LIQUID SYSTEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Lecture 3

Mag.chem., researcher Lauma Buša

 Contents of the lecture
• Solutions, viscosity, surface tension
• Solutions and their types
• Saturated, unsaturated and oversaturated solutions
• Solubility, factors affecting solubility
• Composition of solutions
• Colligative properties of solutions
• Osmosis and osmotic pressure
• Chemical reactions in solutions

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 States of matter

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 Transition between states of matter

Gas

Liquid
Solid

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 Characteristics of liquids
Density (g/cm3)
Solid Liquid Gas
• The atoms or molecules in the liquids are closer to one
Ar 1.65 1.40 0.001784 another as in gases, but further apart as in solid substances.
N2 1.026 0.8081 0.001251
• The kinetic energy of the particles forming liquid is higher
O2 1.426 1.149 0.001429
than that of solids.

• Particles in the liquid are in continuous chaotic motion,

collisions are frequent.

• Cohesion - the interaction between particles of a liquid,

which results in a uniform molecular system.
Solid Liquid
• Adhesion - the creation of a connection between contact
surfaces of various solid or liquid substances.
Gas

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 Viscosity and surface tension
• Viscosity - the ability of the liquid to withstand flowing.

The more viscous is the liquid, the more it resists flowing.

Viscosity can be reduced by increasing the temperature of the liquid.

• Surface tension – is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which makes it

acquire the least surface area possible.

Water Mercury

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 Solution
• Solution – a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances.

• Solvent – a substance which is predominant in solution and in which the

components of solution are dissolved.

• Solute – a substance which in solution is in the minor and which is

dissolved in a solvent to obtain a solution (in the form of molecules or
ions).

Both solvent and solute can be:

o Solid
o Liquid
o Gas

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 True solutions
True Solution is a solution in which solute has the particle size of less than 10-9 m or 1 nm.

Properties of true solutions:

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture in which the particles of solute and solvent cannot
be seen by the naked eye

• Colorless or colorful, translucent

• The solute cannot be separated from a solution by filtration

• Doesn’t scatter light (doesn’t show Tyndall effect)

• Solute doesn’t precipitate with time

Chemical Principles, 8th ed.

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 Water – the most common solvent
One molecule of water consists of 2 hydrogen and
1 oxygen atom.

The shape of molecule is bent (V-shape), angle

between O-H bonds is104.5°

O-H bonds in the molecule are polar covalent, electrons

of these bonds are situated closer to the oxygen.

The molecule of H2O is polar

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 Process of dissolution (ionic compounds)
Anion

Water molecules interact with the

cations (+) and anions (-) in the
compound, and break their bonds.

NaCl (c) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Cation
Chemical Principles, 8th ed.

The ions or molecules of the solute are being solvated in the solvent – the molecules of
solvent forms bonds with the molecules/ions of the solute. If the solvent is water – hydration.

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Process of dissolution (molecular compounds)

Vegetable Oil
oil layer
Water Water
layer

Chemical Principles, 8th ed.

Ethanol is a polar compound, Vegetable oil is non-polar,

dissolves well in water doesn’t dissolve in water.

«Like dissolves like»

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 Solubility

Solubility of a substance - mass of the solute which under certain conditions (at given
temperature and pressure) can be dissolved in a given solvent volume.

Example.
At 25 °C 1L water can dissolve 360 g NaCl. What is the solubility?
a) 360 g/L
b) 36.0 g/100 g H2O

Solubility can be expressed both g/L and g/100 g solvent.

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 Types of solutions
Unsaturated solution – a solution in which the solute can still be dissolved at the given temperature.

Saturated solution - a solution in which the solute doesn’t dissolve anymore at the given temperature.

Oversaturated solution - a solution which contains more solute than can be dissolved
at the given temperature.

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 Factors affecting solubility
• Temperature
• Solid substances – by increasing the temperature, the solubility increases
• Gases – by increasing the temperature, the solubility decreases

• Pressure
• Pressure affects only the solubility of gases. By increasing the pressure, the solubility
of gas increases.

• Nature of the solvent and the solute

• Like dissolves like
(ionic substances – polar solvents; non-polar substances – non-polar solvents)

Polar solvents Water, acetone, ethanol, methanol etc.

Non-polar solvents Hexane, chloroform, benzene etc.

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 Solubility curves
The solubility curve provides information about the
solubility of a substance depending on temperature. Using
the solubility curve, one can obtain information about the
unsaturated, saturated and oversaturated solution.

Solubility, g/100g water

Oversaturated
solution At any given
temperature, it is
possible to obtain both
unsaturated, saturated
and oversaturated
Unsaturated solutions.
solution

Temperature, °C

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 Composition of solutions

• The composition of solution can be described by concentration of

solution – amount of solute in definite amount (volume) of solvent.
Qualitative composition of solution is characterized by:
- Diluted solutions: relatively small amount of solute
- Concentrated solutions: relatively big amount of solute

Quantitative composition of solution is characterized by :

- Fraction of solute (mass, volume)
- Molar concentration
- Molal concentration
- Mass concentration

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 Composition of solutions
• Weight fraction of solute (%)
𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑤 % = ∙ 100 = ∙ 100
𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example.

In 100 g of water 13.5 g of glucose (C6H12O6) is dissolved, what is the weight fraction of solute%?

𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 13.5𝑔 13.5𝑔

𝑤 % 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 = ∙ 100 = ∙ 100 = ∙ 100 = 11.9%
𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 13.5𝑔 + 100𝑔 113.5𝑔

Weight fraction can be expressed: percent (%, ·102), permille (‰, ·103),
ppm (parts per million, ·106), ppb (parts per billion, ·109).

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 Composition of solutions

• Volume fraction of solute (%)

𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑉/𝑉 % = ∙ 100 = ∙ 100
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example.

In 250 mL of water 150 mL of acetone are dissolved, what is the acetone volume fraction %

in the solution?

𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 150 𝑚𝐿 150 𝑚𝐿

𝑤 % 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ∙ 100 = ∙ 100 = ∙ 100 = 37.5%
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 + 𝑉𝐻2 𝑂 150 𝑚𝐿 + 250 𝑚𝐿 400 𝑚𝐿

Volume fraction of solute can be used only if the solute is a liquid!

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 Composition of solutions
• Molar concentration
(amount of solute (in moles) in definite volume of the solution (in liters))

𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑐=
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Example.
In 500 mL of water 38.7 g of potassium chloride are dissolved (M=74.55 g/mol), what is the molar
concentration of the solution?

𝑚𝐾𝐶𝑙 38.7𝑔
𝑛𝐾𝐶𝑙 𝑀𝐾𝐶𝑙 74.55𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 0.52𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑐= = = = = 1.04𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙. 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙. 0.5𝐿 0.5𝐿

The unit for molar concentration is mol/L, it can be denoted as M.

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 Composition of solutions

• Molal concentration
(amount of solute (in moles) in definite mass of the solvent (in kilograms))

𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
Example.
38.7 g of potassium chloride (M=74.55 g/mol) are dissolved in 250 g of water, what is the molal concentration
of the solution?

𝑚𝐾𝐶𝑙 38.7𝑔
𝑛𝐾𝐶𝑙 𝑀𝐾𝐶𝑙 74.55𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 0.52𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑐𝑚 = = = = = 2.08𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙. 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 250𝑔 0.25𝑘𝑔

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 Composition of solutions
• Mass concentration
Expresses mass of the solute contained in the unit volume of the solution
Denoted by the Greek letter gamma γ

𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝛾=
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Example.
BROMHEXINE syrup is used in a condition where there is a lot of thick mucus in the airways, it helps to relieve productive
cough by thinning the mucus in the airways and facilitating the removal of the mucus. The concentration of the active
substance bromhexin in the syrup is γ = 0.8 mg/mL. How many milligrams of bromhexine do adults take per day when one
dose is 15 mL and daily intake is 3 doses?
𝑚𝑔
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 3 ∙ 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑜𝑠𝑒 = 3 ∙ 15 𝑚𝐿 = 45 𝑚𝐿 𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑚ℎ. = 𝛾 ∙ 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 0.8 ∙ 15 𝑚𝐿 = 12 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝐿

Mass concentration units can be various: g/L; g/mL; mg/L; mg/mL; μg/mL u.c.

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 Solution density
The solution density describes ratio of the mass and volume of
the solution, denoted ρ.
𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜌=
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Units for solution density can be various: g/mL, g/cm3, g/L, kg/m3 etc.

The density of a solution depends on: 1 L = 1000 mL

1 kg = 1000 g
1 cm3 = 1 mL
• The properties and amount of solute 1 m3 = 1000 L
1 g = 1000 mg
• Temperature

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 Preparation of solutions

Solutions with known molarity or mass

concentration are always prepared in
volumetric flasks.

In order to obtain very diluted solutions, dilution

method is used.

𝑐1 ∙ 𝑉1 = 𝑐2 ∙ 𝑉2

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 Exercises
1. How much KMnO4 has to be weighed, in order to prepare 500 mL 0.08M solution?

Given data: V = 500 mL; c = 0.08 mol/L; M(KMnO4) = 158.03 g/mol

𝑛 𝑚 𝑚
𝑐= ; 𝑛= ⇒𝑐= ⇒𝑚 =𝑐∙𝑀∙𝑉
𝑉 𝑀 𝑀∙𝑉

𝑔
mKMnO4 = c𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 ∙ 𝑀𝐾𝑀𝑛𝑂4 ∙ 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙. = 0.08 𝑚𝑜𝑙ൗ𝐿 ∙ 158.03 ൗ𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 0.5 𝐿 = 6.32 𝑔

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 2. Calculate the mass that has to be weighed in order to prepare 250 g 5% MgCl2 solution from MgCl2!

Given data: m = 250 g; w(%) = 5 %

𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑤 % 5%
𝑤 % = ∙ 100% ⇒ 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = ∙ 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙. 𝑚𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 = ∙ 250𝑔 = 12.5𝑔
𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙. 100% 100%

3. Calculate the mass that has to be weighed in order to prepare 250 g 5% MgCl2 solution from MgCl2·6H2O!

Given data: m = 250 g; w(%) = 5 %; M(MgCl2) = 95.21 g/mol; M(MgCl2·6H2O) = 203.30 g/mol

𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑤 % 5%
𝑤 % = ∙ 100% ⇒ 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = ∙ 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙. 𝑚𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 = ∙ 250𝑔 = 12.5𝑔
𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙. 100% 100%

𝑚𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 ∙6𝐻2 𝑂 = 𝑛𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 ∙6𝐻2 𝑂 ∙ 𝑀𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 ∙6𝐻2 𝑂 = 𝑛𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 ∙ 𝑀𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 ∙6𝐻2 𝑂 =

𝑚𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 ≠ 𝑚𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2∙6𝐻2𝑂 𝑚𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 12.5𝑔 𝑔

= ∙ 𝑀𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 ∙6𝐻2 𝑂 = 𝑔 ∙ 203.30 ൗ𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 26.69𝑔
𝑀𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 95.21 ൗ𝑚𝑜𝑙

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 Colligative properties of solutions
Physical properties of solutions that depend on the quantity but not the kind or identity of the
solute particles are called colligative properties. The reason for the development of these
properties is the affinity of solute particles to bind with solvent molecules.
• Lowering of the vapour pressure
The saturated vapour pressure for each solution at a given temperature is a constant value that
characterizes its ability to evaporate.

• Boiling-point elevation
If the solute is a non-volatile substance, it elevates the boiling point of the solution.

• Freezing-point depression
• Osmotic pressure

These properties can be observed only in dilute solutions and are not affected by the chemical
nature or size of the particles.

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 Osmosis
Osmosis - spontaneous movement of solvent molecules through a semi-permeable membrane into a
region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on
the two sides.

Semipermeable membrane – a type of membrane

that will allow certain molecules or ions to pass
through it by diffusion.

Osmosis

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 Osmotic pressure

Π = 𝑖𝑐𝑅𝑇

Π – osmotic pressure, kPa

i – van’t Hoff coefficient (non-electrolytes = 1;
electrolytes = number of ions in molecule)
n – molar concentration, mol/L
R – universal gas constant, 8.314 J·mol-1·K-1
Chemical Principles, 8th ed.
T – temperature, K

The additional pressure that has to be applied to the solution

in order to stop osmosis is called osmotic pressure.

Solutions of substances with identical osmotic pressures are called isotonic solutions.

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 Importance of osmosis

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 Chemical reactions in solutions
Exchange reactions of ionic compounds in aqueous solutions can
occur. These reaction happen only in these cases:

Insoluble compund is formed

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + K2CrO4 (aq) → PbCrO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

A molecular compound is formed (H2O)

2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

A volatile compound is formed

Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

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 Complete and net ionic equations
When writing exchange reaction equation is aqueous solution, it is possible
to write both complete and net ionic equations.

• Molecular equation
AgNO3 (aq) + K2CrO4 (aq) → Ag2CrO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
• Complete ionic equation
Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + 2K+ (aq) + CrO42- (aq) → Ag2CrO4 (s) + 2K+ (aq)+ 2NO3- (aq)

• Net ionic equation

Ag+ (aq) + CrO42- (aq) → Ag2CrO4 (s)

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