VOCABULARY

DEFINITION OF VOCABULARY ACCORDING TO EXPERTS

1. Ur (1991) says that vocabulary is as the words we teach in the foreign language.

2. As Zimmerman in Coady (1997) says that vocabulary is central to language, it is a must

for the learners today to acquire vocabulary.

3. Coady and Huckin (1997) states that vocabulary as central to language and of critical
importance to the typical language learner.

4. Cruse (2000) states that vocabulary as a list of words that have meaning.

5. Nunan (2000) says that the focus in the vocabulary class is how to encourage the
students to develop strategies for inferring the meaning of new words from context in
which occur and teaching them to use a range of clues, both verbal and non-verbal to
determine meaning.

6. Cameron (2001:72), vocabulary is the central of learning a foreign language and primary
level.

7. Cameron (2001:75), vocabulary is not simply about learning words, but it is actually
much more than that. It is also about learning chunks and finding words inside them.

8. Cameron (2001:95) states that vocabulary is foundamental to use the fforeign language
as discourse, since vocabulary is both learned from participting in discourse, and is
essential to participating in it.

9. Decarrio in Celce and Murcia (2001) states that vocaulary learning is central to language
acquisition.

10. Harmer (2001:158) summarizes that knowing a word (vocabulary) means knowing about
meaning, word use, word formation, and word grammar.

11. Hatch and Brown (2001:370), the term vocabulary refers to a list or set of words for
particular language or a list of words that individual speakers of language use.

12. Bolton (2003) says that vocabulary is a list of difficult of foreign words with an
explanation of their meanings.

13. Wanzek (2003) states that the goal in vocabulary lesson is that the learner can understand
the meaning of new words.

14. In teaching new vocabulary, Wanzek (2003) suggest some activities for teacher as
follows:
a. Synonyms and antonyms
b. Demonstrations
c. Definition
15. Richard and Rennadya (2004:255), vocabulary is a core component of language
profiency and provides much of the basis for how well learners speak, listen, read, and
write.

16. Linse (2005:121) Defines that vocabulary is the collection of words that an individual
knows.

17. Fauziati (2005) says that without a sufficient vocabulary, the students can not
communicate affectivelly or express their idea in both oral and written form.

18. Linse (2006:121) says that vocabulary is the collection of words that an individual
knows.

19. Diamond and Gutlohn (2006) vocabulary is acquired incidentally through indirect
exposure to words and intentionally through explicit instruction in specific words and
word-learning strategies.

20. Stahl and Nagy (2006:4) ststes that words are the tools we use to access our background
knowledge, express ideas, and learn new concepts.

21. McCarten (2007:27) learning vocabulary is largely about remembering, and students
generally need to see, say, and write newly learned words many times before they can be
said to have learned them.

22. Graves (2009:1), the importance of vocabulary is daily demonstrated in schools and out.

23. Shoebottom (2011) says that it is very important for the students to build up a large store
of words.

24. Barcroft (20111:571) states that vocabulary refers to all the words in a language, the
entire vocabulary of a language.

25. Chen (2011: 31), the amount of vocabulary students store in their brains will assist them
in understanding reading, especially when students’ first language is a non alphabetic
language.
26. Larrotta (2011), Vocabulary learning is a step by step process requiringwork and training
and involves multiple exposures tothe vocabulary words to be learned
27. Rafinggi (2013:2) stated that “Vocabulary is a collectio of words used in the language to
communicate.”
28. Keklik(2013: 606), vocabulary taught in a meaningful way with the six steps method. It
is ensured that words are effectively added to the vocabulary through guess study at the
first step, dictionary study at the second step, meaning study at the third step, word
structure at the fourth step, learning by means of sentence or text in the fifth step, and
writing in the sixth step. In this method, different techniques and activities are employed
in every step.
29. According to Kamil & Hiebert in Arikandi (2014) in their article accessed from internet,
they broadly define ; vocabulary is knowledge of words and word meanings.
30. Alqahtani (2015:21), vocabulary learning is an essential part in foreign language learning
as the meanings of new words are very often emphasized, whether in books or in
classrooms.

31. Kusumayanti in Jamalina (2016) defines Vocabulary is one of the vital elements in
constructing meaningful communication. Without knowing the words needed to convey
their ideas and feeling the learners can not speak and write well.

32. Sener in Jamalina (2016) states that vocabulary refers to the words used in a language. It
can be defined as the words of a language, including single word, phrases or chunks of
several words which covey a particular meaning.

KINDS OF VOCABULARY

1. Finnochiaro (1974:73) tere are two kinds of vocabulary, namely :

a. Active Vocabulary: refers to the words that students understand (speaking and
Writing)
b. Passive Vocabulary: refers to the words that they can recognie when they are reading
or listening.

2. Willey and Sons (2007:10) there are some classifications of English Vocabulary. It is
called Part of Speech. There are 8 terms :
a. Noun e. Conjuction
b. Verb f. Ponoun
c. Adjective g. Preposition
d. Adverb h. Interjection

3. Donna Young in Tristiana (2014) explains that vocabulary is the study of :

a. The meaning of words
Many word have several different meanings each study the meanings of nthe words
and the part of speech.
b. How the word are used
Study the words in context apply what you learn by writing sentences with your
words.
c. Root words, prefixes , suffixes .
Studying these will aid in the study of vocabulary.
d. Analogies
This is comparing two pairs of words and choosing the pair that goes together.

4. According to Hatch and Brown (2001:218-260) terms used to classify word based on
their functional categories are called part of speech, which include nouns, verbs,
adjectives and adverbs. In addition to these major classes, there are pronouns,
prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.
a. Noun
Noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, idea, animal, quality, or action.
Nouns function as the subject of the sentence. They also function as objects,
 complements, appositives, and modifiers, as well as in direct address. Examples:
child, John, New York, books, pizza, love, pony, generosity.
b. Verb
Verb is a word which serves to show the actions of the subject, showing the events or
condition. Examples: ran, jump, shout, sweat, thinks, feels, sleeps, eat, laugh, are, is,
was, has.
c. Adjective
Adjective is a word that modifies, qualifies or describes nouns and pronouns.
Generally, adjectives appear immediately before the words they modify. Examples:
pretty girl, talented doctor, young athlete, blue book.
d. Adverb
Adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. An "ly" ending
almost always changes an adjective to an adverb. Examples: spoke quickly, ran
hastily, worked frantically. Many adverbs do not end in "ly." However, all adverbs
identify when, where, how, how far, how much, etc. Examples: hang low, stand
straight, added wrong, study hard.
e. Pronoun
Pronoun is a pronoun used to replace nouns in a sentence. Or in other words, a
pronoun is a word that has a function as a noun phrase for the collection as a whole as
the subject or object of a sentence. Examples: he, she, it myself, me, theirs, ours, we,
you, yours.
f. Preposition
Preposition is a word that establishes a relationship between its object and another
word in the sentence. The relationship can be one of time, space, direction, place
accompaniment, cause, or manner. Examples: on, between, down, in, of, since, to (not
a complete list).
g. Conjunction
Conjunction is a word that functions as a connector between words, phrases, and
clauses. There are coordinating, correlating, and subordinating conjunctions.
Examples: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (coordinating). When, until after, before,
although (subordinating).
h. Interjection
Interjection is an exclamation expressing emotion. Interjection usually followed by a
comma or exclamation mark. But sometimes it can be followed by a question mark.
Examples: hey, Wow! Help! Stop! Ouch! well, hi, bravo, hush, aha, hurray, oops.

Thornbury (2002:15), there are two kinds of vocabulary, namely receptive vocabulary and
expressive vocabulary.
a. Receptive vocabulary refers to the words which learners know when they listen and
read or the words they know when learners receive from another. Receptive vocabulary
can be called as passive vocabulary. Some ways to increase the receptive vocabulary
 ability, the first way is making some notes of the words and finding out the synonyms
and antonyms, another way is looking in the dictionary.
b. Expressive vocabulary refers to the words which learners use when they speak or
write, and it is called as active vocabulary. To increase this expressive vocabulary
ability, the learners should try much their speaking and writing.

5. According to Kamil and Hiebert (2005:3), there are two kinds of vocabulary: Productive
vocabulary is the set of words that an individual can use when writing or speaking. They
are words that are well-known, familiar, and used frequently. Conversely, receptive, or
recognition vocabulary is that set of words for which an individual can assign meanings
when listening or reading. It means that receptive vocabulary is words that people can
recognize and understand but they hardly ever used. They just know the meaning of the
words. While, productive vocabulary is words that people know about the meaning and
they are usually used in their writing and speaking. In addition, there are four basic
vocabularies.

From the explanation above, the kinds of vocabulary will be described as follows:

a) Receptive Vocabulary it is the words that the students understand when they listen to
speech and when they read. The term receptive vocabulary is used to refer to listening
and reading vocabularies.
b) Expressive Vocabulary it is the words that the students use when they speak and
write. The term expressive vocabulary is used to refer to both of speaking and writing
that they use to express themselves
c) Meaning/ Oral Vocabulary it is the words that the students understand when they
hear, then they can use in their speech. The term oral vocabulary refers to the
combination of listening and speaking vocabularies.
d) Literate/ Written Vocabulary it is the words that the students understand when they
read and they can use in their writing. The term written vocabulary refers to the
combination of reading and writing.

6. According to Leech (2006: 6-9) terms used to classify word based on their functional
categories are called part of speech, which include nouns, adjectives, verb and adverbs.
a. Noun
Noun which refers to an abstraction, that is which does not refer to anything physical or
concrete. Common types of abstract noun are (a) nouns referring to evens, action, or
states, such arrival, invitation, hope; (b) nouns referring to qualities, such happiness,
size, absurdity; (c) nouns referring to mental or peceptual phenomena, such idea, music,
vision.
 Examples: child, John, New York, books, pizza, love, pony.
b. Adjective
Adjectivesare a large class of words (for example, good, bad, new, accurate, careful)
which define more precisely the reference of a noun or pronoun. A typical adjective can
occur before a noun, as in a good plan, this bad wheather, our new manager, accurate
predictions. (in this position, the adjective is said to premodify the head of noun
phrase).
c. Verb
Verb is a word which serves to show the actions of the subject, showing the events or
condition. Examples: ran, jump, shout, sweat, thinks, feels, sleeps, eat, laugh, are, is,
was, has.
d. Adverb
Adverbs are a major class of words, mainly consisting of words which modify verbs,
adjectives and other adverbs, for example adverbs of time (now, then, and so on), of
place (there, somewhere and so on), of manner (well, carefully and so on), of degree
(so, very and so on), and a wide range of other wors which do not fit into such easily
defined categories: just, either, however, actually and so on. An "ly" ending almost
always changes an adjective to an adverb (for example, quickly, silently, refreshingly).

7. According to Harmer in Khoiriyah (2013: 9) in the language test, there are two kinds
of vocabularies, active vocabulary and passive vocabulary. Active vocabulary means
stock of word that a person actually uses in his own speaking or writing. It is used in
oral or written expression by the students. Then, passive vocabulary means the words
that the students recognize and understand the word. The student usually finds passive
vocabulary in listening or reading materials. They will know the meaning of the
unknown word in the text.
KINDS OF NOUN

1. Common noun
A common noun is a noun that refers to people or things in general, e.g. boy, country,
bridge, city, birth, day, happiness.
2. Proper noun
A proper noun is a name that identifies a particular person, place, or thing,
e.g. Steven, Africa, London, Monday. In written English, proper nouns begin with
capital letters.
3. Concrete noun
A concrete noun is a noun which refers to people and to things that
exist physically and can be seen, touched, smelled, heard, or tasted. Examples
include dog, building, coffee, tree, rain, beach, tune.
4. Abstract noun
An abstract noun is a noun which refers to ideas, qualities, and conditions - things that
cannot be seen or touched and things which have no physical reality, e.g. truth,
danger, happiness, time, friendship, humour.
5. Collective nouns
Collective nouns refer to groups of people or things, e.g. audience, family,
government, team, jury. In American English, most collective nouns are treated as
singular, with a singular verb:
The whole family was at the table.
In British English, the preceding sentence would be correct, but it would also be
correct to treat the collective noun as a plural, with a plural verb:
The whole family were at the table.
A noun may belong to more than one category. For example, happiness is both a
common noun and an abstract noun, while Mount Everest is both a concrete noun and
a proper noun.
6. Count and mass nouns
Nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Countable nouns (or count nouns)
are those that refer to something that can be counted. Uncountable nouns (or mass
nouns) do not typically refer to things that can be counted and so they do not
regularly have a plural form.

Nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Countable nouns (or count nouns)
are those that refer to something that can be counted. They have both singular and plural
forms (e.g. cat/cats; woman/women; country/countries). In the singular, they can
be preceded by a or an. Most nouns come into this category.

A smaller number of nouns do not typically refer to things that can be counted and so
they do not regularly have a plural form: these are known as uncountable nouns (or mass
nouns). Examples include: rain, flour, earth, wine, or wood. Uncountable nouns can't be
preceded by aor an. Many abstract nouns are typically uncountable, e.g. happiness, truth,
darkness, humour.
 Some uncountable nouns can be used in the plural as well, depending on the meaning
or context of the word. Take a look at these sentences:

uncountable because it's referring to the drink in

Would you like some coffee?
He ordered a coffee.
There's no truth in the rumours.
The fundamental truths about human
nature.
general
countable, because it's referring to a cup of coffee
uncountable, because it refers to the quality or
state of being true
countable, because it's referring to facts or beliefs
that are true

In the Oxford Dictionary of English and the New Oxford American Dictionary, nouns
that are chiefly uncountable are described as ‘mass nouns’. This type of noun entry may also
include an example sentence showing a countable use of the type described above. For
example:

 beer noun [mass noun] an alcoholic drink made from yeast-fermented malt
flavoured with hops: a pint of beer | [count noun] he ordered a beer.

There are some words that should only be used with countable nouns and some that
you should only use with uncountable nouns. Here are the main examples:

with countable with uncountable

word examples
noun? noun?
few, fewer ✓ ✗ fewer students; few cars
little, less,
✗ ✓ less food; little time
least
many, several books; many
✓ ✗
several changes
much pleasure; much
much ✗ ✓
sleep

You often hear people using less with countable nouns (e.g. ‘there are less cars outside the
school gates’). Although it's a common mistake, it is still a mistake and you should try to
avoid making it in formal writing or speaking.
VERB IN ENGLISH

In English basically there are three types of verbs:

1. The Action verbs or Normal verbs that are usually physical actions which you can see
somebody doing.
2. The second group, called “Non-Continuous Verbs,” is smaller group. These verbs are
usually things you cannot see somebody doing.
3. The third group is the mixed verbs. These verbs have more than one meaning.

12 KINDS OF VERBS IN ENGLISH

1. Transitive Verbs: Transitive verbs are action verbs that have an object to receive that
action.
 She drinks water. (Object)
 He drove the car. (Object)

2. Intransitive Verbs: Intransitive verbs are actions verbs but unlike transitive verbs, they do
not have an object receiving the action.
 The sun shines.
 She is crying.
Some verbs like (cheer, sing, visit, trip) can be transitive or intransitive, depending on how
they are used in a sentence.

3. Dynamic/ Event Verbs: The verbs, in which the body movement is involved, are called
dynamic or event verbs. These verbs show continued or progressive action on the part of the
subject. Example of dynamic verbs are: act, build, complete, design, draw, gather, help,
interview, justify, listen, negotiate, outline, perform, record, save, show, travel, uncover,
value, write, zoom…
 She was writing a letter.
 They are playing in the playground.

4. Stative Verbs: The verbs that express a state rather than an action. They usually show
mental feelings, emotions, state of a person, place, relationships, sense and measurements.
 I believe in God.
 I am believing in God.
 It sounds like a great idea.
 It is sounding like a great idea.
 I feel your sadness.
 I am feeling your sadness.
 Please forgive him.
Some verbs like: verb to be, think, have and see can be both stative verbs and dynamic verbs
depending on their meaning.
 He is an intelligent teacher. (stative verb)
 He is teaching the students. (dynamic verb)
5. Perception/Sensation Verbs: The verbs which show our five senses are called perception/
sensation verbs.
 I smell the flowers.
 He is listening to the radio.
 I feel great today.

6. Linking/Copular/Predicating Verbs: Linking verbs do not express action. Instead, they

connect the subject of the verb to additional information about the subject. These verbs are
usually followed by an adjective or a noun.
The following verbs are true linking verbs: any form of the verb be [am, is, are, was, were,
has been, are being, might have been, etc.], become, and seem. These true linking verbs are
always linking verbs. Then you have a list of verbs with multiple personalities: appear, feel,
grow, look, prove, remain, smell, sound, taste, and turn. Sometimes these verbs are linking
verbs; sometimes they are action verbs.

7. Phrasal/Prepositional Verbs: The verb which is formed by the combination of a

preposition or adverbial particle is called Phrasal/prepositional verb.
Because a preposition always has an object, all prepositional verbs have direct objects.
 I believe in God.
 He is looking after the dog.
 They are talking about the issue.

8. Modal Auxiliary Verbs: Modal verbs are words like can, could, may, might, shall,
should, will, would, must, ought to etc. They are used with other verbs to express ideas such
as possibility, prediction, speculation, deduction and necessity. Or modal verbs show
different moods and attitudes of the speaker.
 You should work hard.
 The weather may be colder tomorrow.

9. Helping Verbs/Auxiliary Verbs: Auxiliary (or Helping) verbs are used together with a
main verb to show the verb’s tense or to form a negative or question. The most common
auxiliary verbs are: have, has, had, do, does, did and to be verbs.
 Have they completed the assignment?
 Ali is writing an e-mail to a client at the moment.

10. Hypothesis Verbs: These verbs are usually followed by subjunctives. Here, we wish
against the present facts in the present, and the formulas are given like;
1. Sub + wish + (that) + sub. + the past indefinite tense
2. Sub + wish + (that) + sub. + were + object
3. Sub + wish + (that) + sub. + had + object
 I wish that he helped me. (Means he does not help me)
 I wish that he were a good teacher. (Means he is not a good teacher)
 She wishes that I had a latest car. (Means I have not a latest car)
Here, we wish against the past facts in the present, and the formulas are given like;
1. Sub + wish + (that) + sub + the past perfect tense
2. Sub + wish + (that) + sub. + had been + object
3. Sub + wish + (that) + sub. + had had + object
 I wish that he had taken admission. (Means he did not take admission)
 I wish that I had been in London. (Means I was not in London)
  She wishes that I had had a bus. (Means I had not a bus)

11. Causative Verbs: In causative verbs we do not perform an action directly, but we get it
done indirectly by someone else means by the second person. The formula will be changed
according to the absence or presence of the second person. English has three true causative
verbs: let, have, make, but there are other verbs such as cause, allow, help, enable, keep, hold,
force, require and persuade indeed which are not causative verbs but similarly used as
causative verbs.
 He gets Ali to wash his car.
 He has Nadir help him.

12. Regular and Irregular Verbs:

Regular Verbs: Regular verbs are those verbs whose past tense and past participle (2nd and
3rd forms) are formed by adding “d” or “ed” to the end of the verb.
 Cook = cooked
 Play = played
Irregular Verbs: Irregular verbs are those verbs that do not take ‘ed’ ending for their past
tense and past participle (2nd and 3rd forms).
 Teach = taught
 Write = wrote = written
ADJECTIVE IN ENGLISH

1. Adjective is a word that describes and modify a noun. And they are usually used before a
noun to describe them.
2. Adjectives are words that modify (change) nouns, pronouns, and other adjectives.
3. Adjectives are words qualifying nouns or describing words. They qualify or describe nouns.
They are called noun-helper.
 Your English is good enough.
 Sorry, my English is not very good.
 Brazil is the world’s largest producer of coffee.

10 KINDS OF ADJECTIVE IN ENGLISH

1. Adjective of Quality or Descriptive Adjective

Adjective showing the kind or quality of nouns or pronouns are called Adjective of Quality
 We had a wonderful time last night.
 You look very smart in that suit.
 Did you have a nice time?

2. Adjective of Quantity
The adjective which shows the quantity of noun or pronoun is called the Adjective of
Quantity.
 I didn’t have enough clothes to last a week.
 There’s still some wine in the bottle.
 I have got hardly any money.

3. Adjective of Number/ Numeral Adjective

Adjective which expresses the number of persons or things is called the Adjective of Number
or Numeral Adjective
 Students must enter in twos or threes.
 She’s having a party on her twenty-first.
 Italy scored a second goal just after half-time.

4. Demonstrative Adjective
This Adjective straight=away points out the person or thing concerned. The four words this,
that, these and those are called demonstratives.
 I think you’ll find these more comfortable than those.
 how long have you been living in this country?
 Is that your bag?

5. Interrogative Adjective
Interrogative Adjectives are used with nouns to ask questions.
 Which of the applicants has got the job?
 It’s the house whose door is painted red.
  What is your name?

6. Possessive Adjective
This Adjective expresses the state of possession of nouns is known as a possessive adjective.
Possessive adjectives show possession or ownership: my, her, his, its, our, their, your.
 Where’s my passport?
 The cat is sitting on its tail.
 please concentrate on your mistakes.

7. Distributive Adjective
This Adjective expresses the distributive state of nouns. Or Distributive adjectives describe
specific members out of a group. These adjectives are used to single out one or more
individual items or people. Some of the most common distributive adjectives include Each,
Every, Either, Neither, Any.
 The answers are worth 20 points each.
 Every day is a good day if you think of positive changes.
 you can park on either side of the street.

8. Proper Adjective
An adjective that is formed from a proper noun is called proper Adjective.
 I want to talk about American culture and tourists.
 He is an Australian citizen.
 I like Pakistani dishes.

9. Indefinite Adjectives
An adjective which is not definite is known as the indefinite adjective.
 Some of the players were tired after the match.
 A few people wanted to get the tickets.
 Many people feel that the law should be changed.

10. Article
Although articles are their own part of speech, they’re technically also adjectives! Articles
are used to describe which noun you’re referring to. Maybe thinking of them as adjectives
will help you learn which one to use. And there are three articles in the English language: a,
an, and the.
 The days are getting longer.
 An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
 You must consult a doctor for the checkup.
 Three Degrees of Adjectives in English

You might know that adjectives are words that modify a noun or a pronoun, therefore
adjectives are called modifiers in English. Sometimes modifiers are used to compare two or more
people, things, actions, or qualities. This is called three degrees of adjectives, In this article we
will provide you with rules to know to form and use all three degrees of adjectives correctly.

1. The Positive Degree

The positive degree of an adjective makes no comparison.
 A tall building.
 She runs fast.
 This is a beautiful car.

2. The Comparative Degree

The comparative degree compares two people, things, actives or qualities.
 A taller building than this one.
 She runs faster than I do.
 This car is more beautiful than your.

3.The Superlative Degree

The superlative degree compares a person, thing, activity or quality with the group.
 The tallest building in the town.
 She is the fastest runner among the students.
 This is the most beautiful car I have ever seen.

Rules for Making Comparatives and Superlatives

One syllable adjectives.

1. Form the comparative and superlative forms of a one-syllable adjective by adding –er for the
comparative form and –est for the superlative.

One Syllable Adjectives

Positive Comparative Superlative
tall taller tallest
old older oldest
short shorter shortest
 2. If the one-syllable adjective ends with an –e, just add –r for the comparative form and –st for
the superlative form.
One Syllable Adjectives With an -e
Positive Comparative Superlative
large larger Largest
wise wiser Wisest
wide wider Widest

3. If the one-syllable adjective ends with a single consonant with a vowel before it, double the
consonant and add –er for the comparative form and double the consonant and add –est for
the superlative form.

One Syllable Adjectives With Single Consonant and a Vowel Before it

Positive Comparative Superlative
thin thinner Thinnest
big bigger Biggest
sad sadder Sadest

Two-syllable adjectives
1. With most two-syllable adjectives, you form the comparative with more and the superlative
with most.

Two Syllable Adjectives

Positive Comparative Superlative
peaceful more peaceful most peaceful
careless more careless most careless
famous more famous most famous

2. If the two-syllable adjectives ends with –y, change the y to “i” and add –er for the comparative
form, and for the superlative form change the “y” to “i” and add –est.

Two Syllable Adjectives Ends with -y

Positive Comparative Superlative
pretty Prettier Prettiest
happy Happier Happiest
angry Angrier Angriest

4. Two-syllable adjectives ending in –er, -le, or –ow take –er for comparative form and –est to
for the superlative form.

Two Syllable Adjectives Ending in -er, le or ow

Positive Comparative Superlative
Clever cleverer cleverest
Narrow narrower narrowest
Gentle gentler gentlest
Adjectives with three or more syllables.
For adjectives with three syllables or more, you form the comparative with more and the
superlative with most.
Three Syllable Adjectives

Positive Comparative Superlative

Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Convenient more convenient most convenient
Comfortable more comfortable most comfortable

Exceptions:
Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms.

Irregular Comparative and Superlative Forms

Positive Comparative Superlative

Good better best
Bad worse worst
Many more most
Much more most
Well better best
Far farther farthest/furthest
Little less least

Note : Two-syllable adjectives that follow two rules. These adjectives can be used with -er and -
est and with more and most.

Two Syllable Adjectives Follow Two Rules

Positive Comparative Superlative
Simple simpler/more simple simplest/most simple
Clever cleverer/more clever cleverest/most clever
Gentle gentler/more gentle gentlest/most gentle
Quiet quieter/more quiet quietest/most quiet

Common Mistakes With Comparisons

1. Avoid making a double comparison.
 After dinner, the orchestra began playing a series of more livelier melodies. (Incorrect)
 After dinner, the orchestra began playing a series of more lively melodies. (Correct)
 After dinner, the orchestra began playing a series of livelier melodies. (Correct)
2. Some adjectives are “absolute” and cannot be compared.
“ Absolute” Adjectives: first, last, equal and unique are adjective which cannot be compared.
 This is a unique bike. (Correct)
 This is a unique than your. (Incorrect)
3. Make sure that the items being compared are truly comparable. If not, reword as necessary.
 The tropical fish found in the Caribbean are less colorful and varied than the South
Pacific. (Incorrect)
 The tropical fish found in the Caribbean are less colorful and varied than the fish found in
the South Pacific.(Correct)
ADVERB IN ENGLISH

Definition : Adverb can be defined as “A word or phrase that modifies the meaning of an
adjective, verb, noun, determiner, or other adverb, expressing manner, place, time, or degree
(e.g. gently, here, now, very). Some adverbs, for example 'sentence adverbs', can also be used
to modify whole sentences”

Or,

“A word that describes or gives more information about adverb, adjective, adverb, or phrase”.

What is Adverb?

An adverb is a word which we use to modify the meaning of adjective, verb or other
parts of speech. It is one of the parts of speech which tells us how, where, when, in what
manner, and to what extent an action is performed in the sentence. Some of the adverbs end
with 'ly' (which are used to express how an action is performed) such as carefully, gracefully,
cheerfully, quickly, steadily, speedily, happily, foolishly, angrily, etc. However, some are
without 'ly' such as well, very, fast, never, now, most, far, least, more, less, there., etc.

We can easily identify the availability of adverb in the sentence by seeing its function.
If any word in the sentence is describing any of the parts of speech (verb, adjective or other
adverb), it is an adverb. We can also recognize the availability of adverb in the sentence by
looking the end of word (ending with 'ly'). Some frequency words like very, more, much,
many, etc are also adverbs.

For example:

 I placed the flower pot carefully on the table. ('carefully' word is an adverb in this
sentence and shows the example of how action is performed)
 My friend walks gracefully. ('gracefully' word is an adverb in this sentence and
shows how to modify the meaning of verb)
 I run fast. ('fast' word is an adverb and provide more information about verb)
 I always eat healthy food. ('always' word is an adverb and modifies the verb to eat)
 I saw a very pretty girl in the car. ('very' word is an adverb)
 I will eat there. ('there' word is an adverb)

Sometimes, we do mistakes and use adjectives instead of adverb while making sentence and
vice versa.

For example:

 I behaved very bad in the school. (It is a wrong sentence as, 'bad' is an adjective and
describing a verb 'behaved').
 I behaved very badly. (It is a correct sentence as, 'badly' is an adverb and describing a
verb 'behaved')
Sometimes, we do mistakes because of the confusing adverbs and adjectives such as 'good'
and 'well' ('Good' word is an adjective which should describe the noun or pronoun whereas
'Well' word is an adverb which should modify any parts of speech).

For example:

 He is a good (It is a correct sentence, 'good' is an adjective describing a pronoun 'he')

 I listen well. (it is also a correct sentence, 'well' is an adverb describing a verb 'listen')
 I am a well educated boy. (it is also a correct sentence, 'well' is an adverb describing
an adjective 'educated')

11 KINDS OF ADVERB IN ENGLISH

Different kinds of adverbs, expressing different meaning, are described below with proper
definition and examples:

1) Adverb of Time

Adverb of time is an adverb which tells us about time of happenings or time of something is
done in the sentence. Adverbs of time are used in the beginning (as a form of emphasis) or
end of the sentence. Adverbs of time are like already, afterwards, immediately, always, last
month, soon, then, now, and yesterday.

For example:

 He admitted to hospital and died yesterday.

 My factory caught fire and burned down in the last month.
 I have completed my homework already.

2) Adverb of Place

Adverb of place is an adverb which tells us about the place where something is done or
happens in the sentence. It is used generally after the verb, object or end of the sentence.
Adverbs of place are like below, here, above, inside, outside, there, over there, under,
upstairs, etc.

For example:

 We need to stop here for dinner.

 He was eating under the table.
 A bird fly above in the sky.

3) Adverb of Manner

Adverb of manner is an adverb which tells us about manner of how something is done or
happens in the sentence. Such type of adverbs are generally end with 'ly' such as cheerfully,
badly, quickly, happily, angrily, sadly, slowly. However, some are simple like fast, well,
hard, etc.
For example:

 I went to school cheerfully.

 He runs fast.
 We celebrated teacher's day happily.

4) Adverb of Degree or Quantity

Adverb of degree or quantity is an adverb which tells us about the level or extent of
something is done or happens in the sentence. It is used before the adjective or adverb.
Adverbs of degree or quantity are like almost, nearly, quite, much, really, too, very, so, etc.
For example:

 It was too hard task for us to complete. (adverb is used before adjective)
 I am quite
 I am feeling really sad for my friend's father death.

5) Adverb of Frequency

Adverb of frequency is an adverb which tells us how often something is done or happens in
the sentence. Adverbs of frequency are like almost, again, frequently, generally, ever, hardly
ever, nearly, nearly always, always, occasionally, often, rarely, never, seldom, twice, usually,
sometimes, and weekly.

For example:

 My parents were almost thirty when I born.

 He studies hardly during holidays.
 She thinks she is always right however it is not so.
 He told that he will never talk to me.
 I talk to my neighbors very occasionally.

6) Adverb of Affirmation and Negation

Adverb of affirmation and negation is an adverb which confirms or denies the action of verb
in the sentence. It is also used to reinforce the action of verb. Adverbs of affirmation are like
definitely, surely, absolutely, etc however adverbs of denial or negation are like no, can’t,
don’t, never, etc.

For example:

 I will certainly go to the school. (adverb of affirmation)

 I never leave you alone. (adverb of negation)

7) Adverb of Comment

Using adverbs of comment, we can make a comment on entire sentence. This adverb can
change and describe the verb as well as influence the whole sentence. Adverbs of comment
are like fortunately, unfortunately, patiently, honestly, obviously, constantly, etc.
For example:
  Unfortunately, he got discharged from his post.
 Luckily, I got admission in the top college.
 Obviously, it is wrong way to do.
 We happily celebrated the birthday of our class teacher.

8) Adverb of Conjunction

Adverb of conjunction help us in connecting the ideas or clauses. It shows effect, sequence,
contrast, cause or other relationships between two clauses in the sentence. We need to use a
semicolon (;) to conjugate two clauses. Adverbs of conjunction are like anyway, accordingly,
consequently, again, contrarily, almost, as a result, besides, certainly, additionally,
comparatively, consequently, comparatively, conversely, etc

For example:

 Clause 1: He was going to attend an important meeting.

 Clause 2: He made sure to attend meeting on time.

Use of Adverb of conjunction in the above two clauses:

 He was going to attend an important meeting; accordingly, made sure to attend

meeting on time.

9) Adverbs of Reason

Adverb of reason is used to express the reason for, answer the question or purpose of an
action in the sentence. Adverbs of reason are like therefore, hence, thus, consequently, so,
since, etc.

For example:

 I was not working hard, therefore, I failed.

 Consequently he denied to come to the party.

10) Adverbs of Number

Adverb of number is used to show number of action of the verb in a sentence. Adverbs of
number are like firstly, secondly, once, yearly, never, twice, lastly, etc.

For example:

 I eat food twice a day. (in this sentence, 'twice' is an adverb of number)
 He saw me once. (in this sentence, 'once' is an adverb of number, however it can also
be an adverb of time depends on how it is used in the sentence).

11) Adverbs of Comparison

There are three types of Adverbs of comparison, they are- positive, comparative and
superlative adverbs.
 1. Positive adverbs of comparison are used to make general comparisons without
directly comparing two or more things. Some examples of positive comparison are-
quick, big, long, deep, strong and cool etc.
2. Comparative Adverbs on the other hand are used to compare two things and end
with the alphabets ‘er’. For example- quicker, bigger, longer, deeper, stronger and
cooler.
3. Superlative adverbs are used to compare two or more things together and end with
‘est’. Some examples of superlative adverbs are-quickest, biggest, longest, deepest,
strongest and coolest.

To better understand the three Adverbs of Comparison we will analyze few sentences
using them. Read the sentences given below-

 Ram’s response was quick.

 Ram’s response was quicker than Punit’s.
 Ram’s response was the quickest of all.

Before we start analyzing the above sentences, there are few things that we must keep in
mind- quick is a two syllable word like big, long, cool, strong etc. The first sentence
generally compares or gives the impression of Ram’s response with comparing it with
someone else’s. The second sentence compares the responses of Ram to that of Punit and
declares Ram’s response to be ‘quicker’ than Punit.

Now, turning to the third sentence we know that the response of Ram is being compared
with more than one person and therefore a word ‘quickest’ is used. Therefore, in the above
three sentences- quick, quicker and quickest are the positive, comparative and superlative
Adverbs of comparison respectively. To better understand we will form three sentences using
the word ‘strong’, in all the three forms-

 Delhi University has a strong student’s union.

 Delhi University has a stronger student’s union than SM University.
 The student’s union of Delhi University is the strongest of any other college in NCR.

It is obvious that the first sentence doesn’t make any direct comparison, hence ‘strong’ is
a positive adverb of comparison. The second sentence compares two universities and
therefore ‘stronger’ is a comparative adverb and the third sentence compares Delhi University
from any other University in the region using the superlative Adverb ‘strongest’.

Now that you have understood the Adverbs of Comparison for two syllable words, it is
now time to switch to three or more syllable words. For example consider the words-
comfortable, understandable, reasonable, affordable, responsible etc. These words are three
or more than three syllable words and their positive, comparative and superlative forms are
used in a little different way form that of the two syllable words. We will analyze few
sentences to understand the use of three syllable words-

 This house is affordable.

 This house is more affordable than the other one.
 This house is most affordable of them all.
 The first sentence makes no direct comparison and uses ‘affordable’ as a general
comparison and is therefore positive Adverb of comparison. The second sentence has a
comparative adverb –‘more affordable’ while the third has ‘most affordable’. Therefore it is
clear that any comparative adverb of three or more syllable must be prefixed by ‘more’ and
the superlative adverb of the same by ‘most’. Moreover the same rule also applies to the
adverbs ending with ‘ly’. For Ex- deeply, strongly, quickly etc. Like-

 Rohan was deeply involved in the annual function. ( positive comparison)

 I was more deeply going through the book than listening to the lecture. ( Comparative
adverb- more deeply)
 The situation was most quickly analyzed by the department. ( superlative adverb-
most quickly)

Adverbs of Comparison List/Examples/Words

 Positive Adverbs of Comparison List

Big, small, long, quick, deep, happy, sad, strong, hot, little etc

 Comparative Adverbs of Comparison List

Bigger, smaller, longer, quicker, deeper, happier, sadder, stronger, hotter, less etc

 Superlative Adverbs of Comparison list

Biggest, smallest, longest, quickest, deepest, happiest, saddest, strongest, hottest, leas
etc.

Also- more deeply, most deeply, more strongly, most strongly, more quickly and most
quickly etc.
 DESCRIPTIVE TEXT

DEFINITION OF DESCRIPTIVE TEXT

1. According to Corbett (1983) that descriptive text is one of the expository writing. The
description draws a picture, tries to convey the sound, taste, and smell of things or
objects.
2. According to Stanley (1988) mentions that description presents the appearance of things
that occupy space, whether they are objects, people, buildings or cities.
3. According to Tompkins (1994) descriptive text as painting pictures with word. The
meaning is the students describe about something, such as picture, person, thing, animal,
and place.

4. Tompkins (1994) and Stanley (1988) defined descriptive text as painting pictures with
words. By reading a descriptive text, readers feel that they see the description just like
they see pictures.
5. According to Oshima and Hogue (1997:50), descriptive writing appeals to the senses, so
it tells how something looks, feels, smells, tastes, and/ or sounds.

6. Temple, et al. (1998) states. “description is discourse that help us visualize. It focuses
upon the appearance or the nature of an object.
7. Kane (2000: 352), Description is about sensory experience—how something looks,
sounds, tastes. Mostly it is about visual experience, but description also deals with other
kinds of perception.
8. In this kind of text, the students are required to ”list the characteristics of something and
usually deals with the physical appearance of the described thing (Smalley et. al., 2001)
9. Anderson & Anderson (2003) add that descriptive text is different from information
reports because they described a specific subject rather than general group.
10. In Library of Congress (2008) it is stated that we use descriptive text to describe a
person, place or thing. For example, we might want to describe what a crab looks like, or
how he moves. Be sure to include details that describe sounds, color, smells, setting and
so on.
11. According to Wardiman et al. (2008: 116), A descriptive text is a text that describes the
features of someone, something, or a certain place. It is used to describe a particular
person, place, or thing. The social function or the purpose is to describe specific things.

12. Friedman (2010) descriptive details mean to grab the reader’s attention.

THE PURPOSES OF DESCRIPTIVE TEXT

Johnston & Morrow (1981) states that the purpose of descriptive text is to describe
objects or persons in which the writer is interested.
 Stanley (1988) asserts that the aim of description is to convey to the reader what
something looks like.

GENERIC STRUCTURE OF DESCRIPTIVE TEXT

Wardiman, et. al. (2008) specify the generic structure of descriptive text into two parts, that is
1) introduction is the part of paragraph that introduces the character; and 2) description is the
part of paragraph that describes the character.

A descriptive text has two parts are :

a. Introduction is the part of the paragraph that introduces the character. Example : Mr
Kartolo is very happy. The rainy seasonof this year makes the farm beautiful.
b. Description is the part of the paragraph that the character. Example : Mr Kartolo
ploughs the land at the beginning of the rainy season. Then, he usually works early and
nishes at noon.

Table 2.1
Explanation of Descriptive Text

Social Function Generic structure Significant

Lexicogrammatical
Features
To describe a particular  Identification : identifies  Focus on specific
person,place,or thing phenomenon to be describe. participants

 Description : describes  Use of attributive and

parts, qualitues, identifying processes.
characteristics.
 Frequent use of epithets and
classifiers in nominsl
groups.

 Use of simple present tense.

In conclusion, descriptive text is a text which lists the characteristics of something.

The topic is usually about the attributites of a thing. The third person pronoun forms are used.
Descriptive text is usually also used to help writer develop an aspect of their work, for
instance to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the reader can
create picture of characters, places, ojects, etc.

Example of descriptive text :

Mr Kartolo, the Farmer
Mr. Kartolo is very happy. The rainy season of this year makes the farm beautiful. It
is planting time! Rice elds become fresh and green during this season and by the end of this
season Mr. Kartolo is ready to harvest his crops. Mr. Kartolo ploughs the land at the
beginning of the rainy season. Then, he usually works early and nishes at noon. Milking the
cows, feeding the livestock, and cleaning the barns are among Mr. Kartolo‟s duties before
breakfast. He does most of the hard outdoor work by himself.
KINDS OF DESCIPTIVE TEXT

a. Description of people
People are different, and writing description of people is different. You are probably
already aware of some of the complications because you have often been asked,”What’s so-
and-like?” In replying, you might resort to identification, an impression, or a character
sketch, depending on the situation. Let’s examine each.

1. Identification
Although you might provide identification, you would probably want to go further than
that. Used mainly in official records and documents, identification consists only of
certain statistical information (height, weight, age), visible characteristics (color of hair,
skin, and eyes), and recognizable marks (scars, birthmark).
2. Impression
Unlike the identification, the impression may not identify a person, but it does convey an
overall idea of him or her. Many details may be missing, yet the writer does provide in a
few broad strokes a general feeling about the subject. Although impression is usually less
complete and informative than identification, it may be more effective in capturing an
individual’s striking or distinctive traits.
3. Character
Sketch More complete descriptions of people are usually called character sketch; they
may also be referred to as profiles, literary portraits, and biographical sketches. As its
name indicates, a character sketch delineates the character of a person, or at least his or
her main personality traits. In the process, it may include identification and an
impression, but it will do more than tell what people look or seem like: it will show what
they are like. A character sketch may be about a type rather than an individual, revealing
the characteristics common to the members of a group, such as campus jocks,
cheerleaders, art students, religious fanatics, television devotes.

b. Description of places
In describing a place for example a room, what should you describe first? The walls? The
Floor? Unlike a chronologically developed paragraph, there is no set pattern for arranging
sentences in descriptive paragraph. It is not necessary to begin with one area and then
proceed to another one. Nevertheless, the sentences should not be randomly arranged.
The description must be organized so that the reader can vividly imagine the scene being
described. To make the paragraph more interesting, you can add a controlling idea that states
an attitude or impression about the place being described. The arrangement of the details in
your description depend on your subject and purpose.

c. Description of things
To write a description about something, the writer must have a good imagination about
the thing that will be described. Besides, to make our subjects as interesting and as vivid to
our readers as they are to us: using proper nouns and effective verbs.

1. Using Proper Noun

In addition to filling our descriptive writing with concrete details and figures of speech,
we might also want to include a number of proper nouns, which, as we know, are the
names of particular persons, places, and things. For example; Arizona, University of
 Tennessee. Including proper nouns that readers recognize easily can make what we are
describing more familiar to them.
2. Using Effective Verb
We know how important verbs are to narration, but effective verbs can also add much to
a piece of description. Writers use verbs to make descriptions more specific, accurate,
and interesting. For instance, “the wind had chiseled deep grooves into the sides of the
cliffs” is more specific than “the wind had made deep grooves.” The verb chiseled also
gives the reader a more accurate picture of the wind’s action than made does.

THE STRUCTURE OF DESCRIPTIVE TEXT

a) The generic structures of a description are as follows:

1. Identification : identifies the phenomenon to be described.

2. Description of features : describes features in order of importance.
a) Parts/things (physical appearance)
b) Qualities (degree of beauty, excellence, or worth/value)
c) Other characteristics (prominent aspects that are unique).

b) The generic features of description are:

1. Verb in the present tense

2. Adjective to describe the features of the subject
3. Topic sentences to begin paragraphs and organize the various aspects of the
description.

c) The factual description scaffold

1. A general opening statement in the first paragraph
 This statement introduces the subject of the description to the audience.
 It can give the audience brief details about the when, where, who, or what of the
subject.

2. A series of paragraphs about the subject

 Each paragraph usually begins with a topic sentence.
 The topic sentence previews the details that will be contained in the remainder of the
paragraph.
 Each paragraph should describe one feature of the subject
 These paragraphs build the description of the subject

3. A concluding paragraph (optional)

 The concluding paragraph signals the end of the text.

EXAMPLES :
 MY MOTHER

My mother is a beautiful person. She is not tall but not short, and she has curly hair and
brown. Her eyes color are like honey and her color skin color light brown, and she has a
beautiful smile. Her weight likes 120 lbs.

She is a very kind person. She is very lovely, friendly, patient, and she loves to help people. I
love my mom, because she is a good example to me. She loves being in the Church, and she
loves sing and dance too.

She is a very good child, wife and mother. She always takes care of her family. She likes her
house to be clean and organized. She a very organized person, and all things in the house are
in the right place. She doesn't like messes.

She always has a smile on her face. She is so sweet and lovely. I like when I am going to
sleep or went I wake up or when I am going to go to some places, she always give me a kiss,
and when the family have a problem she always be with us to helps us and to give us all her
love.

MY CLASSMATE

Yuta is one of the 150 International students at the ELC of Brigham Young University. He is
from Japan. He grew up in Japan, and he is 19 years old. There are six people in his family, a
father, a mother, three sisters and himself. He is the youngest in his family. He is also the
only boy in his family, but now he is in Provo, Utah, studying English. Yuta likes the United
States very much and he thinks everything is cheap. Yuta thinks his English classes are
excellent and the teachers are professionals. Yuta thinks someone in his class is noisy so he
doesn't like that. In his free time he spends too much time sleeping, so it seems that he has a
sleeping sickness.