Methods of Building Construction have developed 4 Techniques consistent with this

principle of balances between gravity, form and type of materials used:

1. Post and Lintel type of construction

2. Arch and Vaults
3. Trusses
4. Cantilever construction

Post and Lintel type of construction

- A classical Greek method of constructing building and temples where horizontal beams of cut
stone or marble are put across the space between 2 supporting posts
o Wall
 If the support is continuous
o Slab
 If a series of beams are joined together into a continuous surface

Arch and Vault

- A masonry type of construction originated in Mesopotamia (Iraq)
o Mesopotamia
 The land of bricks building

Truss
- Andrea Palladio
o “If a single triangle is rigid, combinations of triangles are also rigid.”
- Types of trusses commonly used in buildings were named after their inventors:
o Pratt truss
 Invented in 1844 by Thomas and Caleb Pratt
o Howe truss
 Introduced in 1840 by American architect William Howe
o Warren truss
 Patented a design in 1848 by James Warren

Cantilever
- An element projected outward from a fixed support
6 Functional Groups of Construction Tools: Carpentry Tools are classified
1. Striking tools according to Functions:
2. Cutting tools 1. Guiding and Testing tools
3. Boring tools 2. Marking tools
4. Torsion tools 3. Measuring tools
5. Measuring tools 4. Holding tools
6. Holding tools 5. Toothed Cutting tools
6. Sharp-edge Cutting tools
7. Rough Facing tools
Tools may be classified according to 8. Smooth Facing tools
the Different Kinds of Trade: 9. Boring tools
1. Carpentry tools 10. Fastening tools
2. Masonry tools 11. Sharpening tools
3. Tinsmith tools 12. Working Bench
4. Painters tools
5. Plumbing tools
6. Electrical tools

1. Guiding and Testing Tools:

Straight Edge
- A tool used to guide pencil or scriber in marking straight line

Square
- A 90 degrees standard right angle tool used for marking and testing work
- Classified into the following types:
o Try or Trying Square
 A square with blades ranging from 6 to 12 inches
o Miter Square
 A square with blades permanently set at 45 degrees
o Combined Try and Miter Square
 A combination of 45 and 90 degrees in one setting
o Combined Square
 Similar in appearance with try square only that the head can slide and clamp at any
desired distance of the blade
 Also provided with a miter and level guide
o Framing or Steel Square
 So called as it is used effectively on various framing works
1. Guiding and Testing Tools:
Different Parts of Framing Square:
Body
- The longer and wider part of the square

Tongue
- The shorter and narrower part

Face
- The side of the square visible when the tongue is held by the left hand with the body pointing
to the right

Heel
- The point at which the tongue and body meet on the outside edge

1. Guiding and Testing Tools:

Level
- Used for both guiding and testing the work to a vertical or horizontal position

Plastic Hose with water

- One of the best and accurate tool for guiding work in establishing a horizontal level

Sliding T-Bevel
- Like a try square with sliding and adjustable blade that could be set to any angle other than
90 degrees

Angle Divider
- A double bevel square used to divide an angle in a complicated work in one setting
1. Guide and Testing Tools:
Miter Shooting Board
- A plain board with 45 degrees guide fastened on top of the upper board
- Used in designing patterns, cabinets and the like

Miter Box
- A device used as guide of the hand saw in cutting objects to form a miter joint

Plumb Bob
- A metal used to check a vertical line
o Plumb
 Means perpendicular to a horizontal line

2. Marking Tools:
Chalk Line and Reel
- Used for marking a very rough work
Lead Pencil
- With round head is also used for marking rough work

Scratch Awl
- Used in marking a semi-rough work

Scriber
- Used in marking fine work
- Made of hard end steel with a sharp point designed to mark fine lines

Compass
- A tool used to describe an arc or circle
Divider
- Used in dividing distances into equal parts from an arc, circumference including straight lines
3. Measuring Tools:
Two Foot Four Folding Rule
- Made of four fold blade connected by three hinges spaced at 6 inches (15 cm) apart generally
used for measuring short distances
- Also serves as a protractor to establish an angle

Extension Rule
- Used to measure inside distances like doors, windows, inside cabinets, etc.

Zigzag Rule
- Available in 4 feet and 6 feet long commonly used by carpenters on rough layout
- There are 3 types of zigzag rule joints available:
o Concealed Joint
o Riveted Joint
o Springless Joint

3. Measuring Tools:
Push-Pull Tape
- Used to measure longer distances available from 1 meter to 50 meters long
Slide Caliper Rule
- A special tool used to measure outside diameter of cylindrical objects

Marking Gauge
- A tool most appropriate in marking lines parallel with the edges of wood
4. Holding Tools:
Holding Tool
- An apparatus used to accomplish fine carpentry and joinery works
- May be classified according to the service required such as:
o Supporting
 Support for carpentry works like sawing, chiseling, planing and the like
 Example: Horse or Trestle
o Retaining
 Regarded as rigid and strong enough in pressing tightly the materials together
 Example: Clamp and Vise
 Clamp
o Effective in tightly pressing pieces of wood or metal together in
making tenon, mortise and other joints
 Vise
o A table tool designed to hold a piece of materials rigidly secured
in place to absorb severe blows

5. Toothed Cutting Tools:

Toothed Cutting Tools
- Are of utmost importance due to its versatility in service and demand
- Classified as:
o Saws
Maybe classified into: With respect to its Cut: With respect to Service:
1. Hand saw 1. Cross cut 1. Cabinet
2. Circular saw 2. Rip cut 2. Jointer
3. Band saw 3. Combined rip and cross cut 3. Miter
With respect to Blade: 4. Stair
5. Floor
1. Straight back 6. Buck or Wood
2. Skewed back 7. Compass
3. Narrowed rip back 8. Keyhole
4. Hand 9. Coping
5. Panel with adjustable handle 10. Jack
o Files
o Sandpaper
5. Toothed Cutting Tools:
Files and Rasp
Files
- Metal tools of different shape and size used for abrading, reducing, smoothening and cutting
metal, wood or other materials
Rasp
- A very coarse file that differs from the ordinary file with its teeth running across the face of the
file

6. Sharp-Edge Cutting Tools

Chisel
- An indispensable tool in carpentry works considered as the most abused tool
- Often used for prying, opening cases, screw driver and can opener
- With respect to Duty or Service, it is classified as:
o Paring (Thin)
 A light duty tool used to plane long surfaces parallel with the grain of wood
 It is not driven by blows, but manipulated by steady sustained pressure of hand
o Firming (Medium)
o Framing (Thick)
 A heavy duty tool used to withstand severe strain caused by hard blow of
hammer in framing works where deep cuts are necessary
- With respect to the Length of Blade:
o Butt (2½” to 3¼”)
o Pocket (4” to 5”)
o Mill (6” to 10”)
6. Sharp-Edge Cutting Tools Slick
- With respect to the Edge of Blade: - Any chisel having a blade wider than 2
o Plain inches
o Bevel - Regular sizes are 2½, 3 or 4 inches used on
- With respect to Handle Attachment: surface whether large chips are to be taken
off or where unusual power is required
o Tang
o Socket Gouge
- With respect to Shape of Blade: - A chisel with hallow shaped blade for
o Flat scooping or cutting round holes
o Round (Gouge) - Can be either:
o L or Corner o Outside bevel
- With respect to Abnormal Width of Blade: o Inside bevel
o Slick Draw Knife
o Gouge - A tool consisting of a large sharp edge
blade having at each end a handle at right
angles to the blade
- Used in trimming wood by drawing toward
the user

7. Rough Facing Tools

Rough Facing Tools
- Are striking tools used through a series of blows
- Considered as inertia tools
- Cut produced is considerably rough compared with that made by other tools
- Examples are:
o Hatchet
 A utility tool used for sharpening stakes and cutting down timber to rough sizes
o Axe
 A tool used for splitting wood or hewing timber
o Adze
 A hatchet with the blade direction at right angle with the handle
8. Smooth Facing Tools
Smooth Facing Tools
- Are sometimes regarded as Guided Sharp Edge Cutting Tools
- These are actually chisels with frames to guide and limit the cut in making smooth surface

Different kinds of smooth facing tools: With respect to Materials of Construction:

- Planes - Wood
o Jack - Iron
o Fore Plane - Combined Wood and Metal
o Trying Plane - Power Plane
o Jointer With respect to Direction of Cut:
o Smooth Plane - Bench (along the grain of wood)
o Block Plane - Block (across the grain of wood)
o Molding and Special Plane
- Spoke Shave

8. Smooth Facing Tools: Molding and Special Plane

With respect to Size and Service:
- Jointer Plane – 28 to 30 inches or 70 to 75 cm
- Trying Plane – 22 to 24 inches or 55 to 60 cm
- Fore Plane – 18 inches or 55 to 60 cm
- Jack Plane – 14 to 16 inches or 35 to 40 cm
- Smooth Plane – 5½ to 12 inches or 15 to 30 cm
With respect to the Bottom Face:
- Iron (plain or corrugated)
- Wood
With respect to Iron:
- Single
- Double
With respect to Unusual Feature:
- Molding
- Special
- Used to make various shapes of molding and canal
cuts
- There are 5 types of Molding Planes:
o Rabbet or Rebate Plane
 Used for making a sinking cut on
wood to make them fit to each other
o Fillister Plane
 Similar in use as the rabbet plane
 More preferable because it cuts
more accurately than the former
o Grooving Plane
 Used in cutting across the wood
grain
o Router
 Used to surface the bottom of the
grooves and other mold design
o Round and Hallow Molding Plane
 Used to produce a concave or
convex surface

Spoke Shave
- Used on small curve surface where plane could not accomplish
9. Boring Tools
Boring or Drilling Tools
- Specially designed to make hole in wood or metal
- Different types of drilling tools adopted to meet special working conditions such as:
o Punching
o Boring
o Drilling
o External Boring
o Counter Sinking
o Enlarging

Various Kinds of Tools for these operations are:

- Brad Awl
- Gimlets and Auger
- Drill
- Hollow Auger
- Spoke Pointer
- Counter Sinks
- Reamers

9. Boring Tools
Brad Awl
- A small tool used for punching or piercing small holes
- Used in starting a nail or screw into hardwood
- Sizes from 1/16” to 3’16” diameter

Gimlet
- A tool used for boring holes by hand pressure classified as:
o Twist
o Plain

Auger
- Used for boring holes with a diameter ranging from ½ to 2 inches
- Bits
o An Auger provided with a shank

Single Thread Bit

- A coarse pitch for quick boring recommended for hard or gummy wood, end-grain boring, mortising
doors, etc.
- Used for hardwood boring
9. Boring Tools
Double Thread Bit
- Was proven unsurpassed for accurate working on seasoned lumber not extremely hard or gummy
wood preferred for cabinet making
- Can be used practically for all types of work but bore more slowly than the coarse single tread bit
- Used for softwood boring
Single Cutter with an extension lip and coarse screw
- Recommended for a general all around boring and rapid clean cutting and easy boring operation
- Used for difficult boring of wet green, and very hard knotty wood and boring of wood parallel with
the grain

Double Cutter with extension lip and fine screw bit

- Bores and clears the hole easily
- Recommended for furniture and cabinet making or wherever a particular smooth hole is essential

Slip Head with Single Cutter without Screw or Lip

- Or Barefoot
- Preferred for deep boring in wet pitchy wood or when straight boring is required

9. Boring Tools
Hollow Auger
- Intended for external boring or turning

Spoke Pointers
- Cuts a conical hole
- Similar with the auger only that the cutter is lengthwise

Counter Sink
- Used to enlarge a conical hole at the surface of wood

Reamer
- A machinist tool used in enlarging metal holes
- Also used in carpentry work for enlarging holes on wood
- Provided with a shank instead of a handle

Twist Drill
- Designed for drilling small holes
- Preferably used in cases where the gimlets or the auger may cause splitting of the wood grain
- Has less tendency of splitting the wood grain because it was not provided with a cutting lip
10. Fastening Tools
Fastening Tools
- Used to fix or connect parts of the work together with nails, screw, bolts, etc.
- Different types of Fastening Tools:
o Claw Hammer
 A hand tool made of steel carefully forged, hardened and tempered
 Size varies from 140 to 560 grams
 400 to 500 grams
o Recommended for finishing work
 450 to 560 grams
o Recommended for framing work

10. Fastening Tools

o Wrench
 A tool with handle and a jaw which may be fitted to the head of a nut used to
tighten or loosen bolts
 Classified as either plain, socket, or adjustable
o Screw Driver
 A hand tool with a head and shank used for turning screw
 Either plain or automatic to be classified according to the shape of the tip of the
tank:
 Ordinary
 Philip
 Yankee
11. Sharpening Tools
Different Kinds of Sharpening Tools:
- Grind Stone
o A flat disc stone made of sandstone mounted on a shaft used for sharpening, shaping
or polishing metal by turning
- Oil Stone
o Used after the grinding operation to achieve a smooth keen edge of the tool
o Oil is used a lubricating medium in grinding

12. Working Bench

Working Bench
- Also an indispensable tool in carpentry operation as a shop tool
- One necessity for the preparation of various kinds of on site or off site job
- Includes some of the following attachment:
o Quick Acting Bench Vise
o Bench Vise
o Grinder
o Anvil
Circular Saw
- A steel disc provided with teeth designed to revolve on a shaft at a high rate of speed
- Used to cut lumber in sizes required in the construction including special molding cuts like rabbets, grooves,
dadoes and tenon
- Light portable mills
o Run approximately at 450 to 650 rpm
- Small Circular Table Saws
o Runs about 2000 to 3000 rpm
- Maybe divided into 2 general groups classified with respect to the kind of teeth it has:
o Solid Teeth
o Inserted Teeth
 Solid Teeth Circular Saw
 The teeth are integral part of the circular plate as distinguished from inserted teeth
 Inserted Saw Tooth
 Are drop forged steel made separately from the disc arranged, inserted and locked
firmly in place on the rim of the disc

*The fewer the teeth in the saw, the less power it requires to rotate.
*The more teeth in contact with the wood, the more power is required to rotate the saw to its specified rpm speed.

Different Kinds of Saw

Crosscut Saw
- Has greater number of teeth designed for cutting across the grain of wood
- Will heat faster when used for ripping or cutting parallel with the grain
o Because of the greater number of teeth in contact with the wood
- Overheating the saw blade teeth
o Causes warping and wobbling run making inaccurate cut

Ripsaw
- Was designed to cut along the direction of the wood grain

Combination Rip and Crosscut Blade

- Was designed to cut across the grain, along the grain and diagonal to the grain
- A fast cutting saw but produces a very rough cut
Carbide Tipped Blade
- Was made for both cross cutting and ripping
- Used on hard board, laminates and other materials where a regular saw would become dull
quickly
Safe Edge Blade
- A controlled cut saw blade with a fewer number of tooth and requires less power to run
- Considerably quite in operation

Molding Head and Cutters

- Has a replaceable blade of various type of molding heads that could be assembled or
disassembled quickly

Dado Blade Set

- Used to cut grooves (dado and rabbets) from 3 mm to 25 mm width regardless of the grain
directions

Radial Arm Saw

- A power driven rotary cutting tool
- A refinement of the overhead swing saw
- Circular cutter revolved at speed between 3500 to 3600 rpm
- Also used to make groove, dado and tenon
Portable Electric Saw
- A power driven rotary cutting tool provided with toothed circular blade
- Blade revolves at an arbor speed between 3200 and 4500 rpm
- A handy power tool for construction work
- Very effective tool in the construction of framework such as angular cuts for stair, jacks and
truss members
- Cutting Capacity of the Saw
o 15 cm saw will cut to a depth of 47 mm
o 18 cm saw will cut to a depth of 53 mm
o 20 cm saw will cut to a depth of 70 mm
o 22 cm saw will cut to a depth of 82 mm
Portable Electric Drill
- A motorized rotary driving tool
- Operates through a small high speed electric motor with gear reduction driving device
- Electric motor are designed with a pistol shaped housing for holding drill shanks up to 10 mm
diameter with handle for heavy duty work up to 12 mm diameter
- Used to drive all types of rotary cutting tools
- Provided with special attachments used as driving unit for sanding, polishing and grinding as
well as circular and jigaw

Drill Press
- A power driven rotary tool for driving drill, bits, cutters and many auxiliary attachments such
as mortise chisels, grinding wheels and shaper cutters
- Speed varies from 300 to 700 rpm
- Speed is controlled by shifting the drive belt on a set of cone pulleys operating on the
principles of wheel and axle
- With various attachment, drill press could be utilized as a sander, planer, shaper, router and
mortise

Portable Electric Saber Saw

- Or Bayonet Saw
- A power driven reciprocating cutting tool
- Driven by a high-speed electric motor provided with a mechanism capable of changing the
rotary to reciprocating motion
- A heavy-duty type all-purpose saw designed for construction work
- Holds a saber blade from 8 cm to 30 cm long and cuts flush to a vertical or horizontal surface
- Originally designed only to cut wood, but can now be used on metal, plastic laminates and
composition materials
Single Surface Planer
- A power driven rotating edge cutting tool
- Full width knives are set equidistant along the circumference of the cutter head
o Rotates at a speed of 3600 to 7200 rpm
- Planer knives cut under the principle of a continuous set of cutting wedges

Band Saw
- A power driven endless toothed hand cutting tool
- More extensively used and preferred than the circular saw for heavy-duty work
o Due to the savings realized in the wood cut
- Was designed as a thin strip of tempered flexible belt with rip teeth filed on one edge and run
around 2 pulleys at a speed from 900 to 1500 rpm or 600 to 1200 wheel rpm
- Cuts under the principles of continuous set of cutting wedges
- Used to cut curves, ripping, and cross cutting
- 2 types of Band Saw Teeth:
o Regular Standard Tip Shaped Tooth
o Raker Tooth

Portable Sander
- A power driven abrading tool
- Has 3 types:
o Belt Sander
 A coated abrasive belt is run over a pad guided by an idler and driving drum
o Disk Sander
 A coated abrasive disk rotates on a motor spindle
 For rough sanding and fast removal of stock
o Finishing Sander
 A coated abrasive strip fitted over a pressure pad is powered in an orbital or in-
line oscillating motion
 Has 2 different sanding motions:
 Orbital Motion Sander
o Used to finish sanding with fast circular pattern
 Line Sander
o Cutting action is back and forth in a straight line used for the final
sanding of wood surface
Portable Hand Router
- A power driven rotary shaping tool revolving at a spindle speed of 5000 to 27000 rpm scraping
under the principle of continuous set of cutting wedges
- Used to cut moldings, rout cut grains for inlay and cut dovetails, etc.

Wood Lathe
- A powered rotary driving tool
- Used to rotate the material for shaping, sanding or polishing
- Also used as holding jig for fluting, roughing and drilling holes

Gouge
- Used in roughing out cylinders and in turning concave surfaces on spindles
- Blade is concave-convex in cross section with a round beveled cutting edge

Skew Chisel
- A flat turning chisel used in smoothing cylinders, rounding edges making V shape canal and shoulder cuts
- Also used for shearing or scrapping wood

Round Nose
- A flat scraping chisel used in roughing and shaping concave surfaces
- End is rounded with a single bevel of about 30 degrees

Square Nose
- A flat scraping chisel used to make flat straight cuts
- Appears like a standard wood chisel in shape but has a thicker and longer blade
- End is square with single bevel

Diamond Point
- A flat scraping chisel used to make V cuts
- Point cutting edge is beveled at 30 degrees

Parting Tool
- A scraping chisel used to make deep narrow cuts and deep cuts for sizing when shaping the profiles
2 Categories of Masonry Tools:
1. Roughing Up Tools
2. Surface Finishing Tools

Roughing Up Tools
- Tools necessary in the process of preparing, arranging, forming, laying and shaping of bricks, masonry
blocks and stones.
- Tools for this type of work are mostly striking tools such as:
o Masons Axe or Hammer
 Or Ax-hammer
 Used in 2 different ways
 Axe to serve as a chisel and the hammer for driving nails and other rough work in
masonry
o Brick Hammer
 Another type of combination hammer used for dressing and cutting bricks, stones or
concrete blocks plus other driving operations
o Patent Hammer
 A hammer wherein the head is composed of group of thin chisels used in dressing
stone or concrete

Roughing Up Tools
o Cross Peen Hammer
 A crosshead hammer with 1 side formed like a wedge intended for various
striking need in masonry work
o Cold Chisel
 A common tool for carpentry and masonry work used for dressing or cutting
stone, concrete, metal and other materials with the aid of hammer
o Star Drill
 Used for boring or drilling holes on hard surfaces such as rock, stone or
concrete
o Bolster
 Or Blocking Chisel
 A tool similar in appearance with the cold chisel including its services but has a
wide blade edge
o Wrecking Bar
 A very useful tool made of steel bar used in demolition of work and in pulling off
large nails
Surface Finishing Tools
- Has 2 categories:
1. Float
2. Trowel

Float
- Flat tools with handle at the back usually made of wood classified as:
o Common Float
 Used to smooth or textured surface on cement or plaster
o Bull Float
 Used to smooth freshly placed concrete
o Devil or Nail Float
 Used to roughen the surface of plaster coat to provide key for the next coat
o Carpet Float
 Used in plastering to produce a fine grained texture in sand finishes
o Angle Float
 Used for finishing corners and other intricate plastering work

Trowels
- Flat hand tools used for applying, spreading and shaping plaster/mortar to produce a relatively
smooth finish on concrete surface in the final stages of plastering
- Has different kinds:
o Ordinary Trowel
 Similar in appearance as the ordinary float but with a steel blade
o Pointing Trowel
 A kind of trowel used in pointing or removing and laying mortar in masonry joints
o Brick Trowel
 A trowel with an offset blade used to pick up or spread mortar
o Buttering Trowel
 A small trowel used on the edges of concrete or plaster to form a round corner
o Edger
 A finishing trowel used on the edges of fresh concrete or plaster to form a round
corner
o Margin Trowel
 A trowel where its sides has a box-like appearance especially used for working
corner angles
Miscellaneous Masonry Tools
Spade
- A basic construction tool used in many of the dirty work of concrete mixing and plastering

Pail
- In the absence of buggy or in a narrow crowded space where buggy or wheelbarrow could
not serve effectively in delivering fresh concrete, pail will do

Mixing Board
- Mixing mortar for block laying, plastering and other small mixing operations were done by
hand on a mixing board

Rubber or Plastic Foam

- A very useful tool used by mason to obtain a fine texture concrete plaster
- Also useful in various tile work operations and cleaning

Painter’s Brush
- Another tool used by mason similar in function as the rubber foam for finishing touches

Miscellaneous Masonry Tools

Plastic or Nylon Cord
- Used for guiding, and marking vertical and horizontal lines
- Very useful in laying out building lines on the ground, bricks, CHB and tile laying

Aligning Stick
- A wooden stick with straight edge used by mason to check the horizontal and vertical
alignment of concrete plaster
Hoisting Apparatus
Hoist
- Defined as equipment used to raise or lower heavy articles

Various forms of hoist employed by builders:

- With respect to the lifting materials:
o Rope
o Steel Cable
o Chain
- With respect to kind of gearing:
o Pulley (Block and Fall)
o Differential
o Super Gear and Drum
o Mounted Crane

Bend
- The fastening of the rope to one another or to ring, thimble, etc.

Belay
- To make fast the end of the tackle fall at the conclusion of a hoisting operation

Bight
- The loose part of a rope between 2 fixed ends

Haul
- To heave or pull on a rope

Hitch
- Fastening of a rope simply by winding it without knotting around some object
Knot
- The process of fastening 1 part of a rope to another part of the same by interlocking then
drawing the loop tight

Lay
- To twist strands together as in making a rope

Make Fast
- Securing the loose end of a rope to some fixed object

Marlin Spike
- A long tapered steel used to inlay or separate the rope strands for splicing

Parceled
- To wrap with canvas, cloth or leather to resist chafing
Seize
- To lash with a chord wounding tightly and continuously around the object

Splice
- To connect rope ends together by inlaying each strands then plaiting both up together making
one continuous rope

Strand
- Means 2 or more layers of yarns twisted together

Taut
- To stretch or draw tight

Yarn
- Fibers twisted together

Pulley
- A mechanical device used for lifting heavy weight

Block and Tackle

- Combination of ropes and pulleys to gain mechanical advantages in lifting load