Effects of Some Destructive Fishing Methods on
Coral Cover and Potential Rates of Recovery
JOHN W. MCMANUS*
RODOLFO B. REYES, JR.
International Center for Living Aquatic Resources
Management
MCPO Box 2631
0718 Makati, Philippines
CLETO L. NAÑOLA, JR.
Marine Science Institute
University of the Philippines
Diliman, Q.C. 1101 Philippines
ABSTRACT / Effects of fishing with explosives (blastfishing)
and sodium cyanide and of anchor damage on live coral
were investigated on a heavily exploited fringing reef in Boli-
Destructive fishing is common in coral reef areas
where population and economic pressures lead to a
state of intense competitiveness among coastal villagers
(Galvez and others 1989, McManus 1988, McManus and
others 1988, 1992, Meñez and others 1991). This
situation has been termed ‘‘Malthusian overfishing’’
(Pauly and others 1989, 1990, see also Russ 1991,
McManus and others 1992), and it is a problem that is
growing rapidly as human populations grow in coastal
developing countries. Two common forms of destruc-
tive fishing involve the use of explosives (blastfishing)
and poison. Blastfishing is used worldwide on coral
reefs in at least 40 countries or island dependencies
(UNEP/IUCN 1988). Blastfishing and siltation are be-
lieved to be the two most important causes of reef
destruction in Southeast Asia (Yap and Gomez 1985).
Poisoning is used to capture fish in at least 15 countries
or dependencies (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Damage due to
anchors is prevalent in most countries with coral reefs
and is associated with a variety of reef fishing methods.
This paper is concerned with attempts to gain a perspec-
tive on the nature and relative importance of blasting,
poisoning with sodium cyanide, and anchor damage on
the forereef slope of a fringing reef subject to Malthu-
sian overfishing. There have been several models of
KEY WORDS: Destructive fishing; Blastfishing; Cyanide; Coral; Coral
reef; Coastal management
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Environmental Management Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 69–78
nao, Philippines from 1987 to 1990. A simple balance-sheet
model indicated that approximately 1.4%/yr of the her-
matypic coral cover may have been lost to blasting, 0.4%/yr
to cyanide, and 0.03%/yr to coral-grabbing anchors, the po-
tential coral recovery rate reduced by about one third from
3.8%/yr in the absence of disturbances to 2.4%/yr. These
figures are subject to considerable uncertainty due to com-
pounding of errors during computation. Reefs with patchy
coral cover are more susceptible to damage from blastfish-
ing because of targeting by fishers. Reefs with smaller corals
may have greater resilience, because each unit of radial
colony growth contributes a greater per cent increase in ar-
eal cover. Blastfishing in particular may reduce resilience to
natural perturbations, leading to assemblages of small,
sparse corals and reduced patchiness.
coral growth in assemblages, most of which have been
interannual, dynamic, and stochastic (e.g., Maguire and
Porter 1977, Hughes 1984, Reichelt and others 1985,
Done 1988). In this study, simple calculations were used
to compare expected rates of damage and regrowth
within a one-year time frame. It was intended to provide
preliminary information on the rates of damage and
recovery and to highlight areas for further research in
preparation for more predictive, dynamic modeling
efforts in the future.
Study Site
Santiago Island lies on the western tip of the Lin-
gayen Gulf of Luzon, facing the South China Sea
(Figure 1). The reef has been described in detail in
McManus and others (1992), and some relevant aspects
are summarized here. The reef includes a reef flat
dominated by seagrass beds intersected by channels and
lagoons. A swimming survey was conducted in 1986
involving four transects at 1- to 2-km intervals bisecting
the reef flat north to south and totaling over 6 km.
Examination of all coral patches encountered revealed
that approximately 60% of all recognizable scleractin-
ian coral (excluding rubble, distinguished by the ab-
sence of sharp surface features) was dead, and many
patches showed obvious signs of blasting (e.g., fractured
branching corals in radiating patterns). Participants in
several informal surveys in 1978–1980 and examination
of photographs from that era confirmed that the live
coral had been highly dominant in nonsandy areas and
r 1997 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
70 J. W. McManus and others
Figure 1. Map of visual transect sites (T) from which blasts
were recorded.
that dead coral (as defined above) was barely notice-
able. Thus, it has been inferred that most of this
damage had occurred within the previous six years (see
McManus and others 1992). The reduction of coral and
associated fish populations has led to intensified fishing
on the reef slope, the subject of this study.
The reef slope is separated from the reef flat by an
irregular, wave-breaking reef crest. A narrow section of
the slope extends at least 20 km to the northeast as a
subsurface barrier reef. However, only the semicircular
portion within 2 km of the reef crest is considered in
this study. The bottom ranges from smooth to highly
irregular because of ridges, rifts, and dense karst depres-
sions. In many areas at 15–20 m, the slope rounds off
into a wall extending to 20–30 m, into a sand and rubble
talus slope of 10–20° broken by coral mounds. A
jackknife estimation procedure indicated that at least
900 species of fish are to be found on the reef slope
(Jaranilla and McManus 1992). The fish form indistinct
and temporally variable aggregations influenced by
depth (possibly including temperature), salinity, and
surface roughness, especially at scales of less than 1 m
(Nañola et al. 1990). Scleractinian corals generally
cover 10–30% of the bottom amid diverse benthic plant
and animal assemblages, although dense coral patches
covering hundreds of square meters occur sporadically.
Visible coral destruction ranges from very little to 50%
of hard corals, often with apparent blast patterns or
standing dead coral. The corals of the reef slope include
many newly settled colonies of several species growing
on or amid damaged corals.
Fisheries
The fisheries of the island have been described in
several recent papers (e.g., del Norte and others 1989;
McManus 1989a,b; McManus and Meñez 1989; del
Norte and Pauly 1990; McManus and Rivera 1990;
McManus and others 1992). The large fringing reef
provides the principal means of support through fish-
ing and gathering. Approximately 350 species of fish,
invertebrates, and seaweeds are sold in local markets.
Fishing craft include small, single-person bamboo rafts
and double outrigger canoes (bankas) ranging from 3
to 12 m. The larger bankas carry 15- to 20-hp gasoline
engines. The most common fishing gears on the reef
slope are hand lines, spears, drive-in surface nets,
octopus lures, squid jigs, sodium cyanide, and various
blasting devices. The primary fishing area (and study
area) of the reef slope covers approximately 40 km2,
representing 95% of fishing effort (McManus and
others 1992). Most of the anchors are grappling hooks
designed to catch on corals. They are usually con-
structed from iron reinforcing rods, with a span of 0.3–1 m.
A variety of explosive devices are used in local fishing
operations, including most of those described in studies
of fisheries of soft-bottom areas (Galvez and Sadorra
1988; Galvez 1989; Galvez and others 1989). The most
common bomb is constructed by filling a beer, gin, or
soda bottle with layers of powdered potassium nitrate
and pebbles. A commercial fuse or blasting cap is used
so as to permit delayed, subsurface ignition. A small
amount of gasoline is added immediately prior to use.
Potassium nitrate is readily available, as it is sold
commercially for spraying on mango trees to induce
flowering. A single bomb can cost 1–2 US dollars (US$)
to construct. Some fishers claim that a good catch can
be 10–20 kg, with a market value of US$ 15–40. Bombs
are often constructed at home by men, women, and
children (Tungpalan and others 1991), and stored
under the bamboo houses. Many people lose limbs or
lives in premature explosions, but the return on invest-
ment is considered to be high enough to warrant the
risk (Galvez and others 1989).
Local fishers use poisons from a variety of leaves,
roots, and berries. Bleach and insecticides have report-
edly been used in tide pools. Sodium cyanide is believed
to be the most commonly used poison, and accounts for
approximately 70% of the fish captured for the aquarium
industry (Hingco and Rivera 1991) and is also used in
fishing for consumption (McManus and others 1992).
The cyanide is sold as a tablet for mining operations.
The tablet is broken up (sometimes by biting it) and
mixed with seawater immediately before use in small
squeeze bottles. A skin or hookah diver applies the
poison by squirting the fluid at the desired fish or its
abode among the corals (Galvez and others 1989).
Alternatively, the tablet may be secured whole to a stick
and held in the vicinity of the fish. The fish becomes