Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
AC CIRCUITS
Concepts of AC circuits- rms value, average value, form and peak factors – Simple RLC series
circuits – Concept of real and reactive power- Power factor – Introduction to three phase system
– Power measurement by two wattmeter method.
2. CONCEPTS OF AC CIRCUIT
a) Instantaneous value
b) Peak value
c) Peak to peak value
d) Root mean square (RMS) value
e) Average values
2.1.1 Waveform:The graph of instantaneous values of voltage or current plotted against time is
called as waveform.
2.1.2 Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative instantaneous values of the voltage or
current is called a cycle.
2.1.3 Time period: The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called
time period (T).
2π
Time Period (T) = ω
2.1.4 Frequency:The number of cycles that an alternating quantity can complete per second is
known as frequency. It is measured in Hz.
1
Frequency (f) = T
2.1.5 Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating current, at any particular moment is
called its instantaneous value.
The peak value of the sine wave is represented by the positive or negative half cycle
only.From the figure, the peak value is +10V (or) -10V.
1 π 1 π
Vavg = ∫ v(t)dt and Iavg = ∫ i(t)dt
π 0 π 0
Solution:
1
Area =
× T × 50 = 25T
2
Area 25T
Average value = = = 25
Period T
2. Find the average value of the Half-wave rectified output as shown below.
Solution
1
Area under one complete cycle = × 50 × T
2
1 50×T
Average value = 2 × T = 25V
Note: For waves that are symmetrical about x-axis, the definition originally given would
present a problem. The positive area on the top cancels with the negative area below
x-axis and the average value then becomes zero.
For such waves, the average value is defined over only half the cycle as
Area under half a cycle
Average value[for symmetrical waves alone] =
Half the period
4. Find the average value of the sine wave.
Solution:
π
Im sin θ dθ 2Im
Average value = ∫ =
π π
0
5. Find the average value of the wave shown
Solution:
1 T
Area under half the cycle = × Im ×
2 2
1 T
× I m × I m
Average value (Iav ) = 2 T 2 = Amps
2
2
6. Find the average value for the waveform
Solution:
It is a symmetrical curve
Area under the curve for half cycle
Average value =
Base
The RMS value may be determined by taking the mean of the squares of the
instantaneous value of current over one complete cycle.
1 2π 1 2π
Irms = √ ∫ i2 dt and Vrms = √ ∫ v 2 dt
2π 0 2π 0
RMS value of sinusoidal current is.
1 2π
Irms = √ ∫ Im 2 Sin2 ωt dt
2π 0
Im 2 2π 2 Im 2 2π 1 − Cos2ωt
= √ ∫ Sin ωt dt = √ ∫ ( ) dt
2π 0 2π 0 2
Im 2 Im 2 Im
Irms = √ × 2π = √ =
4π 2 √2
Im Vm
Irms = , similarly RMS value of voltage is Vrms =
√2 √2
2.3.1 Problems based on RMS values
Solution:
Method: (1)
[Same as the RMS value Derivation]
Im Vm
Irms = , Vrms =
√2 √2
Note: For this problem, you have write the RMS value derivation.
Method: (2)
2π
1
IRMS = √ ∫ Im 2 sin2 ωt dωt
2π
0
2π
Im 1 − cos2 ωt
= ∫ √ dωt
2π 2
0
Im 1 sin2(ωt) 2π
= √[ (ωt) − ]
√2√π 2 4 0
1Im I
= √ (2π) = m
√2√π 2 √2
RMS value = 0.707Im
2. Find the RMS value of the sawtooth wave shown.
The ratio of RMS value to the average value is called the Form Factor.
RMS value
Form factor (K f ) =
Average value
Vm
⁄
Form factor for sinusoidal voltage (K f ) = √2 = π = 1.111
2Vm⁄ 2√2
T
Im
⁄
Form factor for sinusoidal current (K f ) = √2 = π = 1.111
2Im⁄ 2√2
T
2.4.1 Problems in form factor
1. Find the formfactor for the given sinusoidal waveform shown in figure.
Solution:
π
1
Average value = ∫ Im sin ωt dt
π
0
Im
= (− cos ωt)π
0
π
Im 2
= (2) = Im
π π
RMS value Im /√2 π
Form Factor = = = = 1.11
Average value 2Im /π 2√2
Peak factor (or) Crest factor
Peak factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum value to the rms value.
maximum value
Peak Factor (K p ) =
RMS value
The peak factor for the sinusoidal current is
Im
Peak Factor (K p ) = = √2 = 1.414
Im
⁄
√2
The peak factor for the sinusoidal voltage is
Vm
Peak Factor (K p ) = = √2 = 1.414
Vm
⁄
√2
2.5 POWER FACTOR
The ratio of the average power to the apparent power is called the power factor. The
power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current.
The average power depends on the cosine value of the angle between voltage and
current called as power factor.
Average power P
Power Factor = =
Apparent power S
S = Apparent power
R
Power Factor = cos(θv − θi ) =
Z
Note:
Apparent power = EI
It is given by the ratio of maximum value to RMS values, also called as Amplitude Factor
(or) Crest Factor.
Maximum value
Peak Factor =
RMS value
1. Expression for RMS value, Average value, Form factor and peak factor of a sinusoidal
alternating quantity.
The standard form of a sinusoidal alternating current is given by
i = Im sin θ
To find RMS value:
2π i2
We have, Irms = √∫0 2π
dθ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
Substitute the value of ‘i’ in equation (1)
2π
Im 2 sin2 θ
Irms = √∫ dθ
2π
0
2π
Im 2
Irms = √ ∫ sin2 θ dθ
2π
0
2π
Im 2 (1 − cos2θ)
Irms = √ ∫ dθ
2π 2
0
2π 2π
Im 2
= √ [∫ dθ − ∫ cos 2θ dθ]
4π
0 0
2π
Im 2 sin 2θ
= √ [(θ)2π
0 −( ) ]
4π 2 0
Im 2
= √ [(2π − 0) − (0)]
4π
Im 2 Im 2 Im
= √ [2π] = √ =
4π 2 √2
Im
IRMS = = 0.707 Im
√2
To find Average value:
π
i dθ
Iavg = ∫
π
0
Substitute the value of ‘I’ in the above equation, we get
π
Im
Iavg = ∫ sin θ dθ
π
0
Im
= − [cos θ]π
0
π
Im
= − [cos π − cos 0]
π
Im
= − [−1 − 1]
π
2Im Im
Iavg = or π = 0.637 Im
π ⁄2
To find Form Factor
Im
IRMS ⁄
= √2 = 0.707 Im = 1.11
Iavg Im 0.637 Im
⁄π⁄
√2
To find Peak Factor
Imax Im
= = 1.414
IRMS Im
⁄
√2
2. Expression for RMS value, Average value, Form Factor and Peak Factor of half wave
rectified alternating current
Fig 2.14RMS value, Average value, Form Factor and Peak Factor of half wave rectified
alternating current
From the figure, i = Im sin θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and
i= 0 for π ≤ θ ≤ 2π
To find RMS value:
2π 2
i
Irms = √∫ dθ
0 2π
π 2π
1
= √ ∫ i2 dθ + ∫ i2 dθ
2π
0 π
π
1
= √ [∫ Im 2 Sin2 θdθ + 0]
2π
0
π
Im 2 1 − cos 2θ
= √ [∫ dθ]
2π 2
0
π π
Im 2
= √ [∫ dθ − ∫ cos 2θ dθ]
4π
0 0
π
Im 2 sin 2θ
= √ [(θ)π
0 −( ) ]
4π 2 0
Im 2
IRMS = √ [(π − 0) − (0)]
4π
Im 2 Im
IRMS = √ ×π =
4π 2
To find Average value:
2π
i dθ
Iavg = ∫
2π
0
π 2π
1
Iavg = [∫ Im sin θ dθ + ∫ 0 dθ]
2π
0 π
π
Im −Im
= ∫ sin θ dθ ⇒ (cos θ)π
0
2π 2π
0
−Im
= [cos π − cos 0]
2π
−Im Im
Iavg = [−1 − 1] =
2π π
To find Form Factor
Im⁄
IRMS 2 = 1.57
=
Iavg Im⁄
π
To find Peak Factor
Imax Im
= = 2
IRMS Im⁄
2
3. Expression for RMS value and average value of the voltage represented by triangular
waveform
Fig 2.15RMS value and average value of the voltage represented by triangular waveform
Then for figure (i), the equation of straight line for (OP) is
X = θ, Y = V, X1 = 0, Y1 = 0, X 2 = π⁄2 , Y2 = Vmax
π⁄
2
V 2 dθ
VRMS = √∫ π … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
⁄2
0
On simplifying we get
Vmax
VRMS = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4)
√3
To find the Average value
π⁄
2
V dθ
Vavg = ∫ π … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5)
⁄2
0
On simplifying we get
Vmax
Vavg = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (6)
2
2.7 Problems:
Given data:
Period = T
Max value = 50 Amps
To find: Average value
Area under the curve (A)
Average value =
Period (T)
Solution:
1 1
Area = b × h = × T × 50 = 25T
2 2
25 × T
Average value = = 25Amps
T
2. Find the average value of the halfwave rectified sine wave
= ∫ Im sin θ dθ
0
= Im [cos θ]π
0
= −Im [cos π − cos 0]
Area under the curve = −Im [−1 − 1] = 2Im
Area under the curve 2Im Im
∴ Average value = = =
Period (T) 2π π
3. Find the RMS value, average value of the waveform as shown in figure.
Fig 2.18RMS value, average value of Triangular waveform
Solution:
The given function is a symmetrical function. We can consider only positive half cycle.
i.e. Vm = 100 volts
Area under half the cycle
Average value =
half the period
Vm 100
Area under half of the cycle = = = 50
2 2
Vm 100
To find RMS value = = = 57.74 volts
√3 √3
4. Find the form factor and peak factor of the Trapezoidal waveform.
Area under half they cycle = Area of ∆OAC + ∆∆BDE + rectangle ABDC
1 1 T
Area of ∆OAC = × b × h = × × 20
2 2 8
1 1 T
Area of ∆BDE = × b × h = × × 20
2 2 8
T
Area of rectangle ABDC = b × h = × 20
4
Area under half they cycle = Area of ∆OAC + ∆∆BDE + rectangle ABDC
1 T 1 T T
= ( × × 20 ) + ( × × 20 ) + ( × 20)
2 8 2 8 4
20 T 20 T 20T
=× + × +
2 8 2 8 4
5T 5T
= + + 5T = 1.25T + 1.2T + 5T = 7.5T
4 4
7.5T × 2
∴ Average value = = 15Amps
T
Area under the squared curve
To find RMS value = √ Half the time period
1
Area under the squared curve = × b × h2
2
1 T 1 T T
= × 202 × + × 202 × + 202 ×
3 8 3 8 4
1 T 1 T T
= × 400 × + × 400 × + 400 ×
3 8 3 8 4
50 × T 50 × T
= + + 100T
3 3
= 16.7T + 16.7T + 100T = 133.4T
Solution:
It is a symmetrical function
Area under half the cycle
Average value =
half the period
1 1
Area under half the period = × b × h = × π × Vm
2 2
Area under half the cycle
Average value =
half the period
1 1 Vm
Average value = × π × Vm × =
2 π 2
Area under the squared wave
RMS value = √
Period
Area under squared wave = Area under the square (∆ABC + ∆OAB)
1 1
= bh2 + bh2
3 3
1 π 1 π
= × Vm × + × Vm 2 ×
2
3 2 3 2
1 π πVm 2
= 2 × × Vm 2 × =
3 2 3
Vm 2 × π 1 Vm
∴ RMS value = √ × =
3 π √3
6. Find the average value, RMS value, form factor and peak factor.
Fig 2.21
The alternating current (or) voltage waveform has exactly two similar half cycles whether
sinusoidal (or) non sinusoidal
For this type of waveform, where the first half cycle varies with the second half cycle and
hence for finding the average value, the full cycle must be considered
Fig 2.23 Unsymmetrical waveform
Area under one complete cycle
Avg value =
Time period
2.8.3 Problem:
Find the average value, RMS value, Form factor and peak factor for an unsymmetrical
waveform.
Fig 2.24Average value, RMS value, Form factor and peak factor for an unsymmetrical
waveform.
Consider the circuit shown in which a resistor of value ‘R’ ohms is connected across
an alternating voltage source(Vs).
P = Em sin ωt × Im sin ωt
P = Em Im sin2 ωt
π
1
∴ Average Power (P) = ∫ Vm sin θ Im sin θ dθ
π
0
π
Vm Im
= ∫ sin2 θ dθ
π
0
π
Vm Im 1 − cos 2θ
= [∫ ( ) dθ]
π 2
0
π π
Vm Im
= [∫ dθ − ∫ cos 2θ dθ]
2π
0 0
Vm Im
=
2
Vm Im
∴ Average Power (P) = × = VRMS . IRMS
√2 √2
Since, we discuss about AC circuits, Resistance is replaced by impedance (Z).
V = IR, V = IZ
V Vm
∴Z= =
I Im
Vm
Z=
Vm⁄
R
∴Z=R
Consider a circuit shown in fig, having resistance (R), inductance (L), and capacitance
(C), all are connected in series.
R - V & I unity
L - VL leads IL
Voltage across L = VL = IXL ∠90 = jIX L [voltage leads the current by 90]
V = IR + jIX L − jIX C
V = I [R + jX L − jX C ]
V = I [R + j(X L − X C )]
V
∴ = R + j(X L − X C )
I
V
|Z| = √R2 + (X L − X C )2 where = |Z|
I
Conditions:
Phasor Diagram:
ωL − 1⁄ωC
tan θ =
R
ωL − 1⁄ωC
θ = tan−1 ( )
R
It is capacitive in nature
= IXL
Fig 2.32XL< XC
XL − XC
Phase angle θ = tan θ = ( )
R
1⁄ − ω
ωC L
= ( )
R
1⁄ − ω
ωC L
θ = tan−1 ( )
R
1) In a series circuit consists of pure inductance and pure resistance. The current and voltage
2π 5π
are expressed in i(t) = 5 sin(314t + )and v(t) = 20 sin(314 + ).
3 6
a) What is the impedance of the circuit?
b) What is the values of resistance, inductance and power factor?
c) What is the average power drawn by the circuit?
Solution:
2π
i(t) = 5 sin (314t + )
3
5π
v(t) = 20 sin(314 + )
6
2π 180
phase angle of current = radians = 2 × = 120
3 3
5π 180
phase angle of voltage = radians = 5 × = 150
6 6
Current lags the voltage by θ = 150 − 120 = 30
X L = √Z2 − R2
X L = √42 − 3.462 = 2Ω
2
X L = ωL ⇒ L = = 6.37 × 10−3 Henry
314
20 5 min value
Average Power = VI cos θ = × × 0.866 = 43.3 watts [since RMS value = ]
√2 √2 √2
2. In the circuit shown at a frequency f = 500Kz, the current lags the voltage by 50 degree. Find
R and voltage across each circuit element. Draw the phasor diagram.
Fig 2.33
If X C > X L ⇒ X C − X L is capacitive.
Z = √R2 + (X C − X L )2
Generation
As said earlier all the 3 phases (or) coils [R, Y, B] are displaced by 120
degree phase shift with a maximum value of ∅m .
Let all the coils rotate in anticlockwise direction
According to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, emf is induced in the
conductors [RR’, YY’, BB’].
As shown in the figure, YY’ lags RR’ by an angle 120 degree.
The induced emf in coil BB’ lags RR’ by an angle of 240 degree.
eR = Em sin ωt
eY = Em sin(ωt − 120)
eB = Em sin(ωt − 240)
The figure shows a star connected system with all the parameters
b) Voltage relationship
VRY = ̅E̅̅̅ ̅̅̅
R − EY
VYB = EY − E̅̅B̅
̅̅̅ ̅
VBR = ̅E̅̅B̅ − E
̅̅̅R̅
Law of Parallelogram
VRY = √ER 2 + EY 2 + 2ER EY cos θ
1
VRY = √EP 2 + EP 2 + 2EP EP .
2
= √3EP 2 = √3EP
Similarly VRY = √3EP , VYB = √3EP , VBR = √3EP
VL
∴ Line voltage VL = √3EP , where EP =
√3
c) Power Relationship
Power consumed per phase = EP IP cos ∅
Power consumed for 3 phase = 3EP IP cos ∅
VL
We know that EP =
√3
VL
Power consumed for 3 phase = 3 IP cos ∅
√3
= √3VL IL cos ∅
Reactive power = EP IP sin ∅
3 phase power = 3EP IP sin ∅
∴ Apparent Power = √(3. VL 2 IL 2 cos2 ∅) + (3. VL 2 IL 2 sin2 ∅)
= √(3. VL 2 IL 2 ). [1]
= √(3. VL 2 IL 2 )
Total power = √3VL IL [volt amps]
ER = EY = EB = EP [ Phase voltages ]
IR = IY = IB = IP [Phase current ]
Voltage Relationship
From the phasor diagram, the line currents are given by,
Fig 2.41
IR − IB = IL1 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
IY − IR = IL2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
IB − IY = IL3 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
From equation (1),
By applying law of parallelogram
IL! = √IR 2 + IB 2 + 2IR IB cos θ
1
= √IP 2 + IP 2 + 2IP IP .
2
Almost all electric power generation and most of the power transmission in the world is
in the form of three-phase AC circuits. A three-phase AC system consists of three-phase
generators, transmission lines, and loads. There are two major advantages of three-phase
systems over a single-phase system:
2) Power delivered to a three-phase load is constant at all time, instead of pulsing as it does in a
single-phase system.
The first three-phase electrical system was patented in 1882 by John Hopkinson - British
physicist, electrical engineer, Fellow of the Royal Society
2.13 THREE-PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT- TWO WATTMETER METHOD
2.13.1Two–Wattmeter Method
This is the generally used method for measurement of power in 3-phase, 3 –wire, load
circuits. The current coils of two wattmeter are inserted in any two lines and pressure coil is
connected from its own current coil to the line without a current coil. The connections are shown
in Fig. 3(a).
Let V1, V2, V3, and i1, i2, i3 be the voltages and currents of the three loads connected
across three different phases at any particular instant. These being instantaneous values, the
power at the instant under consideration are equal to the sum of their products, regardless of
power factor.
Since all the three phases meet at a star point so according to Kirchhoff’s first law, the
algebraic sum of three instantaneous current is zero
i.e. i1+ i2 + i3 = 0
or i3 = - (i1+ i2)
Substituting i3 = - ( i1+ i2) in expression (i) we get instantaneous power,
p= V1 i1 + V2 i2 - V3 (i +i2) = i1 (V1 – V3) + i2 (V2 + V3)
Fig.2.42Two Watt-Meter Method of Measuring Power in 3-Phase 3- Wire star connected load
system
Since i1 is the instantaneous current flowing through the current coils and (V1 – V3) is the
instantaneous potential difference across pressure coil of watt-meter W 1, therefore (v1 – v3) i1 =
w1, the instantaneous power measured by wattmeter W 1.
Hence the algebraic sum of two wattmeter readings gives the total power in the 3-phase,
3-wire star connected load circuits whether the load is balanced or unbalanced
Delta- Connected System:
In delta- connected system the three phases form a closed loop and according to
Kirchhoff’s second law.
V1+ V2 + V3 = 0
or V1 = - (V2+V3)
Instantaneous power, p = V1i1 + V2i2 + V3i3
= - (V2 + V3) i1+ V2i2 + V3i3
= -V3 (i1-i3) + V2 (i2-i1)
Since –V3 is the instantaneous pd across pressure coil and (i1 – i3) is the instantaneous current
flowing through current coil of wattmeter W 1, so wattmeter W 1 reads average of –V3 (i1- i3) and
similarly wattmeter W 2 reads average of V2(i2-i1)
Hence the algebraic sum of two wattmeter readings gives total power of the circuit
irrespective of the fact that the circuit is balanced or unbalanced and star connected or delta-
connected.
Determination of Power Factor from Wattmeter Readings. If load is balanced, then pf of
the load can also be determined from the wattmeter readings.
The vector diagram for a balanced star-connected inductive load is shown in Fig. 4 (a).
Let V1,V2, and V3 be the rms values of phase voltages and l1, l2 and l3 be the rms values of
phase currents.
Therefore phase angle between voltage across potential coil and current through current
coil of wattmeter W 1 is (30°- ) and reading of wattmeter
W 1 = VLlLcos (30° - )
Therefore phase angle between potential difference (p.d) across potential coil and
current through current coil of wattmeter W 2 is (30° + )
W1 - W2 Tan
W1 W2 = 3
or = tan-1 W1 W2 3
W1 W2
andpf of load circuit, cos = cos tan-1.
Hence phase angle and pfcos can be determined from readings of two wattmeters.