ECE 3620

Lecture 2 – Second Order Systems

Objective: To build insight into second order RLC systems

Reading: Nillson and Riedel, Chapter 8

In this course, we will be covering linear systems of arbitrary order. However,

as a carry-over from circuits and in preparation, we will exhaustively review second
order systems, in particular RLC systems. We do this at the insistence of the powers
that be, and also to lay the groundwork for a more general coverage.
We will consider two problems: the natural response of an RLC circuit, and the
step response. The natural response deals with the circuit with no driving function.
The step response deals with a circuit with a step input. Later (with more tools)
we will deal with the general input.

Natural response
Parallel RLC circuit:
 Z t 
v 1 dv
+ v dτ + I0 + C = 0.
R L 0 dt

(I0 is initial current through inductor). Take derivative, re-arrange:

d2 v 1 dv v
2
+ + = 0.
dt RC dt LC
We get a linear DE with constant coefficients. This is the best kind to deal with.
We assume
v(t) = Aest
for some amplitude A and some (possibly complex) frequency s. Substitute in:
s 1
Aest (s2 + + )=0
RC LC
from which we conclude that we must have
s 1
(s2 + + )=0
RC LC
characteristic equation; characteristic polynomial. Solutions using the quadratic
formula: s 2
1 1 1
s1 = − + −
2RC 2RC LC
s 2
1 1 1
s2 = − − −
2RC 2RC LC
What do we do with this wealth of riches? Use them both, in linear combination:

v(t) = A1 es1 t + A2 es2 t

Common nomenclature:
1 1
α= ω02 =
2RC LC
ECE 3620: Lecture 2 – Second Order Systems 2

q q
s1 = −α + α2 − ω02 s2 = −α − α2 − ω02
where α is called the Neper frequency (and governs the rate of decay) and ω0 is
called the resonant radian frequency (and governs the frequency of oscillation). If
ω02 < α2 , then the roots are real and distinct; we say the response is overdamped.
If ω02 = α2 , then s1 = s2 and they are real; This is called critically damped. If
ω02 > α2 then the roots are complex conjugates; this is called underdamped. We
will examine each case in turn.

Overdamped response
In v = A1 es1 t + A2 es2 t , we are after the constants A1 and A2 , based on circuit
initial conditions. We are given the initial voltage across the capacitor, V0 = v(0+ ),
and the initial current through the inductor, iL (0+). We note that

v(0+ ) = A1 + A2

and
dv(0+ )
= s1 A1 + s2 A2
dt
The second equation is the somewhat harder one. (Note: By the time we get
through this course, we will find a much more natural way of dealing with the
initial conditions. Part of the outcome of this part should be to give you a greater
appreciation for the tools we develop later!)
Note that, by the laws of capacitors,

dv(0+ ) 1
= iC (0+ )
dt C
Note further, by KCL, that
V0
iC (0+ ) = − − I0
R

Example 1 Let R = 200Ω, C = 0.2µF , L = 50mH, v(0+ ) = 12V , and iL (0+ ) =

30mA. Determine and plot the response.
We find
1
α= = 1.25 × 104 rad/sec
2RC
1
ω02 = = 108 rad2 /sec2
LC

s1 = −5000rad/sec
s2 = −20, 000rad/sec
We note that, sure enough, this is overdamped.
We have
iL (0+ ) = 30mA
iR (0+ ) = 12V /200Ω = 60mA
iC (0+ ) = −iR (0+ ) − iL (0+ ) = −90mA.
hence
dv(0+ ) 1
= (−90mA) = −450kV /sec
dt C
ECE 3620: Lecture 2 – Second Order Systems 3

(Note: wow! big change!) Now we get two equations in two unknowns:

A1 + A2 = 12

−5000A1 − 20, 000A2 = −450K.

Solving, A1 = −14V and A2 = 26V. Putting it all together,

v(t) = (−14e−5000t + 26e−20000t )V, t ≥ 0.

Plot:
us = 1e-6;
dt = us/20;
e = exp(1);
t = 0:dt:250*us;
plot(t,-14*e.^(-5000*t)+26*e.^(-20000*t));
2

Underdamped response
In this case, we have complex roots. We will write it this way:
q q
s1 = −α + −(ω02 − α2 ) = −α + j ω02 − α2 = −α + jωd

where q
ωd = ω02 − α2
is called the damped radian frequency. (Note: if α = 0, then ωd = ω0 .) We can
(with some work) write

v(t) = B1 e−αt cos ωd t + B2 e−αt sin ωd t

where B1 = A1 + A2 and B2 = j(A1 − A2 ). (Show the steps.) These are real, since
A1 and A2 are complex conjugates.
To determine the constants,

v(0+ ) = V0 = B1

dv(0+ ) iC (0+ )
= −αB1 + ωd B2 =
dt C
The number α is called the damping factor.
Note that as R → ∞, α → 0 — we get an oscillatory circuit. The frequency of
oscillation is then
1
ω0 = ωd = √ .
LC
Example 2 Let R = 20kΩ, C = 0.125µF , L = 8H, v(0+ ) = 0V , and iL (0+ ) =
−12.25mA. Determine and plot the response.
1
α= = 200 rad/s
2RC
1
ω0 = √ = 103 rad/s
LC
ECE 3620: Lecture 2 – Second Order Systems 4

Therefore, q √
ωd = ω02 − α2 = 100 96 = 979.8 rad/s,
s1 = −α + jωd = −200 + j979.80 rad/s,
and
s2 = s∗1 = −200 − j979.80 rad/s.
Since v(0+ ) = 0, the capacitor and inductor current must be equal but opposite in
sign. Thus,
dv(0+ )
= 98, 000 V /s.
dt
Solving for B2 gives
98, 000
B2 = ≈ 100 V.
ωd
Therefore,
v(t) = 100e−200t sin 979.8t V, t ≥ 0.
(plot) 2

Critically damped response

When the roots are the same (and real) we have to introduce an extra complication
in the solution. (We will later understand more of this.)

v(t) = D1 te−αt + D2 e−αt

Coefficients:
v(0+ ) = D2 = V0
dv(0+ ) ic (0+ )
= D1 − αD2 =
dt C

Step response of parallel RLC

This is an important problem, but it is only part of a problem. More generally, we
are interested in arbitrary input signals. We’ll start here, then happily move on.
Consider a parallel RLC circuit in which a current is switched on at time t = 0.
We will be interested here in iL (t) (why?). From KCL:

iL + iR + iC = I

or
v dv
iL + +C =I
R dt
Using v = Ldi/dt and dv/dt = Ld2 i/dt2 , we obtain

L diL d2 i L
iL + + LC 2 = I
R dt dt
or
d2 iL 1 diL iL I
+ + = .
dt2 RC dt LC LC
We will introduce two approaches for this (so-called indirect and direct). From the
indirect, we will make an observation that will allow us to write down the solution
“by inspection.”
ECE 3620: Lecture 2 – Second Order Systems 5

In the indirect approach, we find a solution for v(t) first. Starting over from
KCL, and expressing the quantities in terms of v(t) we have

1 t
Z
v dv
v dτ + + C =I
L 0 R dt
Derivative; rearrange:
d2 v 1 dv v
2
+ + = 0.
dt RC dt LC
Note: we get the same characteristic equation for all the variables; that is why it
is characteristic. Note also: the dependence on I is gone now. We will assume (for
the sake of the example) that the solution has the form

v(t) = A1 es1 t + A2 es2 t

(or the other forms we now know). Now we go back to our original equation for iL :
v dv
iL + +C =I
R dt
to obtain
iL = I + A01 es1 t + A02 es2 t
for some constants A01 and A02 . These are determined based on the initial conditions.
Here is the important observation: The solution is the same as the natural
solution, with the input current added on. This leads to the “direct” approach:

i = If + natural response function

or
v = Vf + natural response function
where initial conditions are matched in this final formulation. The If is the final
value of the current. (Check what the final value of current and voltage.)
Example 3 Parallel RLC, R = 400Ω, C = 25nF , L = 25mH. Apply 24 mA
at t = 0. Assume initial energy is 0: VC (0) = 0 and iL (0) = 0. We also have
iL (0+ ) = 0 (why?).
We find
1 1
ω0 = = 16 × 108 α= = 5 × 104
LC 2RC
so we have real, distinct roots,

s1 = −20, 000 s2 = −80, 000

Response (direct):
i = If + A01 es1 t + A02 es2 t
diL (0+ )
Initial conditions: iL (0) = 0. Also, VC (0) = 0 = L didtL , so dt = 0. So we obtain

iL (0) = A01 + A02 + If = 0

diL (0+ )
= s1 A01 + s2 A02 = 0.
dt
Solution: A01 = −32mA, A02 = 8mA. Total solution:

iL (t) = (24 − 32e−20,000t + 8e−80,000t )mA, t ≥ 0.