the maximum
damage value at the considered point and the
associated critical plane
%
if (max(Dv)>max(Dvcrit(:,nn)))
Dvcrit(:,nn)=Dv;
Tacrit(:,nn)=Ta;
Shydcrit(:,nn)=Shyd;
Anglescrit(:,nn)=newz;
pathcritx(:,nn)=pathpoints(:,1);
pathcrity(:,nn)=pathpoints(:,2);
hnn(nn)=h;
mincentrecrit(:,nn)=mincentre(:,1);
minradiuscrit(nn)=minradius;
end
end
end
DVpoints(nn,1)=max(Dvcrit(:,nn)); % The final matrix
showing the maximum damage on the critical plane of
each considered material point
disp(nn);
end
228

Iman Salehi Thesis PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Iman Salehi Thesis PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

FATIGUE AND FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR OF

ALUMINOTHERMIC RAIL WELDS UNDER HIGH

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Centre for Sustainable Infrastructure

My PhD study was sponsored by Swinburne University of Technology through a

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... XI

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. XXIV

LIST OF NOTATIONS AND ACRONYMS ......................................................... XXV

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................... 12

CHAPTER 3 IN-TRACK BENDING BEHAVIOUR............................................... 47

CHAPTER 4 MULTI-AXIAL FATIGUE ANALYSIS ............................................ 87

CHAPTER 6 COLD LAP DEFECT ........................................................................ 139

CHAPTER 7 TOLERANCE TO WEB DEFECTS ................................................ 173

CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK........................................ 194

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 202

APPENDIX: Implementation of the Multi-axial Dang Van Criterion in a

( )) and the mesoscopic stress ( ( ))

Definition of the minimum circumscribed circle (MCC); ( ) −

is the time dependent shear stress amplitude ( ( )) and

different criteria is consistent to the maximum ∆

Table 3-1 Summary of the finite element model parameters 54

CWR Continuous Welded Rail

HAZ Heat Affected Zone

,A Shear stress amplitude on the critical plane

,A Mean normal stress on the critical plane

M Sleeper sitting width

UW and UW (V) Shear stress amplitude vector

Dynamic fracture toughness

1.1 Continuous Welded Rail

1.2 Aluminothermic Weld

The invention of thermite process and aluminothermic weld is considered a milestone in

Fe2O3 + 2Al 2Fe + Al2O3 + 181.5 Kcal (1-1)

3Fe2O3 + 8Al 9Fe + 4Al2O3 + 719.3 Kcal (1-2)

Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy

• Joining new rails on site as part of the railway construction

1.3 Aluminothermic Weld as a Major Source of Failure

• Inconsistency of the weld microstructure and material properties (static and

Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy

Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy

1.4 Aims and Objectives

Bending and Fatigue Behaviour

Amongst different metallurgical and mechanical parameters important in initiation and

Straight Break at Top of the Rail Foot

HSW and Web Defects

A further chapter is devoted to the role of specific defects in formation of horizontal

Analysis of fatigue behaviour is performed using the calculated stress histories

Damage tolerance analysis is performed using two techniques each of which is

Chapter 4, Multi-axial fatigue analysis: fatigue behaviour of ATW is investigated using

2.1 Aluminothermic Weld Failure Mechanisms

Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy

Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy

b c 60(!"# 6 )/$6 (2-1)

is the static wheel load at weld (N), ! is the

Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy

Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy

Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy

ghiJ JjJ(g Q b k1 c 0.27 tan ' r.6s t u v1 + 0.1054 * √)y −1

Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy

Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy

Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy

Copyright Material-Please refer to the hard copy

Where ∆ , r is the threshold stress intensity factor range at ). b 0 and = is a material