CS 6659- ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO Al AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
Introduction to AI-Problem formulation, Problem
Definition -Production systems, Control strategies, Search
strategies. Problem characteristics, Production system
characteristics -Specialized production system- Problem
solving methods - Problem graphs, Matching, Indexing and
Heuristic functions -Hill Climbing-Depth first and Breath
first, Constraints satisfaction - Related algorithms, Measure
of performance and analysis of search algorithms.

Prepared by, Mr.R.Karthiban M.E.,

Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India.
 Content
1. Intelligence
2. Artificial Intelligence
3. The history of AI
4. The foundation of AI
5. AI Technique
6. Formulating problems
7. Production systems
8. Search strategies
9. Heuristic search
2
 1. INTELLIGENCE

• The capacity to learn and solve problems.

• In particular,
• The ability to solve novel problems (i.e. solve new problems)
• The ability to act rationally (i.e. act based on reason)
• The ability to act like humans
3
 1.1 What is involved in intelligence?

• Ability to interact with the real world

• Reasoning and Planning
• Learning and Adaptation

4
 2. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
• Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled
robot, or a software think intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent
humans think.
• 4 categories AI is definition:
1. The system that think like humans.
2. System that act like humans.
3. Systems that think rationally.
4. Systems that act rationally.
5
 2.1. Building systems that think like humans

• “The exciting new effort to make computers think … machines with minds,
in the full and literal sense” -- Haugeland, 1985
• “The automation of activities that we associate with human thinking, …
such as decision-making, problem solving, learning, …” -- Bellman, 1978

6
 2.2 Building systems that act like humans
• “The art of creating machines that perform functions that require
intelligence when performed by people” -- Kurzweil, 1990
• “The study of how to make computers do things at which, at the moment,
people are better” -- Rich and Knight, 1991

7
 2.3 Building systems that think rationally
• “The study of mental faculties through the use of computational models” --
Charniak and McDermott, 1985
• “The study of the computations that make it possible to perceive, reason,
and act” -Winston, 1992

8
 2.4 Building systems that act rationally
• “A field of study that seeks to explain and emulate intelligent behaviour in
terms of computational processes” -- Schalkoff, 1990
• “The branch of computer science that is concerned with the automation of
intelligent behaviour” -- Luger and Stubblefield, 1993

9
 Acting Humanly: The Turing Test Approach

• Alan Turing (1912-1954)

• “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” (1950)
Human

Human Interrogator

10
 Acting Humanly: The Turing Test Approach

• The computer need to possess the following capabilities:

• Natural language processing to enable it to communicate successfully in English.
• Knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears
• Automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer questions and to
draw new conclusions.
• Machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect and extrapolate
patterns.

11
 Thinking humanly: The cognitive modelling
approach
• Machines program to think like human
• Requires the actual working of human mind.
• Express theory as a compute program.
• Compare human behaviour with program’s output.
• Example: GPS (General Problem Solver)
• Requires testable theories of the workings of the human mind: cognitive
science.
12
 Thinking rationally : The “laws of thought
approach”
• The right thinking introduced the concept of logic.
• Example:
• Arul is the student of III year CSE
• All students are good in III year CSE
• Arul is good student.
• Obstacles:
• Informal knowledge representation.
• Computational complexity and resources.

13
 Acting rationally : The rational agent approach

• Acting so as to achieve one’s goals, given one’s beliefs.

• Does not necessarily involve thinking.
• Advantages:
• Correct inference selected and applied.
• It concentrates on scientific development rather than other methods.

14
 3. The History of AI
• 1943: early beginnings
• McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain
• 1950: Turing
• Turing's "Computing Machinery and Intelligence
• 1956: birth of AI
• Dartmouth meeting: "Artificial Intelligence―name adopted

15
 The History of AI (Cnt.,)
• 1950s: initial promise
• Early AI programs, including
• Samuel's checkers program
• Newell & Simon's Logic Theorist
• 1955-65: great enthusiasm
• Newell and Simon: GPS, general problem solver
• Gelernter: Geometry Theorem Prover
• McCarthy: invention of LISP
16
 The History of AI (Cnt.,)
• 1966—73: Reality dawns
• Realization that many AI problems are intractable
• Limitations of existing neural network methods identified
• Neural network research almost disappears
• 1969—85: Adding domain knowledge
• Development of knowledge-based systems
• Success of rule-based expert systems,
• E.g., DENDRAL, MYCIN
• But were brittle and did not scale well in practice
17
 The History of AI (Cnt.,)
• 1986-- Rise of machine learning
• Neural networks return to popularity
• Major advances in machine learning algorithms and applications
• 1990-- Role of uncertainty
• Bayesian networks as a knowledge representation framework
• 1995--AI as Science
• Integration of learning, reasoning, knowledge representation
• AI methods used in vision, language, data mining, etc
18
 4. The foundation of AI
• Philosophy (423 BC -- present):
• Logic, methods of reasoning.
• Mind as a physical system.
• Foundations of learning, language, and rationality.
• Mathematics (c.800 -- present):
• Formal representation and proof.
• Algorithms, computation, decidability, tractability.
• Probability.
19
 The foundation of AI(Cnt.,)
• Psychology (1879 -- present):
• Adaptation.
• Phenomena of perception and motor control.
• Experimental techniques.
• Computer Engineering and Linguistics (1957 -- present):
• Knowledge representation.
• Grammar.
20
Domain that are the targets of work in AI
• 4.1 Mundane Tasks:
• Perception – Vision and Speech
• Natural Languages – Understanding, Generation, Translation
• Common sense reasoning
• Robot Control

21
 Domain that are the targets of work in AI
(Cnt.,)
• 4.2 Formal Tasks:
• Games : chess, checkers, Backgammon etc.
• Mathematics: Geometry, logic, Integral calculus and Proving properties of programs
• 4.3 Expert Tasks:
• Engineering ( Design, Fault finding, Manufacturing planning)
• Scientific Analysis
• Medical Diagnosis
• Financial Analysis

22
 5. AI Technique
• Intelligence requires Knowledge
• Knowledge possesses less desirable properties such as:
• Voluminous
• Hard to characterize accurately
• Constantly changing
• Differs from data that can be used
• AI technique is a method that exploits knowledge that should be represented in such a way that:
• Knowledge captures generalization
• It can be understood by people who must provide it
• It can be easily modified to correct errors.
• It can be used in variety of situations

23
 Example
• Tic – Tac - Toe

24
 Tic – Tac - Toe
• To play Tic – Tac – Toe displayed program increased in :
• Series increase
• Their complexity
• Use of generalization
• Clarity of their knowledge
• Extensibility of their approach

25
 Program 1
• Data Structure:
• Board: 9 element vector representing the board, with 1-9 for each square. An element
contains the value 0 if it is blank, 1 if it is filled by X, or 2 if it is filled.
• Movetable: A large vector of 19,683 elements ( 3^9), each element is 9- element vector.
• Elements of vector: 0 : Empty, 1 : X, 2: O

26
• Algorithm:
1. View the vector as a ternary number. Convert it to a decimal number.
2. Use the computed number as an index into Move-Table and access the
vector stored there.
3. Set the new board to that vector.

27
• Comments or disadvantages:
1. A lot of space to store the Move-Table.
2. A lot of work to specify all the entries in the Move-Table.
3. Difficult to extend.

28
 Program 2
• Data Structures:
• Board: A nine element vector representing the board. But instead of using 0,1 and 2 in
each element, we store 2 for blank, 3 for X and 5 for O
• Turn: An integer indicating which move of the game is about to be played.
• 1 indicates the first
• 9 indicates the last

29
• Algorithm:
• Uses three functions:
• Make 2 – Returns 5 if the centre of the square board is blank otherwise, this returns
any blank noncorner square(2,4,6 or 8).
• Posswin(p) – Returns 0 if the player p cannot win on his next move; otherwise it
returns the number of the square that constitutes a winning move. If the product is 18
(3x3x2), then X can win. If the product is 50 ( 5x5x2) then O can win.
• Go(n) – placing board[n] to X or O odd – X turn, Even – O turn
30
• Strategy:
• Turn = 1 Go(1)
• Turn = 2 If Board[5] is blank, Go(5), else Go(1)
• Turn = 3 If Board[9] is blank, Go(9), else Go(3)
• Turn = 4 If Posswin(X) != 0, then Go(Posswin(X))
• .......

31
• Comments:
• Not efficient in time, as it has to check several conditions before making
each move.
• Easier to understand the program’s strategy.
• Hard to generalize.

32
Comments:
• Checking for a possible win is quicker.
• Human finds the row-scan approach easier, while computer finds the number-counting
approach more efficient.

33
 Program 3
• Algorithm:
• If it is a win, give it the highest rating.
• Otherwise, consider all the moves the opponent could make next. Assume
the opponent will make the move that is worst for us. Assign the rating of
that move to the current node.
• The best node is then the one with the highest rating.

34
• Comments:
• Require much more time to consider all possible moves.
• Could be extended to handle more complicated games.

35
 6. FORMULATING PROBLEMS
• Problem formulation is the process of deciding what actions and states to
consider, given a goal
Formulate Goal,
Formulate problem

Search

Execute

36
• Four sequence of operations need to perform during problem formation:
1. Define the problem precisely
2. Analyse the problem
3. Isolate and present the background knowledge that is necessary to solve the problem
4. Choose the best problem solving technique of particular problem.

37
 Problem as a state space search
• The process of applying an operator to a state and its subsequent transition
to the next state as a continuous process until the goal(desired) is achieved.

38
• Types of problem
1. Single state problem
2. Multiple state problem
3. Contingency problem
4. Exploration problem

39
• A problem can be defined formally by four components (well defined problem and solutions)
1. Initial state
2. Operator
3. Successor function
1. State Space
2. Path
4. Goal test
5. Path cost
Calculated by , C(x,a,y)
Total cost = Path cost + Search cost

40
 Example
• The 8-Puzzle problem
• The 8-Queens problem
• Traveling salesman problem
• Water Jug Problem
• Crypt arithmetic problem
• The vacuum world problem
• Missionaries and cannibals problem
41
 Problem Characteristics
• Is the problem decomposable into set of sub problems?
• Can solution steps been ignored or undone?
• Is the problem universe predictable?
• Is the good solution for the problem absolute or relative?
• Is the solution a state or a path for the problem?
• What is role of knowledge?
• Does the task require interaction with the person?
• Problem Classification
42
7. Production Systems

43
 Production Systems
• Kind of intelligence process useful to structure AI Programs for describing and
performing the search process.
Problem solving = Searching for a goal state
• Components of production system
1. Production Rule: Ci → Ai where Ci is the condition part and Ai is the action part.
2. Knowledge / Database
3. Control strategy
4. Rule applier

44
 State Space Search: Water JugProblem
“You are given two jugs, a 4‐litre one and a 3‐ liter one. Neither
has any measuring markers on it. There is a pump that can be
used to fill the jugs with water. How can you get exactly 2 litres
of water into 4‐litre jug.”

45
 State Space Search: Water JugProblem

• State: (x,y)
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, or4
• Start state: (0,0).
• Goal state: (2, n) for anyn.
46
State Space Search: Water JugProblem
1. (x, y)  (4, y)
if x  4
2. (x, y)  (x, 3)
if y  3
3. (x, y)  (x  d,y)
if x  0
4. (x, y)  (x, y  d)
if y  0 47
State Space Search: Water JugProblem
5. (x, y)  (0, y)
if x  0
6. (x, y)  (x, 0)
if y  0
7. (x, y)  (4, y  (4 x))
if x  y  4, y 0
8. (x, y)  (x  (3  y),3)
if x  y  3, x  0
48
State Space Search: Water JugProblem
9. (x, y)  (x  y,0)
if x  y  4, y 0
10.(x, y)  (0, x  y)
if x  y  3, x  0
11.(0, 2)  (2, 0)

12.(2, y)  (0, y) 49
 State Space Search: Water JugProblem
1. current state = (0,0)
2. Loop until reaching the goal state (2, 0)
 Apply a rule whose left side matchesthe currentstate
 Set the new currentstate to be the resulting state

(0,0)
(0,3)
(3,0)
(3,3)
(4,2)
(0,2)
(2,0) 50
• Production system Characteristics:
• Monotonic- application of a rule never prevents later application of the another rule
• Non- Monotonic- application of a rule prevents the later application of the another
rule
• Partially commutative – Application of a particular sequence rules transforms state x
to y then it is applicable to its permutation also.
• Commutative- Monotonic + partially commutative.

51
52
• Feature of production systems
• Expressiveness and intuitiveness
If this happen – do that
If this is so – then this should happen
• Simplicity
• Modularity
• Modifiability
• Knowledge intensive
53
• Disadvantage of production system
• Opacity
• Inefficiency
• Absence of learning
• Conflict resolution.

54
 Control strategies
• Flow of execution of production rules to obtain desired goal state.
• It causes motion
• Otherwise, it will never lead to a solution.
• It is systematic
• Otherwise, it may use more steps than necessary.
• It is efficient
• Find a good, but not necessarily the best, answer.

55
 Example – Production systems
• Water jug problem
• Checking duplicate nodes
• The tower of Hanoi
• The monkey and banana problem

56
 8.Search Strategies
• Uninformed search (blind search)
• Having no information about the number of steps from the current state to the goal.
• Informed search (heuristic search)
• More efficient than uninformed search.

57
 Search Strategies: Blind Search
• Breadth‐first search
Expand all the nodesof
one level first.

• Depth‐first search
Expand one of the nodes at
the deepest level.
58
 Search Strategies: Blind Search
Criterion Breadth- Depth-
First First
Time

Space

Optimal?

Complete?

b: branching factor d: solution depth m: maximum depth

59
 Search Strategies: Blind Search
Criterion Breadth- Depth-
First First
Time bd bm
Space bd bm
Optimal? Yes No

Complete? Yes No

b: branching factor d: solution depth m: maximum depth

60
 Systematic control strategy for the water jug
problem
• Breadth First Search (Blind Search)
1. Create a variable called NODE-LIST and set it to initial state.
2. Unit a goal state is found or NODE-LIST is empty do
a. Remove the first element from NODE-LIST and call it E. if NODE-LIST is empty, quit.
b. For each way that each rule can match the state described in E do:
i. Apply the rule to generate a new state.
ii. If the new state is a goal state, quit and return this state.
iii. Otherwise, add the new state to the end of NODE-LIST.

61
62
• Advantages of Breath First search
• BFS cannot be trapped exploring a blind alley.
• If there is a solution, BFS is guaranteed to find it.
• If there are multiple solutions, then a minimal solution will be found.

63
• Depth First Search
1. If the initial state is the goal state, quit and return success.
2. Otherwise do the following until success or failure is signalled:
a. Generate a successor, E, of initial state. If there are no more successor, signal failure.
b. Call depth first search, with E as the initial state.
c. If the success is returned, signal success. Otherwise continue in this loop.

64
• Advantages of Depth First search
• DFS requires less memory since only the nodes on the current path are
stored.
• By chance DFS may find a solution without examining much of the search
space at all.

65
• Measuring problem solving performance:
• Completeness
• Time complexity
• Space complexity
• Optimality

66
• Issues in the design of search programs:
• Direction of the search
• Selection of appropriate rules
• Representation of each node in the search process

67
 Matching
• Problem solving can be done through search.
• Search involves choosing among the rules that can be applied at a particular
point, the ones that are most likely to lead to a solution.
• This can be done by extracting rules from large number of collections.
• How to extract from the entire collection of rules that can be applied at a
given point?

68
• This can be done by Matching between current state and the precondition of the
rules.
• Do simple search through all the rules comparing each one‘s preconditions to the
current state and extracting the one that match.
• But there are two problems with this simple solution.
1. In big problems large number of rules are used. Scanning through all of this rules
at every step of the search would be hopelessly inefficient.
2. It is not clearly visible to find out which condition will be satisfied.
69
 Indexing
• To overcome above problems indexing is used.
• Instead of searching all the rules the current state is used as index into the
rules, and select the matching rules immediately.

70
 9. Heuristic Search
• Heuristics are criteria for deciding which among several alternatives be the
most effective in order to achieve some goal.
• Heuristic is a technique that improves the efficiency of a search process
possibly by sacrificing claims of systematic and completeness.
• It no longer guarantees to find the best answer but almost always finds a very
good answer.
• Using good heuristics, we can hope to get good solution to hard problems.
71
 9.1 Generate-and-Test
• Algorithm: GENERATE-AND-TEST
• Step 1: Generate a possible solution.
• Generating particular point in the problem space
• Generating a path from start state.
• Step 2: Test to see if this actually a solution by comparing the chosen point
or the endpoint of the chosen path to the set of acceptable goal state.
• Step 3: If solution has been found, quit otherwise return to step 1.
72
• It only tells us with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ .
• Generate-and-test is a BFS so its need to know complete solution its can be
tested.
• Generate-and-Test best model when it combines with BFS and backtracking.

73
 9.2 Local Search Algorithm
• Operate using single current state (Rather than multiple paths) and generally
move only to neighbours of that state.
• Not systematic.
• Advantage:
• Uses little memory usually constant.
• Find reasonable solutionn in large or infinite space.(Systemic algorithms are unsuitable).

74
• Optimization - Aims to find the best state according to an objective function
using state space landscape.
• Global minimum.
• Global maximum.
• A complete local search algorithm always finds a goal if exists.
• An optimal algorithm always finds a global maximum/ Minimum.

75
• Some of Local Search algorithms: State Space Landscape
• Hill Climbing Search
• Steepest – Ascent Hill Climbing
• Simulated Annealing
• Local beam search
• Genetic algorithm

76
 9.2.1 Hill Climbing
• Always trying to improve the current state.
• A search technique that move in the direction of increasing value to reach
the peak.
• If more than one successor is exists, one is selected from the neighbourhood
of the current one.(Local search)
• Drawback: Defining the term “better” has vagueness.

77
• Algorithm: Simple Hill Climbing
1. Evaluate the initial state. It is also a goal state, then return it and quit.
Otherwise continue with the initial state as the current state.
2. Loop until a solution is found or until there are no new operators left to be
applied in the current state:
a. Select an operator that has not yet been applied to the current state and apply it to
produce a new state.
b. Evaluate the new state.
i. If it is a goal state, then return it and quit.
ii. If it is not a goal state, but it is better than the current state, then make it the current state.
iii. If it is not better than the current state, then continue in the loop.

78
 9.2.2 Steepest – Ascent Hill Climbing
• Considers all the moves form the current state and selects the best one as the next
state.
• This method is called steepest – ascent hill climbing or gradient search.
• Hill climbing Disadvantages
• Local Maximum - better than all its neighbours but is not better than some other states
farther away
• Plateau - whole set of neighbouring states have the same value
• Ridge - It is an area of the search space that is higher than surrounding areas and that itself
has a slope
79
 Algorithm: Steepest – Ascent Hill Climbing
1. Evaluate the initial state. If it is also a goal state, then return it and quit .Otherwise,
continue with the initial state as the current state.
2. Loop until a solution is found or until a complete iteration produces no change to current
state:
A. Let SUCC be a state such that any possible successor of the current state will be better than SUCC.
B. For each operator that applies to the current state do:
i. Apply the operator and generate a new state.
ii. Evaluate the new state. If it is a goal state, then return it and quit. If not, compare it to SUCC. If it is better
then set SUCC to this state. If it is not better, leave SUCC alone.
C. If the SUCC is better than current state, then set current state to SUCC.
80
 9.2.3 Simulated Annealing
• Hill climbing search cannot guarantee complete solutions. – Why?
• Random walk - Successor chosen randomly from the set of successor will be
complete.
• Combines Hill climbing with random walk.
• The problem of local maxima has been overcome in simulated annealing
search.

81
• Notations:
• ΔE – Probability of worsened.
• Rate at which -ΔE is cooled is called annealing schedule.
• T – Determines the probability which measures temperature.
− Δ𝐸
• P`= 𝑒 𝑇

• How simulated annealing differs from Hill climbing

• The annealing schedule is maintained.
• Moves to worse states are also accepted.
• In addition to current state, the best state record is maintained.
82
 Simulated Annealing Algorithm
1. Evaluate the initial state. Mark it as current state. If the initial state is the
best state, return it and quit. Otherwise continue with the initial state as
current state.
2. Initialize best state to current state.
3. Initialize T according to annealing schedule.

83
4. Repeat the following until a solution is obtained or operators are not left:
a. Apply yet unapplied operator to produce a new state
b. b. For new state compute - ΔE = value of current state
i. If the new state is the goal state then return and quit
ii. if it is better than current state, make it as current state and record as best state.
iii. If it is not better than the current state, then make it current state with probability P`.
iv. Revise T according to annealing schedule

5. Return best state as answer.

84
 9.3 Best – First Search
• Combines advantage of Depth first search and Breath first search.
• Advantages of Depth First Search(DFS)?
• Advantages of Breath First Search(BFS)?

85
 9.3.1 OR Graph
• Two lists of nodes are used to implement a graph search procedure.
1. OPEN: Nodes that have been generated and have had the heuristic
function applied to them but not have been examined yet.
2. CLOSED: Nodes that have already been examined. These nodes are kept
in the memory if we want to search a graph rather than a tree because
whenever a node will be generated, we will have to check whether it has
been generated earlier.

86
OR Graph Example

87
Algorithm: Best first search
1. Put the initial node on the list say ‘OPEN‘.
2. If (OPEN = empty or OPEN= goal) terminate search, else
3. Remove the first node from open( say node is a)
4. If (a=goal) terminate search with success else
5. Generate all the successor node of ‘a‘. Send node ‘a‘ to a list called
‘CLOSED‘. Find out the value of heuristic function of all nodes. Sort all
children generated so far on the basis of their utility value. Select the node
of minimum heuristic value for further expansion.
6. Go back to step 2.
The best first search can be implemented using priority queue.
88
 9.3.2 The A* Algorithm
• The A* algorithm is a specialization of best first search.
• The form of heuristic estimation function for A* is defined as follows:
f(n)=g(n)+h(n)
• where f(n)= evaluation function
g(n)= cost (or distance) of current node from start node.
h(n)= cost of current node from goal node.
• In A* algorithm the most promising node is chosen from expansion.
• The promising node is decided based on the value of heuristic function.
89
• The node having least value of heuristic function would be most promising
node, where in some situation, the node having maximum value of heuristic
function is chosen for expansion.
• A* algorithm is an example of optimal search algorithm.
• Uses open and closed list data structure.

90
A* algorithm:
1. Place the starting node ‘s‘ on ‘OPEN‘ list.
2. If OPEN is empty, stop and return failure.
3. Remove from OPEN the node ‘n‘ that has the smallest value of f*(n). if
node ‘n’ is a goal node, return success and stop otherwise.
4. Expand ‘n‘ generating all of its successors ‘n‘ and place ‘n‘ on CLOSED.
For every successor ‘n‘ if ‘n‘ is not already OPEN , attach a back pointer to
‘n‘. compute f*(n) and place it on CLOSED.
5. Each ‘n‘ that is already on OPEN or CLOSED should be attached to back
pointers which reflect the lowest f*(n) path. If ‘n‘ was on CLOSED and its
pointer was changed, remove it and place it on OPEN.
6. Return to step 2.
91
 9.3.3. Problem reduction
• Problem reduction: Decomposing the problem.
• AND OR Graph : All decomposed problems must be solved.
• AND represented by arc symbol.
• Choice of selection depends on the f ’ value
• Disadvantage of problem reduction: Fails to take into account any
interaction between sub goals.

92
• Algorithm : Problem Reduction
1. Initialize the graph to the starting node.
2. Loop until the starting node is labelled SOLVED or until its cost goes
above FUTILITY.
i. Traverse the graph, starting at initial node and following the current best path, and
accumulate the set of nodes that are on that path and have not yet been expanded or
labelled as solved.
ii. Pick one of these unexpanded nodes and expand it.
iii. If there are no successor, assign FUTILITY as the value of this node. Otherwise, add
its successor to the graph and for each of them compute f ’. If f ’ any value =0 then
mark that as solved.

93
 9.3.3.1 AO* Search
• Rather than two list it uses single structure Graph.
• Each node in the graph will point both down to its immediate successor and
up to its immediate predecessor.
• Each node in the graph associate with h’ value.(Path cost from the particular
node to goal node).

94
Algorithm: AO* Search
1. Let G consists only to the node representing the initial state call this node INTT. Compute h' (INIT).
2. Until INIT is labelled SOLVED or hi (INIT) becomes greater than FUTILITY, repeat the following procedure.
(I) Trace the marked arcs from INIT and select an unbounded node NODE.
(II)Generate the successors of NODE. if there are no successors then assign FUTILITY as h' (NODE). This
means that NODE is not solvable. If there are successors then for each one called SUCCESSOR, that is
not also an ancestor of NODE do the following,
(a)add SUCCESSOR to graph G
(b)if successor is not a terminal node, mark it solved and assign zero to its h ' value.
(c)If successor is not a terminal node, compute it h' value.
(III)propagate the newly discovered information up the graph by doing the following. let S be a set of nodes
that have been marked SOLVED. Initialize S to NODE. Until S is empty repeat the following procedure;
(a)select a node from S call if CURRENT and remove it from S.
(b)compute h' of each of the arcs emerging from CURRENT, Assign minimum h' to CURRENT.
(c)Mark the minimum cost path a s the best out of CURRENT.
(d)Mark CURRENT SOLVED if all of the nodes connected to it through the new marked are have been
labelled SOLVED.
(e)If CURRENT has been marked SOLVED or its h ' has just changed, its new status must be
propagating backwards up the graph. hence all the ancestors of CURRENT are added to S.

95
 9.2.4.Constraint Satisfaction
Algorithm: Constraint Satisfaction
1. 1. Propagate available constraints:
i. Open all objects that must be assigned values in a complete solution.
ii. Repeat until inconsistency or all objects are assigned valid values:
Select an object and strengthen as much as possible the set of constraints that apply to
object.
If set of constraints different from previous set then open all objects that share any of
these constraints. Remove selected object.

96
2. If union of constraints discovered above defines a solution return solution.
3. If union of constraints discovered above defines a contradiction return
failure.
4. Make a guess in order to proceed. Repeat until a solution is found or all
possible solutions exhausted:
i. Select an object with a no assigned value and try to strengthen its constraints.
ii. Recursively invoke constraint satisfaction with the current set of constraints plus the
selected strengthening constraint.

97
 9.2.5 Means – end Analysis
• Means-ends analysis allows both backward and forward searching.
• Solves the major parts of a problem first and then goes back and solves the
small problems that arise by putting the big pieces together.
• The means-end analysis process detects the differences between the current
state and goal state. Once such difference is isolated an operator that can
reduce the difference has to be found.
• The operator may or may not be applied to the current state. So a sub
problem is set up of getting to a state in which this operator can be applied.
98
• A separate data structure called a difference table which uses the rules by the
differences that they can be used to reduce.

99
• Algorithm: means-ends analysis
1. Until the goal is reached or no more procedures are available:
i. Describe the current state the goal state and the differences between the two.
ii. Use the difference the describes a procedure that will hopefully get nearer to goal.
iii. Use the procedure and update current state
2. If goal is reached then success otherwise fail.

100
 Example
• Solve the following problem using means-ends analysis
• A farmer wants to cross the river along with fox, chicken and grain. He can
take only one along with him at a time. If fox and chicken are left alone the
fox may eat the chicken. If chicken and grain are left alone the chicken may
eat the grain. Give the necessary solution.

101
102
103
Thank You…!
104