Limits and Continuity: Bernd SCHR Oder

Regions Limits Limits Involving Infinity Continuity
Limits and Continuity
Bernd Schröder
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Bernd Schröder Louisiana Tech University, College of Engineering and Science
Introduction
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Introduction
1. The idea for the limit is the attempt to answer the question
“What happens when the input of our function gets close to a
number at which the function cannot be evaluated?”
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Introduction
number at which the function cannot be evaluated?” For
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
example, consider D(h) = .
h
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Introduction
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
h
2. Limits also help answer the question what happens when the
absolute value of the input gets large.
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Introduction
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
h
3. Continuous functions are functions for which limits are
computed “by plugging in the number.”
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Introduction
f (z0 + h) − f (z0 )
h
3. Continuous functions are functions for which limits are
computed “by plugging in the number.”
4. Unlike for functions on the real line, the two-dimensional nature
of C makes it sensible to first consider the properties of the
domain.
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Definition.
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Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the ε-neighborhood of z0

is the set of all z ∈ C so that |z − z0 | < ε.
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z
u0
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z
u0

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z
u0

=
>
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z
u0

=
>ε
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z
u0

=
>ε
The idea is to encode “closeness” with ε-neighborhoods.

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Definition.
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Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

ε-neighborhood of z0 is the set of all z ∈ C so that 0 < |z − z0 | < ε.
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z
b0
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z
b0

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z
b0

=
>
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z
b0

=ε
>
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Limits are considered on deleted ε-neighborhoods
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Limits are considered on deleted ε-neighborhoods: The function is

defined near
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defined near, but not at
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defined near, but not at, a point z0 .
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defined near, but not at, a point z0 . We want to use the behavior in the
deleted ε-neighborhood to find out what happens at z0 .
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Consider a set S ⊆ C.
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Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 ∈ S is called an interior point if and

only if S contains an ε-neighborhood of z0 .
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z
u0
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z
u0

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Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 6∈ S is called an exterior point if and

only if there is an ε-neighborhood of z0 that contains no points of S.
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r z0
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r z0

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Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point that is neither an interior nor an exterior

point is called a boundary point.
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point is called a boundary point. That is, if z0 is a boundary point,
then every neighborhood of z0 contains points that are in S and points
that are not in S.
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that are not in S.
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that are not in S.
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that are not in S.
r z0
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that are not in S.

r z0

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Consider a set S ⊆ C. A set is called open if and only if it contains

none of its boundary points.
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Consider a set S ⊆ C. A set is called open if and only if it contains

none of its boundary points.
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Consider a set S ⊆ C. A set is called closed if and only if it contains

all of its boundary points.
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Consider a set S ⊆ C. A set is called closed if and only if it contains

all of its boundary points.
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Consider a set S ⊆ C. A set can be neither open nor closed.
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Consider a set S ⊆ C. A set can be neither open nor closed.
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Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if

and only if from any point in S to any other point in S there is a
(polygonal) path.
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(polygonal) path.
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(polygonal) path.
p
u
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(polygonal) path.
p
u
u
q
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(polygonal) path.
p
u
u
q
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(polygonal) path.
p
u
C
u
q
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(polygonal) path.
p
u
C connects p and q
C
u
q
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(polygonal) path.
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(polygonal) path. Otherwise, the set is not pathwise connected.
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t
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t
P
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t
P
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t
P
tQ
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t
P
tQ
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t
P
tQ
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t
P
tQ
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t
P
Any connection from P to Q

must leave the region.
tQ
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Consider a set S ⊆ C. A nonempty, open, connected set is called a

domain.
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Consider a set S ⊆ C. A domain with some, none or all of its

boundary points is called a region.
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Consider a set S ⊆ C. S is bounded if and only if it lies inside some

circle |z| = r.
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circle |z| = r.
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circle |z| = r.
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Consider a set S ⊆ C. If S is not bounded, it is called unbounded.
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Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 is called an accumulation point of S

if and only if every deleted neighborhood of z0 contains a point in S.
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Informal idea for the limit.
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Informal idea for the limit. w0 is the limit of f at z0 if and only if for
all z sufficiently close to z0 we have that f (z) is close to w0 .
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Definition.
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Definition. ε-δ formulation of the limit of a function.
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Definition. ε-δ formulation of the limit of a function. Let Ω ⊆ C be

a deleted neighborhood of z0 and let the complex function f be defined
on Ω.
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on Ω. Then w0 ∈ C is the limit of the function f at z0 if and only if
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on Ω. Then w0 ∈ C is the limit of the function f at z0 if and only if for
all ε > 0
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all ε > 0 there is a δ > 0
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all ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 such that for all z ∈ Ω with |z − z0 | < δ
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all ε > 0 there
is a δ > 0 such that for all z ∈ Ω with |z − z0 | < δ we
have that f (z) − w0 < ε.
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all ε > 0 there
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all ε > 0 there
rz0
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all ε > 0 there
rz0 -
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all ε > 0 there
rz0 f
-
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all ε > 0 there
rz0 f
- r
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all ε > 0 there
rz0 f
- rw0
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all ε > 0 there
have that f (z) − w0 < ε. #
rz0 f
- rw0
"!
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all ε > 0 there
rz0 f
- rw0
"!
IR
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all ε > 0 there
rz0 f
- rw0
εR
"!
I
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all ε > 0 there

rz0 f
- rw0
εR
"!
I
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all ε > 0 there

rz0 f
- rw0

R εR
"!
I I
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all ε > 0 there

rz0 f
- rw0

R
δI εR
"!
I
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all ε > 0 there

rz0 f
- rw0

R
δI εR
"!
I
Notation. lim f (z) = w0 .

z→z0
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Limits are Unique
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Limits are Unique

Theorem.
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Limits are Unique

Theorem. Let Ω ⊆ C be a deleted neighborhood of z0 and let the
complex function f be defined on Ω.
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Limits are Unique

complex function f be defined on Ω. If w0 and w1 are limits of f at z0 ,
then w0 = w1 .
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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .
Proof.
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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .
Proof. Let ε > 0.
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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .
Proof. Let ε > 0. Because w0 and w1 are limits

of f at
z0ε, there is a
δ0 > 0 so that for all |z − z0 | < δ0 we have f (z) − w0 < 2

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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .
Proof. Let ε > 0. Because w0 and w1 are limits of f at

z0ε, there is a
δ0 > 0 so that for all |z − z0 | < δ0 we have f (z)

− w0 <

2 and there is
a δ1 > 0 so that for all |z − z0 | < δ1 we have f (z) − w1 < ε2 .

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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .

z0ε, there is a

− w0 <

2 and there is
a δ1 > 0 so that for all |z − z0 | < δ1 we have f (z) − w1 < ε2 . Let

|z − z0 | < min{δ0 , δ1 }.
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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .

z0ε, there is a

− w0 <

2 and there is

|z − z0 | < min{δ0 , δ1 }. Then
|w0 − w1 |
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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .

z0ε, there is a

− w0 <

2 and there is

|z − z0 | < min{δ0 , δ1 }. Then

|w0 − w1 | = w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1
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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .

z0ε, there is a

− w0 <

2 and there is

|z − z0 | < min{δ0 , δ1 }. Then

|w0 − w1 | = w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1 ≤ w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1
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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .

z0ε, there is a

− w0 <

2 and there is

|z − z0 | < min{δ0 , δ1 }. Then

|w0 − w1 | = w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1 ≤ w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1
ε
<
2
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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .

z0ε, there is a

− w0 <

2 and there is

|z − z0 | < min{δ0 , δ1 }. Then

|w0 − w1 | = w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1 ≤ w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1
ε ε
< +
2 2
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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .

z0ε, there is a

− w0 <

2 and there is

|z − z0 | < min{δ0 , δ1 }. Then

|w0 − w1 | = w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1 ≤ w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1
ε ε
< + =ε
2 2
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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .

z0ε, there is a

− w0 <

2 and there is

|z − z0 | < min{δ0 , δ1 }. Then

|w0 − w1 | = w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1 ≤ w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1
ε ε
< + =ε
2 2
Because ε > 0 was arbitrary, the difference between w0 and w1 is
arbitrarily small.
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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .

z0ε, there is a

− w0 <

2 and there is

|z − z0 | < min{δ0 , δ1 }. Then

|w0 − w1 | = w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1 ≤ w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1
ε ε
< + =ε
2 2
arbitrarily small. Hence we must have w0 = w1 .
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Limits are Unique

then w0 = w1 .

z0ε, there is a

− w0 <

2 and there is

|z − z0 | < min{δ0 , δ1 }. Then

|w0 − w1 | = w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1 ≤ w0 − f (z) + f (z) − w1
ε ε
< + =ε
2 2
arbitrarily small. Hence we must have w0 = w1 .
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Example.
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Example. lim z2 = −1
z→i
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z→i
Scratch work
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z→i
Scratch work: ε > z2 − (−1)

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z→i
Scratch work: ε > z2 − (−1) = z2 + 1

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z→i
Scratch work: ε > z2 − (−1) = z2 + 1 = |z + i| |z − i|.

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z→i
Scratch work: ε > z2 − (−1) = z2 + 1 = |z + i| |z − i|. The term

|z − i| can be made small as z → i
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z→i

|z − i| can be made small as z → i and the term |z + i|will stay

bounded as z → i.
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z→i


bounded as z → i.
Clean argument
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z→i


bounded as z → i.
Clean argument: Let ε > 0
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z→i


bounded as z → i.
ε
Clean argument: Let ε > 0 and choose δ := min 3,1 .
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z→i


bounded as z → i.
ε
Clean argument: Let ε > 0 and choose δ := min 3,1 . Then for all
|z − i| < δ we have
2
z − (−1)
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z→i


bounded as z → i.
ε
2
z − (−1) = z2 + 1

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z→i


bounded as z → i.
ε
2
z − (−1) = z2 + 1

= |z + i| |z − i|
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z→i


bounded as z → i.
ε
2
z − (−1) = z2 + 1

= |z + i| |z − i|

≤ |z − i| + |2i| |z − i|
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z→i


bounded as z → i.
ε
2
z − (−1) = z2 + 1

= |z + i| |z − i|

≤ |z − i| + |2i| |z − i|
< 3
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z→i


bounded as z → i.
ε
2
z − (−1) = z2 + 1

= |z + i| |z − i|

≤ |z − i| + |2i| |z − i|
ε
< 3·
3
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z→i


bounded as z → i.
ε
2
z − (−1) = z2 + 1

= |z + i| |z − i|

≤ |z − i| + |2i| |z − i|
ε
< 3· = ε
3
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Example.
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z
Example. lim does not exist.
z→0 z
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z
z→0 z
For z = x + iy 6= 0
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z
z→0 z
For z = x + iy 6= 0 with y = λ x
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z
z→0 z
For z = x + iy 6= 0 with y = λ x we have

z
z
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z
z→0 z

z x − iy
=
z x + iy
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z
z→0 z

z x − iy x − iλ x
= =
z x + iy x + iλ x
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z
z→0 z

z x − iy x − iλ x x(1 − iλ )
= = =
z x + iy x + iλ x x(1 + iλ )
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z
z→0 z

z x − iy x − iλ x x(1 − iλ ) 1 − iλ
= = = =
z x + iy x + iλ x x(1 + iλ ) 1 + iλ
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z
z→0 z

z x − iy x − iλ x x(1 − iλ ) 1 − iλ
= = = =
z x + iy x + iλ x x(1 + iλ ) 1 + iλ
and the last term is independent of z.
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z
z→0 z

z x − iy x − iλ x x(1 − iλ ) 1 − iλ
= = = =
z x + iy x + iλ x x(1 + iλ ) 1 + iλ
and the last term is independent of z. So no matter how small we
choose δ
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z
z→0 z

z x − iy x − iλ x x(1 − iλ ) 1 − iλ
= = = =
z x + iy x + iλ x x(1 + iλ ) 1 + iλ
and the last term is independent of z. So no matter how small we
z
choose δ , with λ = ±1, the output of will not be close to any single
z
number w0 .
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Theorem.
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Theorem. Let Ω ⊆ C be a deleted neighborhood of z0 = x0 + iy0 and

let the complex function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be defined on Ω.
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let the complex function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be defined on Ω. Then
lim f (z) = u0 + iv0
z→z0
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z→z0
if and only if
lim u(x, y) = u0
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
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z→z0
if and only if
lim u(x, y) = u0
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
and
lim v(x, y) = v0 .
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
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Proof.
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Proof. First let lim f (z) = u0 + iv0 and let ε > 0.

z→z0
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Proof. First let lim f (z) = u0 + iv0 and let ε > 0. Then there is a
z→z0
δ >0
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z→z0
δ > 0 so that for |z − z0 | < δ
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z→z0
δ > 0 so that for |z − z0 | < δ we have |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
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z→z0
δ > 0 so that for |z − z0 | < δ we have |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε. Hence
for |(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have
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z→z0
for |(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have |(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )|
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z→z0
for |(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have |(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| = |z − z0 |
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z→z0
for |(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have |(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| = |z − z0 | < δ
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z→z0
for |(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have |(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| = |z − z0 | < δ and
then |u(x, y) − u0 |
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z→z0
then |u(x, y) − u0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )|
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z→z0
then |u(x, y) − u0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε
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z→z0
then |u(x, y) − u0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε and
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
Conversely
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
Conversely, let lim u(x, y) = u0 and lim v(x, y) = v0
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
Conversely, let lim u(x, y) = u0 and lim v(x, y) = v0 and
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
let ε > 0.
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
let ε > 0. Then there is a δ > 0 so that for |(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we
have |u(x, y) − u0 | < ε2
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
have |u(x, y) − u0 | < ε2 and |v(x, y) − v0 | < ε2 .
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
have |u(x, y) − u0 | < ε2 and |v(x, y) − v0 | < ε2 . Hence for
|(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
|(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have
|f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )|
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
|(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have
|f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| = |u(x, y) + iv(x, y) − (u0 + iv0 )|
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
|(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have
≤ |u(x, y) − u0 |
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
|(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have
≤ |u(x, y) − u0 | + |v(x, y) − v0 |
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
|(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have
ε
≤ |u(x, y) − u0 | + |v(x, y) − v0 | <
2
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
|(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have
ε ε
≤ |u(x, y) − u0 | + |v(x, y) − v0 | < +
2 2
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
|(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have
ε ε
≤ |u(x, y) − u0 | + |v(x, y) − v0 | < + =ε
2 2
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z→z0
|v(x, y) − v0 | < |f (z) − (u0 + iv0 )| < ε.
(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )
|(x, y) − (x0 , y0 )| < δ we have
ε ε
≤ |u(x, y) − u0 | + |v(x, y) − v0 | < + =ε
2 2
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Theorem.
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complex functions f and F be defined on Ω and so that lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
and lim F(z) = W0 .
z→z0
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z→z0
and lim F(z) = W0 . Then the following hold.
z→z0
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z→z0
z→z0
1. lim (f + F)(z)
z→z0
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z→z0
z→z0
1. lim (f + F)(z) = w0 + W0 .
z→z0
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z→z0
z→z0
1. lim (f + F)(z) = w0 + W0 .
z→z0
2. lim (f − F)(z)
z→z0
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z→z0
z→z0
1. lim (f + F)(z) = w0 + W0 .
z→z0
2. lim (f − F)(z) = w0 − W0 .
z→z0
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z→z0
z→z0
1. lim (f + F)(z) = w0 + W0 .
z→z0
2. lim (f − F)(z) = w0 − W0 .
z→z0
3. lim (f · F)(z)
z→z0
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z→z0
z→z0
1. lim (f + F)(z) = w0 + W0 .
z→z0
2. lim (f − F)(z) = w0 − W0 .
z→z0
3. lim (f · F)(z) = w0 W0 .
z→z0
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z→z0
z→z0
1. lim (f + F)(z) = w0 + W0 .
z→z0
2. lim (f − F)(z) = w0 − W0 .
z→z0
3. lim (f · F)(z) = w0 W0 .
z→z0
f
4. If lim F(z) 6= 0, then lim (z)
z→z0 z→z0 F
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z→z0
z→z0
1. lim (f + F)(z) = w0 + W0 .
z→z0
2. lim (f − F)(z) = w0 − W0 .
z→z0
3. lim (f · F)(z) = w0 W0 .
z→z0
f w0
4. If lim F(z) 6= 0, then lim (z) = .
z→z0 z→z0 F W0
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Proof (products only).
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Proof (products only). Let ε > 0.
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Proof (products only). Let ε > 0. Then there is a δf > 0 so that for
ε
|z − z0 | < δf we have f (z) − w0 <
2 |W0 | + 1
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ε
|z − z0 | < δf we have f (z) − w0 < and
2 |W0 | + 1
f (z) < |w0 | + 1.
logo1
ε
2 |W0 | + 1
f (z) < |w0 | + 1. Moreover, there is a δF > 0 so that for |z − z0 | < δF
ε
we have F(z) − W0 < .
2 |w0 | + 1
logo1
ε
2 |W 0 | + 1
ε
we have F(z) − W0 < . Let δ := min{δf , δF }.
2 |w0 | + 1
logo1
ε
2 |W 0 | + 1
ε
we have F(z) − W0 < . Let δ := min{δf , δF }. Then for
2 |w0 | + 1
|z − z0 | < δ we have

(f · F)(z) − w0 W0
logo1
ε
2 |W 0 | + 1
ε
2 |w0 | + 1

(f · F)(z) − w0 W0 ≤ f (z)F(z) − f (z)W0 + f (z)W0 − w0 W0
logo1
ε
2 |W 0 | + 1
ε
2 |w0 | + 1


= f (z)F(z) − W0
logo1
ε
2 |W 0 | + 1
ε
2 |w0 | + 1


= f (z)F(z) − W0 + f (z) − w0 W0
logo1
ε
2 |W 0 | + 1
ε
2 |w0 | + 1


= f (z)F(z) − W0 + f (z) − w0 W0

< |w0 | + 1
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ε
2 |W 0 | + 1
ε
2 |w0 | + 1


= f (z)F(z) − W0 + f (z) − w0 W0
ε
< |w0 | + 1
2 |w0 | + 1
logo1
ε
2 |W 0 | + 1
ε
2 |w0 | + 1


= f (z)F(z) − W0 + f (z) − w0 W0
ε ε
< |w0 | + 1 +
2 |w0 | + 1 2 |W0 | + 1
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ε
2 |W 0 | + 1
ε
2 |w0 | + 1


= f (z)F(z) − W0 + f (z) − w0 W0
ε ε
< |w0 | + 1 + W0
2 |w0 | + 1 2 |W0 | + 1
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ε
2 |W 0 | + 1
ε
2 |w0 | + 1


= f (z)F(z) − W0 + f (z) − w0 W0
ε ε
< |w0 | + 1 + W0
2 |w0 | + 1 2 |W0 | + 1
< ε
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ε
2 |W 0 | + 1
ε
2 |w0 | + 1


= f (z)F(z) − W0 + f (z) − w0 W0
ε ε
< |w0 | + 1 + W0
2 |w0 | + 1 2 |W0 | + 1
< ε
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Theorem.
logo1
Theorem. If P(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + an zn and z0 ∈ C, then

lim P(z) = P(z0 ).
z→z0
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lim P(z) = P(z0 ).
z→z0
Proof.
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lim P(z) = P(z0 ).
z→z0
Proof.
lim P(z)
z→z0
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lim P(z) = P(z0 ).
z→z0
Proof.
lim P(z) = lim a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + · · · + an zn
z→z0 z→z0
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lim P(z) = P(z0 ).
z→z0
Proof.
z→z0 z→z0
= lim a0 + lim a1 z + lim a2 z2 + · · · + lim an zn

z→z0 z→z0 z→z0 z→z0
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lim P(z) = P(z0 ).
z→z0
Proof.
z→z0 z→z0

2
= a0 + a1 z0 + a2 z0 + · · · + an zn0
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lim P(z) = P(z0 ).
z→z0
Proof.
z→z0 z→z0

2
= a0 + a1 z0 + a2 z0 + · · · + an zn0
= P(z0 )
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lim P(z) = P(z0 ).
z→z0
Proof.
z→z0 z→z0

2
= a0 + a1 z0 + a2 z0 + · · · + an zn0
= P(z0 )
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Observation
logo1
Observation
1
The function t(z) := has the following properties.
z
logo1
Observation
1
z
1. It is undefined at 0.
logo1
Observation
1
z
1
2. Circles |z| = r are mapped to circles |z| =
r
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Observation
1
z
1
r
3. So “small” numbers are mapped to large numbers and vice versa.
logo1
Observation
1
z
1
r
3. So “small” numbers are mapped to large numbers and vice versa.
4. We can say that the function t “swaps 0 and ∞”.
logo1
Definition.
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Definition. Let Ω ⊆ C contain the exterior of a disk around 0 and let

the complex function f be defined on Ω.
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the complex function f be defined on Ω. Then w0 ∈ C is the limit of
the function f at ∞
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the function f at ∞ if and only if for all ε > 0
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the function f at ∞ if and only if for all ε > 0 there is a δ > 0
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the function f at ∞ if and only if for all ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 such
that for all z ∈ Ω with |z| > δ1 we have that f (z) − w0 < ε.
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the function f at ∞ if and only if for all ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 such
that for all z ∈ Ω with |z| > δ1 we have that f (z) − w0 < ε.
Notation. lim f (z) = w0 .

z→∞
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Definition.
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Definition. Let Ω ⊆ C be a deleted neighborhood of z0 and let the

complex function f be defined on Ω.
logo1

complex function f be defined on Ω. Then ∞ is the limit of the
function f at z0
logo1

function f at z0 if and only if for all ε > 0
logo1

function f at z0 if and only if for all ε > 0 there is a δ > 0
logo1

function f at z0 if and only if for all ε > 0 there
is a δ > 0 such that
for all z ∈ Ω with |z − z0 | < δ we have that f (z) > ε1 .
logo1

function f at z0 if and only if for all ε > 0 there
for all z ∈ Ω with |z − z0 | < δ we have that f (z) > ε1 .
Notation. lim f (z) = ∞.

z→z0
logo1
Definition.
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the complex function f be defined on Ω.
logo1

the complex function f be defined on Ω. Then ∞ is the limit of the
function f at ∞
logo1

function f at ∞ if and only if for all ε > 0
logo1

function f at ∞ if and only if for all ε > 0 there is a δ > 0
logo1

function f at ∞ if and only if for all ε > 0 there
for all z ∈ Ω with |z| > δ1 we have that f (z) > ε1 .
logo1

function f at ∞ if and only if for all ε > 0 there
for all z ∈ Ω with |z| > δ1 we have that f (z) > ε1 .
Notation. lim f (z) = ∞.

z→∞
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Theorem.
logo1
Theorem. Let z0 , w0 ∈ C.
logo1
Theorem. Let z0 , w0 ∈ C. Then the following hold.
logo1

1
1. lim f (z) = ∞ if and only if lim =0
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)
logo1

1
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)

1
2. lim f (z) = w0 if and only if lim f = w0
z→∞ z→0 z
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1
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)

1
2. lim f (z) = w0 if and only if lim f = w0
z→∞ z→0 z
1
3. lim f (z) = ∞ if and only if lim 1 = 0
z→∞ z→0 f
z
logo1
Proof.
logo1
Proof. For every statement, the key to the proof is that
logo1
Proof. For every statement, the key to the proof is that, informally
speaking
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speaking, z 7→ 1z “interchanges zero and infinity.”
logo1
For example, for part 3
logo1
For example, for part 3, first consider the situation that lim f (z) = ∞.
z→∞
logo1
z→∞
Then for every ε > 0
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z→∞
Then for every ε > 0 there is a δ > 0
logo1
z→∞
1
Then for every ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 so that for all |z| > δ
logo1
z→∞
1
Then
for every ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 so that for all |z| > δ we have
f (z) > 1 .
ε
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z→∞
1
Then
f (z) > 1 . But then for all |z| < δ we have that
ε
logo1
z→∞
1
Then
f (z) > 1 . But then for all |z| < δ we have that 1 > 1
ε z δ
logo1
z→∞
1
Then
for 1every ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 so that for all
1
|z| >
1
δ we have
f (z) > . But then for all |z| < δ we have that > , so
ε z δ
1 1
f >
z ε
logo1
z→∞
1
Then
1
|z| >
1
δ we have
ε z δ
1 1 1
f > and hence 1 − 0 < ε.
z ε f( z )
logo1
z→∞
1
Then
1
|z| >
1
δ we have
ε z δ
1 1 1
> and hence 1 − 0 < ε. Thus lim 1
f
z f( z ) = 0.
ε z→0 f 1
z
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z→∞
1
Then
1
|z| >
1
δ we have
ε z δ
1 1 1
f
z f( z ) = 0.
ε z→0 f 1
z
The converse
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z→∞
1
Then
1
|z| >
1
δ we have
ε z δ
1 1 1
f
z f( z ) = 0.
ε z→0 f 1
z
1
The converse, which says that lim 1
= 0 implies lim f (z) = ∞
z→0 f z→∞
z
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z→∞
1
Then
1
|z| >
1
δ we have
ε z δ
1 1 1
f
z f( z ) = 0.
ε z→0 f 1
z
1
= 0 implies lim f (z) = ∞, is
z→0 f z→∞
z
proved similarly.
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z→∞
1
Then
1
|z| >
1
δ we have
ε z δ
1 1 1
f
z f( z ) = 0.
ε z→0 f 1
z
1
= 0 implies lim f (z) = ∞, is
z→0 f z→∞
z
proved similarly.
logo1
Example.
logo1
z+1
Example. lim
z→2 z − 2
logo1
z+1
Example. lim =∞
z→2 z − 2
logo1
z+1 z−2
Example. lim = ∞, because lim
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
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z+1 z−2
Example. lim = ∞, because lim = 0.
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
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z+1 z−2
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
z+1
lim
z→∞ z − 1
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z+1 z−2
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
1
z+1 +1
lim = lim 1z
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 − 1
z
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z+1 z−2
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
1 1+z
z+1 +1
lim = lim 1z = lim z
1−z
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 − 1 z→0
z z
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z+1 z−2
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
1 1+z
z+1 +1 1+z
1−z
= lim
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 − 1 z→0 z→0 1 − z
z z
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z+1 z−2
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
1 1+z
z+1 +1 1+z
1−z
= lim =1
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 − 1 z→0 z→0 1 − z
z z
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z+1 z−2
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
1 1+z
z+1 +1 1+z
1−z
= lim =1
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 − 1 z→0 z→0 1 − z
z z
z2 + 1
lim
z→∞ z − 1
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z+1 z−2
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
1 1+z
z+1 +1 1+z
1−z
= lim =1
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 − 1 z→0 z→0 1 − z
z z
1
2
z2 + 1 +1
lim = lim z1
z→∞ z − 1
z −1
z→0
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z+1 z−2
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
1 1+z
z+1 +1 1+z
lim = lim 1z z
= lim 1−z = lim =1
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 − 1 z→0 z→0 1 − z
z z
1 2 1+z2

z2 + 1 z +1 z2
lim = lim 1 = lim 1−z
z→∞ z − 1
z −1
z→0 z→0
z
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z+1 z−2
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
1 1+z
z+1 +1 1+z
lim = lim 1z z
= lim 1−z = lim =1
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 − 1 z→0 z→0 1 − z
z z
1 2 1+z2

z2 + 1 z +1 z2 1 + z2
lim = lim 1 = lim 1−z = lim
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 (1 − z)z
z −1
z→0 z→0
z
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z+1 z−2
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
1 1+z
z+1 +1 1+z
lim = lim 1z z
= lim 1−z = lim =1
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 − 1 z→0 z→0 1 − z
z z
1 2 1+z2

z2 + 1 z +1 z2 1 + z2
lim = lim 1 = lim 1−z = lim =∞
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 (1 − z)z
z −1
z→0 z→0
z
logo1
z+1 z−2
z→2 z − 2 z→2 z + 1
1 1+z
z+1 +1 1+z
lim = lim 1z z
= lim 1−z = lim =1
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 − 1 z→0 z→0 1 − z
z z
1 2 1+z2

z2 + 1 z +1 z2 1 + z2
lim = lim 1 = lim 1−z = lim = ∞, because
z→∞ z − 1 z→0 (1 − z)z
z −1
z→0 z→0
z
(1 − z)z
lim = 0.
z→0 1 + z2
logo1
Definition.
logo1
Definition. A function f is called continuous at z0 if and only if
logo1

1. f (z0 ) exists
logo1

1. f (z0 ) exists, and
2. lim f (z) exists
z→z0
logo1

2. lim f (z) exists, and
z→z0
3. lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z→z0
logo1

z→z0
3. lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z→z0
f is called continuous (on its domain) if and only if f is continuous at
every point in its domain.
logo1

z→z0
3. lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z→z0
Theorem.
logo1

z→z0
3. lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z→z0
Theorem. f is continuous at z0 if and only if
logo1

z→z0
3. lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z→z0
Theorem. f is continuous at z0 if and only if for every ε > 0
logo1

z→z0
3. lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z→z0
Theorem. f is continuous at z0 if and only if for every ε > 0, there is

aδ >0
logo1

z→z0
3. lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z→z0

a δ > 0 such that for all z in the domain
logo1

z→z0
3. lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z→z0

a δ > 0 such that for all z in the domain with |z − z0 | < δ
logo1

z→z0
3. lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z→z0

a δ > 0 such that for all z in the domain with |z − z0 | < δ we have
f (z) − f (z0 ) < ε.
logo1
Theorem.
logo1
Theorem. Let f , g be functions so that z0 is in the (open) domain of g

and g(z0 ) is in the (open) domain of f . If g is continuous at z0 and f is
continuous at g(z0 ), then f ◦ g is continuous at z0 .
logo1

Proof.
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Proof. Let ε > 0.
logo1

Proof. Let ε > 0. Because f is continuous at g(z0 )
logo1

Proof. Let ε > 0. Because

0 ), there is a δf > 0
f iscontinuous at g(z
so that for all y with y − g(z0 ) < δf we have f (y) − f (g(z0 )) < ε.
logo1


Because g is continuous at z0
logo1


is a δ > 0 so that for all z
Because g is continuous at z0 , for δf there
with |z − z0 | < δ we have g(z) − g(z0 ) < δf .
logo1


with
|z − z 0 | <
δ we have g(z) − g(z0 ) < δf . But then because

g(z) − g(z0 ) < δf we infer f (g(z)) − f (g(z0 )) < ε.
logo1


with
|z − z 0 | <

Therefore we have proved that for every ε > 0
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with
|z − z 0 | <

Therefore we have proved that for every ε > 0 there is a δ > 0
logo1

Proof. Let ε > 0. Because 0 ), there is a δf > 0

with
|z − z 0 | <

Therefore we have proved that for every ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 so that
for all z with |z − z0 | < δ
logo1


with
|z − z 0 | <

for all z with |z − z0 | < δ we have f (g(z)) − f (g(z0 )) < ε
logo1


with
|z − z 0 | <

for all z with |z − z0 | < δ we have f (g(z)) − f (g(z0 )) < ε, which
means that f ◦ g is continuous at z0 .
logo1


with
|z − z 0 | <

for all z with |z − z0 | < δ we have f (g(z)) − f (g(z0 )) < ε, which
means that f ◦ g is continuous at z0 .
logo1
Theorem.
logo1
Theorem. If f is continuous at z0 and f (z0 ) 6= 0, then there is a

neighborhood of z0 on which f has no zeros.
logo1

Proof.
logo1


Proof. For ε := f (z0 )
logo1


For ε := f(z0 ) there is a δ > 0 so that for |z − z0 | < δ we
Proof.
have f (z) − f (z0 ) < ε.

logo1


Proof.
have f (z) − f (z0 ) < ε. Therefore, for |z − z0 | < δ we have

f (z)
logo1


Proof.

f (z) = f (z0 ) − (f (z0 ) − f (z))
logo1


Proof.

f (z) = f (z0 ) − (f (z0 ) − f (z)) ≥ f (z0 ) − f (z0 ) − f (z)
logo1


Proof.

f (z) = f (z0 ) − (f (z0 ) − f (z)) ≥ f (z0 ) − f (z0 ) − f (z)

> f (z0 ) − f (z0 )
logo1


Proof.

f (z) = f (z0 ) − (f (z0 ) − f (z)) ≥ f (z0 ) − f (z0 ) − f (z)

> f (z0 ) − f (z0 ) = 0
logo1


Proof.

f (z) = f (z0 ) − (f (z0 ) − f (z)) ≥ f (z0 ) − f (z0 ) − f (z)

> f (z0 ) − f (z0 ) = 0,
which means that f (z) 6= 0 for |z − z0 | < δ .
logo1


Proof.

f (z) = f (z0 ) − (f (z0 ) − f (z)) ≥ f (z0 ) − f (z0 ) − f (z)

> f (z0 ) − f (z0 ) = 0,
which means that f (z) 6= 0 for |z − z0 | < δ .
logo1

Limits and Continuity: Bernd SCHR Oder

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Limits and Continuity: Bernd SCHR Oder

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Regions Limits Limits Involving Infinity Continuity

Limits and Continuity

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the ε-neighborhood of z0

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the ε-neighborhood of z0

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the ε-neighborhood of z0

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the ε-neighborhood of z0

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the ε-neighborhood of z0

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the ε-neighborhood of z0

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the ε-neighborhood of z0

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the ε-neighborhood of z0

The idea is to encode “closeness” with ε-neighborhoods.

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Limits are considered on deleted ε-neighborhoods

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Limits are considered on deleted ε-neighborhoods: The function is

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Limits are considered on deleted ε-neighborhoods: The function is

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Limits are considered on deleted ε-neighborhoods: The function is

Definition. Let z0 ∈ C and let ε > 0. Then the deleted

Limits are considered on deleted ε-neighborhoods: The function is

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 ∈ S is called an interior point if and

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 ∈ S is called an interior point if and

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 ∈ S is called an interior point if and

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 ∈ S is called an interior point if and

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 ∈ S is called an interior point if and

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 6∈ S is called an exterior point if and

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 6∈ S is called an exterior point if and

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 6∈ S is called an exterior point if and

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 6∈ S is called an exterior point if and

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point z0 6∈ S is called an exterior point if and

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point that is neither an interior nor an exterior

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point that is neither an interior nor an exterior

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point that is neither an interior nor an exterior

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point that is neither an interior nor an exterior

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point that is neither an interior nor an exterior

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A point that is neither an interior nor an exterior

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A set is called open if and only if it contains

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A set is called open if and only if it contains

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A set is called closed if and only if it contains

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A set is called closed if and only if it contains

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A set can be neither open nor closed.

Consider a set S ⊆ C. A set can be neither open nor closed.

Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if

Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if

Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if

Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if

Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if

Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if

Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if

Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if

Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if

Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if

Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if

Consider a set S ⊆ C. An open set S is called (pathwise) connected if