Quality Assurance

UNIT 10 CARCASS / PRODUCT

SANITATION
Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Microbiological Spoilage of Meat, Poultry and Eggs
10.2.1 Spoilage of Meats
10.2.2 Spoilage of Chickens
10.2.3 Spoilage of Eggs
10.3 Product Sanitation
10.3.1 Carcass Sanitation
10.3.2 Egg Sanitation
10.4 Let Us Sum Up
10.5 Key Words
10.6 Some Useful Books
10.7 Answers to Check Your Progress

10.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
z define carcass sanitation,
z identify the factors influencing the microbiological quality of meat at different
stages of production and handling,
z state different methods used for sanitization of large and small animal carcass, egg
and poultry; and
z narrate spoilage of meats including chicken, and egg and egg products.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Microbial contamination of food animal carcasses can be minimized by good
manufacturing practices in the abattoir. However, under modern processing conditions,
the production of pathogen-free meat cannot be guaranteed. A variety of methods have
been develop to reduce the levels of contaminating bacteria on carcasses, although
most of the current methods focused on washing and sanitizing procedures. The
commonly used sanitizing agents include hot water, chlorine, and short-chain organic
acids. The effectiveness of these methods varies by the concentration used, the
temperature of the sanitizers and contact time, the sensitivity of the native microflora to
the specific compounds, and to a certain extent the design of the specific experiments.
A decontamination step, in the form of washing and sanitizing during the slaughter
process, can improve the microbial safety and shelf life of the meat, and therefore,
should be considered an integral part of the production process.
Meat from domestic animals (red meat) and poultry (white meat) is an ideal environment
for the growth of microorganisms, particularly bacteria, and rapid growth can be expected
unless control is implemented. Total bacterial counts for freshly cut meat surfaces are
54 likely to vary between 103 and 105 organisms per cm2. These organisms are derived
mainly from the exterior and the gut of the animal, but also from knives, other utensils, Carcass/Product Sanitation
butchery tables, etc. so that variations in count often reflect the hygienic conditions in
the abattoir. The onset of off-odour and other spoilage characteristics in meats are
associated with a particular level of bacteria. The lower the initial contamination of the
meat the longer it will take for the bacterial flora to achieve spoilage levels. The contents
of freshly laid eggs are always free from microbes (except in case of Salmonella
enteritidis infection in layers), however, the exteriors (shell) are naturally contaminated.
The surface flora may get the access to the internal contents because of faulty handling
including shell breakage and improper storage, leading to egg spoilage. The good
production and management practices emphasize hygienic practices and sanitation during
the food chain to avoid food spoilage and ensure food safety. The sanitizing systems
can also be effectively used to minimize the microbial load on the meats (carcass
sanitation) and eggs.

10.2 MICROBIOLOGICAL SPOILAGE OF MEAT,

POULTRY AND EGGS
Spoilage of food involves any change, which renders food unacceptable for human
consumption and may result from a variety of causes. Food spoilage may be caused by
one or more of the following:
1. Insect damage.
2. Physical injury due to bruising, pressure, freezing, drying and radiation.
3. The activity of indigenous enzymes in animal tissues. If these enzymes are not
destroyed they continue to function during processing and storage.
4. Chemical changes not induced by microbial or naturally occurring enzymes. These
changes usually involve oxygen. Other than microbiological spoilage they are the
most common cause of spoilage. Examples of chemical spoilage are the oxidative
rancidity of fats/oils, and the discolouration of cured meats.
5. The activity of microorganisms, particularly bacteria, yeasts and moulds.

10.2.1 Spoilage of Meat

On the basis of susceptibility to spoilage, meats may be classed as perishable. In
considering the spoilage of raw meats it can be safely assumed that a wide variety of
microorganisms is initially present on the food. When microbial growth commences
certain species will find conditions more favourable than others and in consequence the
former will outgrow the latter. The extent of the microbial selection is dependent upon
the time and temperature at which the foods have been exposed. Large numbers of
microorganisms and a great variety of types are found, on the exterior surface and in the
intestinal tract of cattle, sheep and pigs before death.
The stunning of cattle with a captive bolt pistol and the subsequent procedures such as
sticking, skinning, evisceration and butchery add contaminants to sterile underlying
muscle and edible tissues.
Meat is an ideal environment for the growth of microorganisms, particularly bacteria,
and rapid growth can be expected unless control is effected. Total bacterial counts for
freshly cut meat surfaces are likely to vary between 103 and 105 organisms per cm2.
These organisms are derived mainly from the exterior and the gut of the animal but also
from knives, other utensils, butchery tables, etc. so that variations in count often reflect
the hygienic conditions in the abattoir. The onset of off-odour and other spoilage
characteristics in meats are associated with a particular level of bacteria. The lower the
initial contamination of the meat the longer it will take for the bacterial flora to achieve
spoilage levels. 55
Quality Assurance Hide is a common and rich source of most microorganisms for dressed carcasses and
therefore animals brought to the abattoir should be free from adhering dirt by washing
before slaughter. Further reductions in the microbial load can be achieved by spraying
the dressed carcasses with hot water and implementing a rigorous sanitation programme
in the abattoir; which may include thorough cleaning of items such as walls, floors,
cutting tables, knives and other utensils, operatives’ clothes, etc.

When animals are slaughtered, glycogen stored in the muscles is converted to lactic
acid. Under normal conditions this causes a fall in the pH of the muscle from about 7 to
5.6 and this drop is important since it is responsible for a reduction in deteriorative
changes. However, if the animal is under stress before slaughter (e.g., excitement, fatigue
or starvation) glycogen reserves produce reduced amount of lactic acid and finally lead
to the high ultimate pH of the meat (nearer to neutrality). Such meat spoils more rapidly
and therefore, it is imperative that animals should be in a sound physiological condition
immediately before slaughter.

After slaughter, oxygen supply to the muscle is ceased thus causing a fall in oxidation-
reduction (OR) potential to extremely low levels. The strong reducing capacity of the
o
medium (muscle) together with the high initial temperature (38 C) creates an ideal
environment for the growth of anaerobic bacteria. The predominant spoilage bacteria
in such case are Clostridium spp. which grow within rather than on the meat surface,
breaking down the tissues with the production of offensive decomposition products
such as hydrogen sulphide and ammonia. This process is known as putrefaction and
must be avoided by cooling the meat rapidly before the OR potential falls sufficiently
to allow the growth of these organisms.

The rapid cooling of meat post-slaughter (cold shortening to be taken case) is also
advantageous in that it reduces the growth of other food poisoning bacteria such as
salmonellas, which are also frequent contaminants.
o
Carcass (meat and meat joints) held at temperatures of 20 C or over will inevitably
undergo putrefactive spoilage. However, if the surface area to volume ratio is increased
by mincing or slicing the raw meat, the OR potential also increases thus creating
conditions that are less favourable for the growth of putrefactive anaerobes. The bacterial
flora at the time of spoilage in such cases still contains Clostridia but it is now dominated
by mesophilic, facultatively anaerobic, Gram-negative rods.
o
Spoilage of sliced or minced fresh meats at 20 C is rapid and maximum numbers are
reached within 3 to 4 days. The first signs of spoilage (i.e., off-odours) are detected
within 2 days and surface slime is evident at 3 days. It is interesting to note that, whatever
the storage temperature, off-odours and slime production are always first evident when
the total counts have reached approximately 107 per cm2 and 108 per g, respectively; in
fact, this relationship holds true for meats in general.
o
With storage temperatures below 20 C there is a tendency for the mesophilic bacteria
to be overgrown by psychrotrophs although a small proportion of the former may still
o o
be capable of growth at 5 C. Sliced and minced meats held at 15 or 10 C develop off-
odours after 4 to 5 days storage and surface slime is evident at about 7 days. The bacterial
flora becomes progressively dominated by Pseudomonas spp. which represents over
95% of the flora at the time of spoilage.
o
At temperatures of 5 C and below a definite lag phase is apparent. The length of this
o
phase depends on the storage temperature and extends for about 24 h at 5 C and for 2
o
to 3 days at 0 C. The spoilage flora is again dominated by Pseudomonas spp.

Under normal conditions of carcass meat storage, the humidity is high and the surface
layers remain moist. Over prolonged storage periods or at lower humidity levels drying
56 of the surface layers becomes more pronounced and the consequent drop in aw renders
conditions more favourable for fungal growth. When fungal growth is induced in this Carcass/Product Sanitation
way it is largely localized and only involves the most superficial layers; it can be trimmed
away without any harm to the rest of the meat.

Spoilage associated with the growth of moulds includes:

1. ‘Whiskers’: members of the genera Mucor, Rhizopus and Thamnidium produce

mycelia giving a whiskery, white to grey appearance to the surface of beef carcasses.

2. ‘Black spot’: Cladosporium herbarum and C. cladosporoides can grow on a variety

o
of meats even at temperatures as low as –5 C. It produces black spots of growth
due to the darkly pigmented mycelium.

3. Penicillium spp. and Cladosporium spp. produce large numbers of yellow to green
spores when growing on meats; these cause similarly coloured spoilage patches on
the meat.

4. ‘White spot’: normally caused by the growth of Sporotrichum carnis.

Bacteria preferably attack glucose, amino acids and other low molecular weight
compounds such as nucleotides rather than the primary meat proteins. This leads to a
marked rise in pH from 5.6 to as high as pH 8.5 primarily due to the formation of
ammonia by bacterial degradation of amino acids; in consequence pH values have found
a use in the assessment of the keeping qualities of meats.

Proteolysis, the breakdown of primary meat proteins occurs at a relatively late stage of
storage and only becomes evident after the onset of other signs of spoilage. This protein
breakdown results from the activities of bacterial proteases.

10.2.2 Spoilage of Chickens

When live birds are brought into processing plant they are harbouring large numbers of
microorganisms and their different types on their feathers, feet as well as in their
intestines. You have studied different stages of poultry processing in unit-9 under the
heading of HACCP. Here spoilage associated with different stages is discussed.

Scalding to loosen the feathers is performed by immersing birds for 30 s in a tank of hot
o
water (55 C). There is a reduction in the numbers of organisms on the carcass due to
the washing effect. Moreover, it leads to the destruction of heat-sensitive bacteria
including, in particular, psychrotrophic spoilage bacteria.

The mechanical feather pluckers increase the bacterial load on the skin of birds and
also cause cross-contamination and ‘aerosol’ problems. Evisceration also increases the
bacterial load on the skin by spreading faecal types onto the surface; such bacteria can
be easily transferred to other carcasses again causing cross-contamination problems.

The microbial load reaches a maximum immediately prior to spray washing. The washing
process, which produces an approximately 90% reduction of microorganisms per carcass,
is followed by chilling. In small processing operations chilling is frequently performed
in static tanks containing equal quantities of carcasses, ice and water. The carcasses
may be held in these tanks for many hours. In such tanks those towards the bottom can
become heavily contaminated by bacteria washed off from carcasses situated towards
the top. Furthermore, growth of psychrotrophic bacteria is encouraged by these
conditions.

In larger operations mechanized ‘spin’ chillers are commonly used. Air chilling is
practiced where chickens are to be retailed chilled. It tends to dry the skin and hence
retards the growth of psychrotrophic spoilage bacteria.
57
Quality Assurance After the preliminary chilling, microbial counts on chicken skin ranges from 5 × 103 to
1 × 105 per cm2 whilst counts in the visceral cavity are usually <1 x 104 per cm2.
Qualitatively the microbial flora is extremely mixed at this stage and amongst the more
commonly isolated bacterial groups will be Micrococci, Flavobacteria, various intestinal
types, such as Escherichia, Enterobacter, Streptococcus spp., and Acinetobacter spp.

Spoilage of chickens held at chill temperatures

When chickens are stored at chill temperatures most of the microbial growth occurs on
the skin and, to a lesser extent, in the lining of the visceral cavity. Over a period of 10
days the number of bacteria increases to a maximum on the skin of between 109 and
1010 per cm2. This increase in numbers is accompanied by off-odours (107 bacteria per
cm2), copious slime production (108 per cm2) and a rise in pH to 7.5. As might be
expected, there are many similarities between the spoilage of raw chicken and other
meats.

Furthermore, as with chilled meats, the spoilage flora of refrigerated chickens becomes
dominated by Pseudomonas spp. (both fluorescent and non-fluorescent types). In fact
at advanced stage of refrigerated spoilage chicken skin often fluoresces when illuminated
with ultraviolet light due to the presence of large numbers of fluorescent pseudomonas.

Twenty two volatiles were produced during spoilage under chill conditions and 15 of
these were produced as a result of microbial attack on muscle tissue and were responsible
for off-odours of the later stages of spoilage. Amongst these 15 compounds were
hydrogen sulphide, methyl mercaptan, dimethyl sulphide, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate,
methanol, ethanol and benzaldehyde; the large variety of compounds identified clearly
illustrates the complexity of this problem in terms of the role of microorganisms in the
spoilage process.

10.2.3 Spoilage of Eggs

The chicken’s egg is generally regarded as being sterile at the time of laying unless it
has been infected congenitally, usually by certain Salmonellas. Contamination of the
egg occurs after laying and access of microorganisms into the egg is most common
through cracks in the shell. The shell, covered with a water-repelling cuticle, acts as a
mechanical barrier if intact, but an alternative means of entry for microorganisms is
through pores which perforate the egg shell. Penetration is aided by moisture setting up
capillary effects in the pores. Beneath the shell are two membranes which further retard
invasion by bacteria for limited periods but probably offer no barrier to the infiltrating
hyphae of moulds.

The white (albumen) of eggs contains antimicrobial agents which restrict or totally
inhibit the growth of invading microorganisms provided levels of contamination are
low. Lysozyme is particularly effective against Gram positive bacteria causing lysis of
cell walls. Conalbumin, effective against both Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria,
acts as a chelating agent, removing iron which is essential for growth. The yolk, however,
is a rich source of nutrients and contains no inhibitory agents; thus rapid growth of
invading organisms is possible if the yolk is involved. This can occur when the yolk
comes to rest in the uppermost part of the egg about 10 days after laying. If penetration
of the egg has occurred in the membrane area impinging on the yolk the defence
mechanisms of the egg are short-circuited and heavy growth of invading bacteria is
likely to occur. Spoilage of eggs is caused principally by Gram negative bacteria which
produce characteristic rots; these are listed in following table.

Egg Products

Although the contents of fresh eggs are usually sterile, commercially produced egg
58 products (liquid, frozen and dried) used to be heavily contaminated with bacteria. In
the chilled liquid state pasteurized whole egg can be safely stored for at least 6 days Carcass/Product Sanitation
without significant increases in bacterial counts although post-pasteurization
contamination, mainly caused by coliforms, must be avoided.

Untreated chilled albumen is normally spoiled by Pseudomonas and related Gram

negative rods whilst faecal Streptococci and Lactobacilli are predominant in pasteurized
albumen. More severe heat treatment is required to destroy Salmonellae in liquid egg
yolk.
Table 10.1: Egg Spoilage Caused by Bacteria

Type Bacteria involved Changes induced

Green rots Pseudomonas Bright green fluorescent albumen
fluorescence when viewed under UV light. Yolk
may disintegrate. Fruity odour.
Pink rots Pseudomonas spp. Pink discolouration of albumen.
Colourless or Pseudomonas spp. Watery albumen and yolk may
white rots disintregrate.
Black rots Proteus spp. Watery albumen which turns brown.
Yolk disintegrates and is blackened.
Aeromonas spp.
Strong odour with gas (H2S) present.
Pseudomonas spp. May be green fluorescence with
Pseudomonas.
Red rots Serratia marcescens Bright red albumen and yolk may be
infected. No smell.

Check Your Progress 1

1) What is spoilage? Write the factors responsible for spoilage.
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2) Enlist the spoilages associated with the growth of moulds on the surface of the meat
along with their causative agents.
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3) Match the following
(a) Green rots (i) Cladosporium spp.
(b) Black spot (ii) Sporotricum carnis
(c) Red rots (iii) Pseudomonas fluorescence
(d) White spot (iv) Serratia marcescens
59
Quality Assurance
10.3 PRODUCT SANITATION

10.3.1 Carcass Sanitation

Meat because of its high nutritive value and high moisture content, serves as a good
medium for the growth of microorganisms. This emphasizes the need for production of
safe and clean meat and meat products. For manufacturing good quality products, it is
essential to produce meat of very high microbiological and chemical quality. Once the
quality of raw meat improves, it would lead to alleviation of major quality control
problems at the processing level. As such, it is essential that the animals should adequately
be protected from diseases because the causative agents of these diseases may
contaminate meat through environmental contamination. To prevent spoilage, production
of clean meat is emphasized.

The following predisposing factors can influence the microbiological quality of meat at
different stages of production and handling.

(a) Health of animal: The animals should necessarily be free from systemic diseases
whose causative agents such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Coxiella burnetti,
Brucella abortus can be communicated to man. The animals should also be free
from bacterial diseases such as Salmonellosis, Anthrax, Shigellosis,
Enteropathogenic, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus, and other bacterial infections
and viral infections.

(b) Cleaning of animal: The contaminating materials are dung, mud, bedding materials,
straws and the organisms that are likely to contaminate through these are Micrococci,
Staphylococci, Streptococci and Enterococci. To prevent the entry of these
contaminants into meat, brushing and washing should be carried out.

(c) Environment: The stables and barns should be clean, well ventilated and well
lighted. If the stall is built with its length North-South, it gets the benefit of both
the morning and evening sun. The stall air should always be fresh pure and free
from dust and dirt. Water supply is one of the most important sources of microbial
contamination; the quality of water used at farm for different purposes should be
of satisfactory quality. Hence, clean potable water supply should always be available.

Apart from raising and handling the healthy livestock in a manner to keep them healthy
and disease free, the meat and meat products obtained from these animals should be
handled, processed, packaged and transported in the most hygienic conditions possible,
right from the level of production and processing till they reach to the consumer. Such
products should be subjected to most vigilant control to prevent the entry of harmful
organisms, destroy those already present and guard against early deterioration of the
product. In case, the meat is produced unhygienically, and handled carelessly, it gets
contaminated very easily leading to its earlier spoilage. The dirty equipment surfaces
can also be a potential source of contamination of meat and cause spoilage problems.
Therefore, efficient cleaning and sanitization programme is of utmost importance in a
plant. However, conditions of meat production and distribution present a contrasting
picture in developing and developed countries. Therefore, in country like ours where
hygienic and sanitary conditions in most of the slaughterhouses are not of desired levels,
the growth of microbes on the surface of a carcass can be effectively restricted by
‘carcass sanitization’.

60
 Carcass/Product Sanitation

Figure 10.1: Inspection of ‘Clean meat production’ in a modern slaughterhouse

Methods of carcass sanitation

i) Water rinsing: Physically removing bacteria remaining on carcass surfaces by

washing with water and subsequent sanitizing has been shown to be a practical and
effective means of improving the microbiological quality of fresh meat. Washing
the animal prior to slaughter with cold or hot water, brushing, as well as carcass
washing and drying combinations have all been found to reduce the population of
o
microbes on carcasses. Spraying of hot water of temperature 90 C, on a carcass
o
surface or, dipping the meat samples in 80 C water for 10 seconds can kill more
than 90% of pathogens including E. coli or Salmonellae prior to their attachment
to the meat surfaces. However, once the pathogens get firmly attached to the surface
of meat, their removal from the surface, especially the poultry skin become difficult,
and they become more resistant to hot water. That’s why increasing the water
pressure during washing above 4.2kg/cm2 (498.5kPa) can significantly reduce
surface microflora of carcasses to levels comparable to those reduced by washing
o
at low pressure with hot (51.7 C) water.

ii) Chlorine wash: Washing of the beef carcasses with various combinations of
o
chlorine solutions (200 mg/litre), temperature range of 12.8 to 51.7 C and a pH
range of 4 to 7 has been found to significantly reduce the total aerobic bacteria (by
two log cycles) on their surfaces. This microbial reduction increased further to
three log cycles when water pressure was increased from 4.2 to 24.6 kg/cm2 (85 to
o
498.5 kPa). The rinsing of lamb carcasses with hot water (65-80 C) and 30 mg/litre
chlorine has been found to reduce bacterial populations greatly. In general, the
effects of water temperature and chlorine concentration are synergistic, and an
increase in the wash time enhances the effectiveness of the chlorine washes, but it
has no additional effect in case only hot water is used.

Spraying of sodium hypochlorite (200 mg/litre) for 10 minutes on pork carcasses

and spraying of chlorine (200 mg/L) along with acetic acid (2%) on lamb carcasses
have been found to be effective for reducing microbial load on carcass surface.

iii) Organic acid wash: The organic acids such as acetic or lactic acids are used to
sanitize the carcasses because they exhibit good bactericidal activity and are
generally regarded as safe (GRAS) additives. Spraying of the acetic and propionic
acids, or their combination (60:40 mixtures) is highly effective against many
microbes including Salmonellae strains. Similarly, a spray of acetic, lactic, citric
and ascorbic acids combinely produces inhibitory effect on Enterobacteriaceae
family. The use of lactic acid sprays as a terminal process in carcass processing
could provide significant microbiological advantages. It is recommended that the
meat should be sanitized with lactic acid up to 2% and public health authorities
allow the use of lactic acid as a decontaminating agent. Potassium sorbate (up to
20% w/v) is also found to be effective against a number of bacteria such as E. coli,
Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus feacalis, Clostridium perfringens etc. 61
Quality Assurance iv) Multiple washing and sanitizing treatment: Mostly, the sanitation of red meat
carcasses is focused on a single carcass treatment in the abattoir, before the carcasses
are chilled. However, recently introduced process involves multiple washing and
sanitizing treatments at different points in the slaughter process. This process
includes washing and sanitizing treatments immediately after removal of the hide,
followed by a second treatment after the carcass is eviscerated and split. The intent
of these processes is to physically remove contaminants and then sanitize the carcass
immediately following hide removal and evisceration. Pre and post-evisceration
o
washing with acetic acid at 55 C would reduce the populations of Salmonella
california by greater than 2 log cycles on beef tissue in a model system. Spraying
o
of beef and pork carcasses with 1% lactic acid at 55 C after hide removal (in beef)
or dehairing (pork), after evisceration, or at both locations during processing, may
effectively reduce the aerobic plate counts on meat surfaces.

In modern commercial beef processing, cold water is misted on the carcasses at specified
time intervals. The cold water must increase cooling rates by evaporative cooling and
reduces the moisture loss of the carcasses. Spray chilling with chlorine was used initially
as a method of sanitizing carcasses. The incorporation of 1% acetic or lactic acid into
the spray chilling process significantly reduces the total aerobic populations on treated
carcasses. The use of 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0% acetic acid in different spray cycles showed the
reductions in the populations of S. typhimurium, L. monocytogenes, and E. coli 0157:H7.
In general, the acetic acid is more effective in reducing bacterial population on the
carcasses than the other sanitizers including quaternary ammonium compound (QAC)
and sodium hypochlorite.

The alternative processes, such as gamma irradiation, have been shown to be highly
effective in controlling bacterial pathogens in meat. However, irradiation does not remove
physical contaminants such as hair or bone dust. Exposure of carcass to ozone or use of
alkali such as NaOH are other chemical means of carcass sanitation.

10.3.2 Egg Sanitation

Only clean, whole eggs should be used for sanitation. Dirty, cracked or leaked eggs
should not be used. If the product is intended for use as both a cleaner and a sanitizer,
separate directions for use as a cleaner must be provided and followed by a potable
water rinse, preceding the directions for use as a sanitizer with a fresh solution.

The directions for use of sanitizer in sanitizing eggs as follows:

To sanitize clean shell eggs intended for food or food products, spray with a solution
containing sanitizer. The solution must be equal to or warmer than the eggs, but not to
o o
exceed 55 C (temperature difference of up to 10 C). Wet the eggs thoroughly and allow
draining. Eggs must be reasonably dry before casing or breaking. The solution must not
be reused for sanitizing eggs. Eggs that have been sanitized with quaternary ammonium
compound should be subjected to a thorough potable water rinse only if they are to be
immediately broken for use in the manufacture of egg products.

Eggs that have been sanitized with chlorine compound (solution up to 50 ppm otherwise
blue taint) may be broken for use in the manufacture of egg products without a prior
potable water rinse.

Eggs that have been freshly washed may be sanitized with the iodine compound only if
the eggs are rinsed prior to application of the compound. A subsequent potable water
rinse is not required.

62
Check Your Progress 2 Carcass/Product Sanitation

1) Enumerate the different approaches used for carcass sanitization.

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2) Write the steps involved in sanitization of eggs.
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3) Write True or False
a) Meat is an excellent medium for growth of microorganisms.
b) Efficient cleaning and sanitization programme is of utmost importance in a
plant.
c) Spraying of pork carcasses with a 60:40 mixture of lactic and propionic acid is
effective for reducing the microbial load on surface.
d) The food spoilage may be caused by physical injury due to bruising, pressure,
freezing, drying and radiation.
e) The dirty equipment surfaces can also be a potential source of contamination
of meat and cause spoilage problems.
f) The chemical changes usually involve oxygen and, other than microbiological
spoilage, are the most common cause of spoilage.
g) Total bacterial counts for freshly cut meat surfaces are likely to vary between
103 and 105 organisms per cm2.
o
h) Spoilage of sliced or minced fresh meats at 20 C is rapid, and maximum
numbers are reached within 3 to 4 days.
i) The onset of off-odour and other spoilage characteristics in meats are associated
with a particular level and type of bacteria.
j) After slaughter, oxygen stored in the muscle is depleted thus causing a fall in
oxidation-reduction (OR) potential to extremely low levels.
k) Spoilage of eggs is caused mainly by gram-positive bacteria which produce
characteristic rots.
l) ‘White spot’ on meats is normally caused by the growth of Cladosporium
herbarum.
4) Fill in the blanks
i) When animal is slaughtered, stored …………… in the muscles is converted
to lactic acid.
o
ii) Dipping beef or mutton samples in ………….. C water for 10s killed 99% of
an inoculated population of E. coli or salmonellae. 63
Quality Assurance iii) Organic acids, such as …………… or ………… should be used to sanitize
carcasses because they exhibit good bactericidal activity.
o
iv) Carcass meat and joints held at temperatures of …………. C or over will
inevitably undergo putrefactive spoilage.
v) ……………………… and ………………. produce ‘whiskers’ on the surface
of beef carcasses.
vi) ‘………………… spot’ is produced by Cladosporium herbarum and C.
o
cladosporoides on a variety of meats even at temperatures as low as –5 C.

10.4 LET US SUM UP

Microbial contamination of food from animal carcasses can be minimized by good
manufacturing practices in the abattoir. A decontamination step, in the form of washing
and sanitizing during the slaughter process, can improve the microbial quality and shelf
life of the meat and should be considered an integral part of the production process.
Meat because of its high nutritive value and high moisture content, serves as a good
medium for the growth of microorganisms. The onset of off-odour and other spoilage
characteristics in meats are associated with a particular level of bacteria. Spoilage of
food involves any change, which renders food unacceptable for human consumption
and may result from a variety of causes. The food spoilage may be caused by insect
damage, physical injury, chemical changes or the activity of microorganisms, particularly
bacteria, yeasts and moulds. Various predisposing factors that can influence the
microbiological quality of meat at different stages of production and handling include
health of animal, cleaning of animals and environment. The carcass sanitization is carried
out by means of various approaches such as water rinsing, chlorine treatment and use of
organic acids.

10.5 KEY WORDS

Aerosol : It refers to airborne solid particles or liquid droplets.
Black spot : Cladosporium herbarum and C. cladosporoides produces
black spots of growth on meat due to the darkly pigmented
mycelium.
Food spoilage : It involves any change (insect damage, physical injury,
chemical or microbiological), which renders food
unacceptable for human consumption.
Giblet : Giblets are the edible offal of a fowl, typically including
the heart, gizzard, liver, and other visceral organs.
KPa : Kilo Pascal, unit of pressure.
Lag phase : The initial growth phase, during which cell number remains
relatively constant prior to rapid growth.
Slime : Slime is a definite visual sign of microbial growth. Aerobic
spoilage by bacteria and yeasts usually results in slime
formation.
Whiskers : Mucor, Rhizopus and Thamnidium etc. produce mycelia
giving a whiskery, white to grey appearance to the surface
of beef carcasses.

64 White spot : It is normally caused by the growth of Sporotrichum carnis.

 Carcass/Product Sanitation
10.6 SOME USEFUL BOOKS
Frazier, W. C. Food Microbiology. (1995) McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
J.F. Gracey and D.S. Collins. (1992). Meat Hygiene, 9th Edition, ELBS Publication,
London.
James M. Jay (2003). Modern Food Microbiology. CBS Publishers and Distributors.

10.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1) Spoilage of food refers to changes which render food unacceptable for human
consumption.
Factors responsible for spoilage are as follows:
z Physical damage due to bruising, pressure, freezing, drying and radiation.
z Damage by insects.
z The activity of indigenous enzymes in animal tissues.
z Chemical changes like oxidative rancidity of fats/oils, and the discolouration
of meats.
z The activity of microorganisms, particularly bacteria, yeasts and moulds.
2) Spoilages associated with the growth of moulds on the surface of meat and the
names of the causative agents are given below:
Spoilage Causative agent
Whiskers Mucor, Rhizopus and Thamnidium.
Black spot Cladosporium herbarum and C. cladosporoides
Yellow or green spot Penicillium spp. and Cladosporium spp.
White spot Sporotrichum carnis.
3) (a) Green rots (i) Pseudomonas fluorescence
(b) Black spot (ii) Cladosporium spp.
(c) Red rots (iii) Serratia marcescens
(d) White spot (iv) Sporotricum carnis.
Check Your Progress 2
1) Approaches used for carcass sanitation are as follows:
z Water rinsing
z Chlorine wash
z Organic acid wash with acetic acid, lactic acid and propionic acid etc.
z Multiple washing and sanitizing treatment
z Gamma irradiation
z Ozone treatment
z Alkali wash with NaOH 65
Quality Assurance 2) Steps involved in sanitization of eggs are given following flow diagram.

Clean shell eggs

Spray with solution containing sanitizer (temperature of solution must not exceed
o
55 C)

Thorough wetting

Draining

Rinsing with potable water if needed

Drying

3) a) T; b) T; c) F; d) T; e) T; f) T; g) T; h)T; i) T; j) T;
k) F; l) F
o o
4) a) glycogen; b) 80 ; c) acetic or lactic acids; d) 20 ; e) Mucor, Rhizopus and
Thamnidium; f ) Black

66