GREEK

Greeks call themselves Hellenes, and Greece Hellas; our term "Greece" derives from
their Roman conquerors. From the eighth century BC, colonisation had taken Greek-
speakers all over the Mediterranean, from the Black Sea, Turkey, to North Africa,
Italy France and Spain, like "frogs around a pond" (Plato).
By the fifth century BC Classical Greeks had organised themselves into independent
citizen states (known as polis, from which comes our word "political") such as
Athens, Sparta, Ephesus, Byzantion and Marseilles. Each polis had its own laws,
dialect, currency and government. Strongly independent, they fought among
themselves for domination, and internally over different styles of constitution
(eg, tyranny, democracy, oligarchy). In the fourth century BC, Macedon in the
north, under its king Philip II and his son Alexander the Great, took brief
control, but on the death of Alexander in 323 BC, the mainland split into a series
of leagues under Macedonian governors. Radical, direct democracy died at that
moment, never to be restored.
The Greek language, however, spread throughout the Mediterranean. Greek was heard
in Rome probably more often than Latin. The gospel writers and St Paul knew
perfectly well that they would have to write in Greek if they wanted their message
to spread. Romans lapped up Greek culture � literature, history, philosophy and
architecture � and by making Greek a central feature of their education system
ensured that Greek achievement would be handed on to us today.
The collapse of the western empire led to some turmoil in the east, but the
Byzantines gradually regained control over Greece until the treacherous attack on
Constantinople in 1204 by the Frankish crusaders (western Europeans). The Franks
split up Greece, but fighting among themselves and against Serbs, Albanians and
Turks left them fatally weakened. On 29 May 1453 Constantinople fell to the Ottoman
branch of the Turkish invaders, who had been mopping up the remaining territories
of the old Byzantine empire, and for nearly 400 years Greece was under Ottoman
control.
By the 19th century, the empire was economically on its last legs, and on 25 March
1821, Greece declared its independence. When France, Britain and Russia threatened
to intervene against the Turks, the Turks capitulated. Greece used various means to
extend its territory into the Ionian islands, Thessaly, Macedon, Crete and the
Aegean � a disastrous advance into Turkey (1919-22) failed � and it reached its
present configuration in 1947.

ROME
The exact origins of the city of Rome are still somewhat of a mystery. There are
several theories all based on the writings of ancient authors and the
archaeological discoveries.
For this reason, the founding of Rome is based mainly on legend and myth, instead
of solid facts and figures. The existence of a Roman Kingdom was even questioned
during practically two centuries by expert historians.
During the nineteenth and twentieth century, they dismissed the idea of the early
kings of Rome (Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius) as well as the date of
the founding of what would later become the capital of Italy, in 753 BC. This part
of history was merely considered a legend and not taken seriously.
It was only during the late twentieth century when, thanks to the findings of
numerous archeological digs and other sciences, that the myths surrounding the
establishment of the city and its first rulers were reconsidered.
It is believed that the first inhabitants of Rome came from various parts of the
region, and had neither the economic nor the cultural development of their northern
neighbors, the Estrucans, nor the southern civilization called the Sabines and
Latins.
In the Palatine Hill archeologists found the remains of a primitive settlement from
the eighth century BC, with burials on the outskirts of the village. It is thought
that as the population grew, the inhabitants settled on the slopes of the nearby
hills, and during the next century they established themselves in the valley.
EGYPTIAN
Egyptian civilization has flourished continuously since prehistoric times. While
the civilization's rulers, writing, natural climate, religion and borders have
changed many times over the millennia, Egypt still exists as a modern-day country.
The civilization has always been strongly connected with other parts of the world,
bringing in and exporting goods, religions, food, people and ideas. At times
ancient Egypt ruled territory outside the modern-day country's border, controlling
territory in what is now Sudan, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine.
The country was also occupied by other powers � the Persians, Nubians, Greeks and
Romans all conquered the country at different points in time.
A number of names were used for Egypt in ancient times. A popular ancient name for
Egypt was "Kemet," which means the "black land." Scholars generally believe that
this name derives from the fertile soil that is left over when the Nile flood
recedes in August.
The flooding of the Nile occurred between June and August and the fertile soil it
created was vital to ancient Egypt's survival, with fertility playing an important
role in Egyptian religion. The burial of Tutankhamun � in which his penis was
mummified erect � is but one example of how important fertility was in the rituals
and beliefs of the ancient Egyptians.
The country's ancient rulers are referred to today as "pharaohs," although in
ancient times they each used a series of names as part of a royal titular, wrote
Ronald Leprohon, an Egyptology professor at the University of Toronto, in his book
"The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary" (Society of Biblical Literature,
2013). The word pharaoh actually originates from the term "per-aa" which means "the
Great House," Leprohon wrote. The term was first incorporated into a royal titulary
during the rule of Thutmose III (reign ca. 1479�1425 B.C.) wrote Leprohon.

ASSYRIAN
The "Old Assyrian" period generally refers to the time after Assyria first gained
independence around 4,000 years ago.
Ancient texts indicate that Assyria's size and power were limited in the period
after it gained independence. Its early rulers didn't refer to themselves as a
"king" in their inscriptions. Instead they called themselves a "vicegerent" (a word
that can mean "governor") of the god Ashur.
"Erishum, the vicegerent of the god Ashur, son of Ilushuma, vicegerent of the god
Ashur, built the entire temple area of the temple of the god Ashur�" reads part of
an inscription found on an Assyrian temple's stairway (translation by Albert Kirk
Grayson). Why Assyria's early rulers used such modest titles is a mystery that
scholars are still trying to understand.
All pretense of modesty came to an end when a ruler named "Shamshi-Adad" (sometimes
spelled Samsi-Adad) conquered, or otherwise took over, Assur, adding the city to an
empire that controlled a vast swath of territory across modern-day Iraq and Syria.
Study of inscriptions and archaeological remains indicate that Shamshi-Adad lived
sometime around 3,800 years ago and based himself not at Assur but at a site in
Syria which is now called "Tell Leilan." Rather than giving himself a modest title,
as the earlier Assyrian rulers had done, he instead gave himself a title which
scholars often translate as "king of the universe."
Shamshi-Adad's empire did not last for long. After his death the Babylonian Empire,
led by Hammurabi, and a kingdom known as "Mittani" or "Hanigalbat" took over
Shamshi-Adad's lands. Ancient records indicate that by 1500 B.C. the city of Assur
was heavily influenced (if not directly controlled) by Mittani.

MESOPOTAMIA
Humans first settled in Mesopotamia in the Paleolithic era. By 14,000 B.C., people
in the region lived in small settlements with circular houses.
Five thousand years later, these houses formed farming communities following the
domestication of animals and the development of agriculture, most notably
irrigation techniques that took advantage of the proximity of the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers.
Agricultural progress was the work of the dominant Ubaid culture, which had
absorbed the Halaf culture before it.
These scattered agrarian communities started in the northern part of the ancient
Mesopotamian region and spread south, continuing to grow for several thousand years
until forming what modern humans would recognize as cities, which were considered
the work of the Sumer people.
Uruk was the first of these cities, dating back to around 3200 B.C., a mud brick
metropolis built on the riches brought from trade and conquest and featuring public
art, gigantic columns and temples, and with a population of some 50,000 citizens.
Sumerians are also responsible for the earliest form of written language,
cuneiform, with which they kept detailed clerical records.
By 3000 B.C., Mesopotamia was firmly under the control of the Sumerian people.
Sumer contained several decentralized city-states�Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, Uruk, Kish
and Ur.
The first king of a united Sumer is recorded as Etana of Kish. It�s unknown whether
Etana really existed, as he and many of the rulers listed in the Sumerian King List
that was developed around 2100 B.C. are all featured in Sumerian mythology as well.
Etana was followed by Meskiaggasher, the king of the city-state Uruk. A warrior
named Lugalbanda took control around 2750 B.C.