Beruflich Dokumente
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1- pn junction
When p-type and n-type semiconductors are brought in
contact a pn-junction is formed which is the basis of the
semiconductor diode, a widely used circuit element.
The charge separation causes a contact potential to
exist at the junction. This potential is typically on the
order of few tenths a volt and depends on the
material (for Silicon about 0.6 to 0.7 V). The contact
potential is called the offset voltage Vγ.
The existing of electric field across the junction
helps the minority carriers (holes in the n-type and
electron in the p-type) to drift across the depletion
region creating a small reverse saturation current Is
flows in the reverse direction when the diode is
reverse biased.
Is is independent of the junction voltage and is
determined by thermal carrier generation. At room
temperature, Is is in the order of nanoamperes (10-9 A)
for Silicon.
Another current caused by diffusion of majority
carriers (holes in the p-type and electrons in the n-
type) across the junction called diffusion current Id.
The diffusion current flows in the forward direction
and is largely dependent on junction voltage, thus, it
increases as the forward bias voltage increases.
Reverse-biased diode
The effect of the reverse bias is to
increase the contact potential. The
only current is the drift current
iD = −I 0 = I S
Forward-biased diode
The forward voltage acts in
opposition to the contact potential
therefore, the diffusion current is
aided by the applied voltage
I d = I 0e qv D / KT
The net forward current is,
i D = I d − I 0 = I 0 (e qv D / KT
− 1) diode equation
where,
vD is the voltage across the pn-junction, K=1.38 x 10-23
J/K is Boltizman’s constant, q is the charge of one
electron, and T is the temperature in kelvins.
Since I0 is very small, iD is approximated to,
iD = I 0 e qv D / KT
Solution
Assume initially the diode is off and replace it by an open
circuit
R2 10
v1 = VS = =8 V
R1 + R 2 5 + 10
Apply KVL to the right-hand-side mesh:
v1 = v D + V B or v D = 8 − 11 = −3 V
The results indicates that the diode is reverse-biased
and confirm the initial assumption. Thus, the diode
is off
If the initial assumption is that the diode is on,
replace the diode with a short circuit
i
i1
Apply KCL: i = i1 + i2
V S − v1 v1 v1 − V B
= + note that v1=v2
R1 R2 R3
V S V B v1 v1 v1
+ = + +
R1 R3 R1 R 2 R3
12 11 1 1 1
+ = ( + + )v1
15 10 5 10 10
v1 = 8.75 V
Solution
Assume the diode is on, then the current is:
V B − Vi 10 − 12
i= = = −0.1333 A
5 + 10 15
KVL: − VB + (10 + 5)i + vD + Vi = 0
vD = 10 − 15x 0.1333 − 12 = −3.997V
The result contradict the assumption since vD is
negative and current sign means its direction is
opposite to the assumed one. Thus, the diode is off
2.2- Offset diode model
While the ideal model is useful in approximating
the large-scale characteristics of a physical diode, it
does not account for the presence of an offset voltage,
which is unavoidable component in semiconductor
diode.
The offset diode model consists of an ideal diode in
series with a battery of strength equal to the offset
voltage, Vγ .
Vγ
for vD < Vγ the diode acts as an open circuit (off) .
for vD ≥ Vγ the diode is on and acts as a battery of Vγ V
Solution
Assume the diode is off and replace it with the offset
model
KVL: − v1 + v D1 + Vγ + V B = 0
v D1 = v1 − 0.6 − 2 = v1 − 2.6
then the condition for the
diode to conduct is v1-2.6≥0
or v1≥2.6 V
Example (P9.23)
Use the offset diode model to determine the output
voltage of each of the following circuits:
Solution
a) D1 and D3 are reverse-biased, D2 and D4 are
forward-biased.
Vout=-5+0.7= -4.3 V
vT = i D RT + v D load-line equation
iD = I 0 (e qv D / KT
− 1) diode equation
The diode equation gives rise to diode iD-vD
characteristics curve while the load-line equation
describes a line with slope -1/R and y intercept given by
VT/RT and x intercept given by VT.
1 1
iD = − vD + VT
RT RT
Example
Determine the operating point of the 1N914 diode in
the circuit shown below and compute the total power
output of the 12-V battery. R1 =50 Ω, R2 =10 Ω, R3 = R4
=20 Ω,
Solution
We first compute Thevenin equivalent circuit
RT= R1 || R2 + R3 + R4
RT =20+20+(10||50)=48.33 Ω
R2 10
VT = VS = x12 =2 V
R1 + R2 60
Using load line equation, y intercept is VT/RT=41 mA
and x intercept is VT = 2 V.
Curves intersection is
the Q-point, thus:
VQ=1 V
IQ=21 mA
VR 2 = I Q ( R3 + R4 ) + VQ = 0.021x 40 + 1 = 1.84V
I R 2 = VR 2 / R2 = 1.84 / 10 = 0.184 A
PB = 12 x (0.021 + 0.184) = 2.46W
4- Rectifier circuits
Rectification is one of the important applications of the
diode. Rectification is the ability to convert the AC signal
to a DC signal..
4.1- Half-wave rectifier
Half-wave rectifier is a simple but inefficient rectifier. A
single diode is used to build this rectifier.
Consider an AC source voltage, vi, connected to a load
via a series ideal diode.
Vm
{
vi (t )
positive
negative
diode is on
diode is off
( forward biased )
( reverse biased )
v L ( t ) = vi ( t )
vL ( t ) =0 V
Thus, the appearance of the load voltage will be as
shown below:
vi
iD = when vi ≥ 0
RL
And
v L = iD RL
Solution
Assume the diode is off. Apply
KVL to the circuit (a):
vD = vS – 0.6 (i = 0)
Then, to be consistent with the
assumption that the diode is off:
vS < 0.6 V (vD <0 diode off condition)
Since i=0 then,
vR =0 V (diode off)
If vS ≥ 0.6 V , the diode conducts and
the current i is obtained by applying
KVL to circuit (b),
v S − 0.6
i=
R
and
v R = iR = v S − 0.6
We summarize the result as follows:
0 for v S < 0.6 V
vR =
v S − 0.6 for v S ≥ 0.6 V
− Nv S
i L = i2 = vS < 0
RL
Note that the direction of iL is the same in both cycles
because of the manner of diodes connections.
The load voltage appearance is as shown below:
t1 t2
The peak-to-peak ripple , Vr, voltage can be calculated
by considering the capacitor discharge equation as
follows:
1 v peak
T T /2 T
1
Average current= i DC = ∫ i (t ) dt = ∫ sin(ωt ) dt + ∫ 0 dt
T 0 T 0 RL T /2
v peak 2 x 20
= = = 0.18 A
πRL πx50
Example
In the full-wave power supply shown, the diodes are
1N4001 with a rated peak inverse voltage (also called
peak inverse voltage) of 25 V. If n (turn ratio)=0.05883,
C=80 μF, RL=1 kΩ, Vline=170cos(377t) V.
a- determine the actual peak reverse voltage across each
diode
b- explain why these diodes are or are not suitable for
the specifications given.
Solution
a) The peak voltage of Vs1 is:
at ωt=0: D1 is on , D2 is off
KVL to L1: − vS 1 (t ) + vD1−on + vL (t ) = 0
-10+0.7+Vm=0 , Vm=9.3 V=peak value of vL (t)
KVL to L2:
vS 2 (t ) + vD 2− reverse + vL (t ) = 0
10+ vD2-reverse +9.3=0 , vD2-reverse =-10-9.3=-19.3 V
The same analysis can be conducted for D1-reverse.voltage
but at ωt=π at which D1 off and D2 on
b) Since the rated peak reverse voltage (25 V) > calculated
actual peak reverse voltage by adequate margin, the
diodes are suitable for the given specifications.
Example
In the bridge-rectifier circuit shown, if IL=85 mA, VL=5.3
V, Vr=0.6 V, ω=377 rad/s, and vline=156cos(ωt).
Determine the value of:
a- the peak value of Vs
b- the capacitor C
Solution
a-
KVL: − v S (t ) + v D1 + v D 3 + v L (t ) = 0
at t=0, − VSm + vD1−on + vD 3−on + Vm = 0
VSm=peak value of VS
VSm+0.7+0.7+Vm=0 , VSm = 0.7 + 0.7 + 5.6 = 7 V
Note: VSm 7
n= = = 0.04487
Vim 156
0.6
= 1 − e −0.00723 / 62.353C
5.6
− 0.00723 / 62.353C 0.6
e = 1− = 0.893
5.6
62.353
C=− ln(0.893) = 1023 µF
0.00723
6- Voltage regulation
DC power supplies contains voltage regulators, that is,
devices that can hold a DC load voltage relatively constant
in spite of possible fluctuations in the DC supply.
VL VZ
iL = = (ideal diode, rZ=0 Ω, VL=VZ)
RL RL
iL = iS − iZ
2) The source current is given by
v S − VZ
iS = (ideal diode, VL=VZ)
RS
If practical Zener diode model is used then,
VL= VZ + rZiZ
vS − VL
iS =
RS
vS − VZ − iZ rZ
=
RS
If rZ is considered then: PZ = iZ VZ + i r
2
Z Z
In practice, the range of load resistance RL is
constrained to:
R L min ≤ R L ≤ R L max
Solution v S − V Z 24 − 12
iS = = = 0.24 A
RS 50
VZ 12
iL = = = 0.048 A
R L 250
and the Zener current ,
i Z = i S − i L = 0.192 A
i Z max = i S = 0.24 A
and PZ max = iZ maxVZ = 2.88 W
iZ
Solution
v S max − V Z min − i Z max rZ
R min =
i L min + i Z max
but rZ=0 (ideal diode) then:
vS max − VZ 40 − 25
RS min = = = 46.15 Ω
iL min + iZ max 75 + 250
vS min − VZ max − iZ min rZ
Rmax =
iL max + iZ min
30 − 25
RS max = = 133.3 Ω
75 + 0
Example
We desire to hold the load voltage constant at 14 V. Find
the range of the load resistance for which regulation can
be obtained if the Zener diode is rate at 14-V, 5 W. Use
ideal model.
Solution
The minimum load resistance is calculated by
assuming all the source current goes to the load.
Vs − VL Vs − VZ 50 − 14
iS = = = = 1.2 A = iL max
Rs Rs 10 + 20
VL VZ 14
RL min = = = = 11.7Ω
iL max is 1.2
The maximum current through the Zener diode that
does not exceed the diode power rating is,
PZ 5
iZ max = = = 0.357 A
VZ 14
Then, iL min = iS − iZ max = 1.2 − 0.357 = 0.843 A
So the maximum load resistance is,
VL 14
RL max = = = 16.6Ω
iL min 0.843
Example
Determine the minimum and maximum values of the
series resistor R if the following regulation
specifications are required.
VZ=12 ± 10% , rZ=9 Ω
iZmin=3.25 mA , iZmax=80 mA
VS=25 ± 1.5 V , IL=31.5 ± 21.5 mA
Solution
7- Diode clipper (Limiter)
Diode clipper employed to protect the load against
excessive voltage, i.e., to keep
− Vmax ≤ vL (t ) ≤ Vmax
Assume ideal diodes:
D1 on
vL(t)=Vmax
Condition for D1 to be off :
vout (t ) = vs (t ) − VC = vs (t ) − V peak
VC= capacitor voltage=Vpeak
Clamp positive peaks to 0 V, i.e.,
Shifted down to 0 level
necessary condition: RC >> T
+ D
vi(t) +
C vo(t)
- -
vi (t)
Vm
0
t
-Vm
vo(t)
Vm
0
t
Peak detector circuit is similar to clamper circuit
except that the diode and the capacitor swapped their
places. The output, vo(t) , is taken across the capacitor
When vi(t) increases initially from 0 V to Vm (its peak
value), the diode is forward biased and immediately
charges the capacitor up to the peak value of the input
voltage, Vm , thereafter, the diode remains reverse
biased as the capacitor will keep its voltage constant at
Vm
Peak detector circuits are used in peak-reading
voltmeters and in smoothing pulsating waveforms
10- Photo diodes
Photo diodes are fabricated with a surface material
that is transparent to light. When the light reaches
the depletion region it generate electron-hole pairs by
a process called photoionization. As a consequence,
the reverse current depends on the light intensity.
the i-v curve is shifted to lower values according to the
value of photoionization current IP.
L1 curve represents normal forward-biased diode
operation. Q-point in the positive i and positive v. Power
is positive and diode dissipates power.
L2 curve represents photodiode operates as solar cell.
Q-point in the negative i and positive v. Power is negative
and diode generate power.
L3 curve represents photodiode operates as light sensor.
The diode is reverse-biased and the current determined
by the incident light intensity.
11- Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
Diode operating in this mode emits light when forward-
biased. LEDs exhibit a forward voltage (offset) of 1 to 2 V.
In principle, by forwarding the diode and causing a
significant level of recombination, some of the energy
released is converted to light energy.
Gallium arsenide (GaAS) is one of the more popular
substrates for creating LEDs. LED operating current
can range from 20 to 100 mA.
Example
Determine: a) the LED power consumption. b) the
resistance RS. c) the power required by the voltage
source. VS =5 V; ILED =40 mA
VLED=1.7 V
Solution
a) PLED = VLED x ILED =1.7x0.04=68 mW
b) VS= ILED RS + VLED
RS =82.5 Ω
c) PS= VSx ILED =200 mW