CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

In electrical engineering, power engineering and the electric power

industry, power conversion is converting electric energy from one form to
another, converting between AC and DC, or just changing
the voltage or frequency, or some combination of these. A power
converter is an electrical or electro-mechanical device for converting
electrical energy. This could be as simple as a transformer to change
the voltage of AC power, but also includes far more complex systems. The
term can also refer to a class of electrical machinery that is used to convert
one frequency of alternating current into another frequency.

One way of classifying power conversion systems is according to

whether the input and output are alternating current (AC) or direct
current (DC), thus:

 DC to DC  DC to AC
 DC-to-DC converter  Inverter
 Voltage regulator  AC to AC
 Linear regulator  Transformer/autotransformer
 AC to DC  Voltage converter
 Rectifier  Voltage regulator
  Mains power supply unit  Cycloconverter
(PSU)  Variable-frequency transformer
 Switched-mode power supply

There are also devices and methods to convert between power

systems designed for single and three-phase operation.

The standard power frequency varies from country to country, and

sometimes within a country. In North America and northern South America
it is usually 60 hertz (Hz), but in many other parts of the world, is usually
50 Hz. Aircraft often use 400 Hz power, so 50 Hz or 60 Hz to 400 Hz
frequency conversion is needed for use in the ground power unit used to
power the airplane while it is on the ground.

Certain specialized circuits, such as the flyback transformer for

a CRT, can also be considered power converters.

Consumer electronics usually include an AC adapter (a type of power

supply) to convert mains-voltage AC current to low-voltage DC suitable for
consumption by microchips.

Consumer voltage converters(also known as "travel converters") are

used when travelling between countries that use ~120 V vs. ~240 V AC
mains power. (There are also consumer "adapters" which merely form an
electrical connection between two differently shaped AC power plugs and
sockets, but these change neither voltage nor frequency.)
1.1.1 AC-DC conversion

The process of converting AC-DC voltage is commonly called as

rectification. This rectification process is applicable in various applications
which are explained below.

a) Regulated Power supply

Some DC power supplies use AC mains electricity as an energy

source. Such power supplies will sometimes employ a transformer to
convert the input voltage to a higher or lower AC voltage. A rectifier is
used to convert the transformer output voltage to a varying DC voltage,
which in turn is passed through an electronic filterto convert it to an
unregulated DC voltage. The filter removes most, but not all of the AC
voltage variations; the remaining voltage variations are known as ripple.
The electric load's tolerance of ripple dictates the minimum amount of
filtering that must be provided by a power supply. In some applications,
high ripple is tolerated and therefore no filtering is required. For example,
in some battery charging applications it is possible to implement a mains-
powered DC power supply with nothing more than a transformer and a
single rectifier diode, with a resistor in series with the output to limit
charging current.

b) Switched Mode Power Supply

In a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), the AC mains input is

directly rectified and then filtered to obtain a DC voltage. The resulting DC
voltage is then switched on and off at a high frequency by electronic
switching circuitry, thus producing an AC current that will pass through
a high-frequency transformer or inductor. Switching occurs at a very high
frequency (typically 10 kHz — 1 MHz), thereby enabling the use
of transformers and filter capacitors that are much smaller, lighter, and less
expensive than those found in linear power supplies operating at mains
frequency. After the inductor or transformer secondary, the high frequency
AC is rectified and filtered to produce the DC output voltage. If the SMPS
uses an adequately insulated high-frequency transformer, the output will
beelectrically isolated from the mains; this feature is often essential for
safety.

Switched-mode power supplies are usually regulated, and to keep the

output voltage constant, the power supply employs a feedback controller
that monitors current drawn by the load. The switching duty cycle increases
as power output requirements increase.

SMPSs often include safety features such as current limiting or

a crowbar circuit to help protect the device and the user from harm. In the
event that an abnormal high-current power draw is detected, the switched-
mode supply can assume this is a direct short and will shut itself down
before damage is done. PC power supplies often provide a power
good signal to the motherboard; the absence of this signal prevents
operation when abnormal supply voltages are present.

Some SMPSs have an absolute limit on their minimum current

output. They are only able to output above a certain power level and cannot
function below that point. In a no-load condition the frequency of the power
slicing circuit increases to great speed, causing the isolated transformer to
act as a Tesla coil, causing damage due to the resulting very high voltage
power spikes.

Switched-mode supplies with protection circuits may briefly turn on

but then shut down when no load has been detected. A very small low-
power dummy load such as a ceramic power resistor or 10-watt light bulb
can be attached to the supply to allow it to run with no primary load
attached.

Power factor has become an issue of concern for computer

manufacturers. Switched mode power supplies have traditionally been a
source of power line harmonics and have a very poor power factor. The
rectifier input stage distorts the waveshape of current drawn from the
supply; this can produce adverse effects on other loads. The distorted
current causes extra heating in the wires and distribution equipment.
Switched mode power supplies in a building can result in poor power
quality for other utility customers. Customers may face higher electric bills
for a low power factor load.

Some switch-mode power supplies use filters or additional switching

stages in the incoming rectifier circuit to improve the waveform of the
current taken from the AC line. This adds to the circuit complexity. Many
computer power supplies built in the last few years now include power
factor correction built right into the switched-mode supply, and may
advertise the fact that they offer 1.0 power factor.
c) Linear Power supply

The function of a linear voltage regulator is to convert a varying DC

voltage to a constant, often specific, lower DC voltage. In addition, they
often provide acurrent limiting function to protect the power supply and
load from overcurrent (excessive, potentially destructive current).

A constant output voltage is required in many power supply

applications, but the voltage provided by many energy sources will vary
with changes in load impedance. Furthermore, when an unregulated DC
power supply is the energy source, its output voltage will also vary with
changing input voltage. To circumvent this, some power supplies use a
linear voltage regulator to maintain the output voltage at a steady value,
independent of fluctuations in input voltage and load impedance. Linear
regulators can also reduce the magnitude of ripple and noise present
appearing on the output voltage.

1.1.2 Merits and Demerits of AC-DC conversion

The AC to DC converters can be used to charge a large number of

devices including laptops, cellular phones and all types of portable devices
quite easily and quickly. It can also be used to convert the call charger of a
cell phone into an ordinary charger.
These power converters aid in providing adequate power to any
device, at any point of time, from anywhere in the world. The AC to DC
converters can convert different voltages based on the rectifier. A rectifier
aids in operating electrical devices by transferring AC to DC even in places
with no electric current. These rectifiers can be used to double the low
voltage input if it includes a voltage increaser and supports high voltage.
One of the main disadvantages of the AC converters is its limited power
supply. As it is connected to the batteries for power supply, over usage can
drain the batteries and lower the power supply. There are different sizes of
AC power supply inverters in both online and offline markets today. Some
of the converters are small and fit into a glove compartment but these
converters are quite unsuitable to charge huge electrical appliances such as
DVD players and televisions.
The cost of these converters can vary from one to another according
to the varying features and power output. It is necessary to conduct a proper
research on the various types of converters available before deciding to
purchase the most suitable Ac to Dc converter.
1.2 NEED OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
The main reason for reactive power compensation in a system is: 1)
the voltage regulation; 2) increased system stability; 3) better utilization of
machines connected to the system; 4) reducing losses associated with the
system; and 5) to prevent voltage collapse as well as voltage sag. The
impedance of transmission lines and the need for lagging VAR by most
machines in a generating system results in the consumption of reactive
power, thus affecting the stability limits of the system as well as
transmission lines. Unnecessary voltage drops lead to increased losses
which needs to be supplied by the source and in turn leading to outages in
the line due to increased stress on the system to carry this imaginary power.
Thus we can infer that the compensation of reactive power not only
mitigates all these effects but also helps in better transient response to faults
and disturbances. In recent times there has been an increased focus on the
techniques used for the compensation and with better devices included in
the technology, the compensation is made more effective. It is very much
required that the lines be relieved of the obligation to carry the reactive
power, which is better provided near the generators or the loads. Shunt
compensation can be installed near the load, in a distribution substation or
transmission substation.
Except in a very few special situations, electrical energy is
generated, transmitted, distributed, and utilized as alternating current
(AC). However, alternating current has several distinct disadvantages. One
of these is the necessity of reactive power that needs to be
supplied along with active power. Reactive power can be leading or
lagging. While it is the active power that contributes to the energy
consumed, or transmitted, reactive power does not contribute to the energy.
Reactive power is an inherent part of the “total power”
Reactive power is either generated or consumed in almost every
component of the system, generation, transmission, and distribution and
eventually by the loads. The impedance of a branch of a circuit in an AC
system consists of two components, resistance and reactance. Reactance can
be either inductive or capacitive, which contribute to reactive power in the
circuit. Most of the loads are inductive, and must be supplied with lagging
reactive power. It is economical to supply this reactive power closer to the
load in the distribution system. Reactive power compensation in power
systems can be either shunt or series. The reactive power compensation is
also necessary because the power supplier charges penalty for excessive
consumption of reactive power. Reduced energy losses make reactive
power profitable. Additional machines are to be connected to already fully
loaded substations, cables or transformer .The power transmission for a new
plant can be planned more economically if power factor correction is taken
into consideration.
Better efficiency of power generation, transmission and distribution
Improvement in voltage Reduced KVA demand. Higher load capability
.Reduced system losses are the advantages of the reactive power
compensation.
1.3 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS
Chapter – I: Introduction to real and reactive power compensation
Chapter – II: Literature review regarding this projects
Chapter – III: System implementation
Chapter – IV: Simulation results and discussion
Chapter – V: Conclusion for this work
 CHAPTER – II

LITERATURE SURVEY

1) A novel single-stage high-power-factor ac-to dc LED driving circuit

with leakage inductance energy recycling
(Y. C. Li and C. L. Chen)
This project proposes a novel single-stage ac-to-dc light-emitting-
diode (LED) driver circuit. A buck-boost power factor (PF) corrector is
integrated with a flyback converter. A recycling path is built to recover the
inductive leakage energy.

2) Design and analysis of single-stage power factor correction

converter with a feedback winding
(Y. Ji and Y. Xu)
A new single-stage power factor correction (SSPFC) converter is
proposed for the adapter application, which is composed of a flyback
converter, a feedback winding and a front-end input current shaper.
Through the feedback winding, a direct energy transfer path is configured
to improve the conversion efficiency and alleviate the voltage stress across
the bulk capacitor.

3) Single-stage ac/dc boost forward converter with high power and

regulated bus and output voltage
(D. D. C. Lu, H. H. C. Iu, and V. Pjevalica)
 Unlike existing single-stage AC/DC converters with uncontrolled
intermediate bus voltage, a new single-stage AC/DC converter achieving
power factor correction (PFC), intermediate bus voltage output regulation
and output voltage regulation is proposed. The single power stage circuit is
formed by integrating a boost PFC converter with a two-switch-clamped
forward converter. The current stress of the main power switches is
reduced due to separated conduction period of the two source currents
flowing through the power switch. A dual-loop peak current mode
controller is proposed to achieve PFC, and ensure independent bus voltage
and output voltage regulations.

4) Interleaved active-clamping converter with ZVS/ZCS Features

(T. H. Hsia, H. Y. Tsai, D. Chen, M. Lee, and C. S. Huang)
In this project, an interleaved soft-switching dc-to-dc converter
configuration is proposed. It consists of two parts: the primary side is a
constant-frequency asymmetrical converter with active-clamp feature and
the secondary side is a series-resonant tank circuit. The active-clamp
circuit recycles the energy stored in the magnetizing inductance of
transformer to allow main/auxiliary switches turn-ON at zero-voltage
switching and clamps the voltage stress of the main switches. Series-
resonant tank circuit employs the transformer leakage inductance and
secondary resonant capacitance to achieve zero-current switching of the
output diodes.
5) A single-stage fast Regulator with PFC based on an asymmetrical
half-bridge topology
(T. F. Wu, J. C. Hung, S. Y. Tseng, and Y. M. Chen)
This work presents single-stage regulators with power-factor
correction (PFC) based on an asymmetrical half-bridge topology. The
proposed regulator is formed from a boost converter with two coupled
inductors and an asymmetrical half-bridge converter with the synchronous
switch technique, and it is controlled with pulsewidth modulation to
achieve zero-voltage switching (ZVS). The boost converter is operated in
discontinues conduction mode to achieve PFC. With the coupled inductors,
input current ripple and power factor can be improved significantly.

6) High-efficiency asymmetrical half-bridge converter without

electrolytic capacitor for low-output-voltage ac–dc LED drivers
(M. Arias, M. F. Diaz, D. G. Lamar)
Due to their high reliability and luminous efficacy, high-brightness
light-emitting diodes are being widely used in lighting applications, and
therefore, their power supplies are required to have also high reliability and
efficiency. A very common approach for achieving this in ac-dc
applications is using a two-stage topology. The power factor corrector
boost converter operating in the boundary conduction mode is a very
common converter used as first stage. It is normally designed without
electrolytic capacitors, improving reliability but also increasing the low-
frequency ripple of the output voltage. The asymmetrical half-bridge
(AHB) is a perfect option for the second stage as it has very high
efficiency, it operates at constant switching frequency, and its output filter
is small (i.e., it can be also easily implemented without electrolytic
capacitors). Moreover, the AHB is an excellent candidate for self-driven
synchronous rectification (SD-SR) as its transformer does not have dead
times. However, the standard configuration of the SD-SR must be modified
in this case in order to deal with the transformer voltage variations due to
the input voltage ripple and, more important, due to the LED dimming
state. This modification is presented in this project. Another important
issue regarding the AHB is that its closed-loop controller cannot be very
fast and it cannot easily cancel the previously mentioned low-frequency
ripple.

7) Single-stage asymmetrical half bridge regulator with ripple

reduction technique
(R. T. Chen, Y. Y. Chen, and Y. R. Yang)
This project presents a novel single-stage asymmetrical half-bridge
regulator with input current ripple reduction technique. Most of the
researched ripple reduction rectifiers cascade a boost-type converter
integrates with the system. It is found that the asymmetrical half-bridge
resonant converter.

8) Analysis and design of a novel single-stage switching power supply

with half-bridge topology
(S. OuandH.Hsiao)
 A novel single-stage switching power supply with half-bridge
topology is presented in this project. The proposed novel single-stage
switching power supply is formed from integration of one half-bridge ac/dc
power factor corrector (PFC) and one half-bridge dc/dc postregulator. The
proposed switching power supply operations are verified and discussed,
from which the inductor design criteria are resulted. In addition to output
regulation, the proposed single-stage switching power supply has great
power factor correction function with the PFC inductor operating in a
discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). Compared to the conventional
two-stage power supply, this configuration reduces cost and size,
simplifies the design, and increases efficiency with both pulse-width-
modulation (PWM) controller and switch integrations.

9) A method of reducing the peak-to average ratio of LED current for

electrolytic capacitor-less ac/dc drivers
(B.Wang, X. Ruan,M.Xu, andK.Yao)
This project proposes a concept of electrolytic capacitor-less light-
emitting diode (LED) driver, which converts the commercial ac voltage to
a pulsating current with twice the line frequency driving high-brightness
LEDs. As no electrolytic capacitor is used, this driver possesses the unique
advantage of long lifetime to match with that of LEDs. A method of
injecting the third and fifth harmonics into the input current to reduce the
peak-to-average ratio of the output current is also proposed.
10) A nonlinear controller based on a discrete energy function for an
AC/DCboost PFC converter.
(P. Das, M. Pahlevaninezhad, J. Drobnik)
AC/DC converter systems generally have two stages: an input power
factor correction (PFC) boost ac/dc stage that converts input ac voltage to
an intermediate dc voltage while reducing the input current harmonics
injected to the grid, followed by a dc/dc converter that steps up or down the
intermediate dc-bus voltage as required by the output load and provides
high-frequency galvanic isolation. Since a low-frequency ripple (second
harmonic of the input ac line frequency) exists in the output voltage of the
PFC ac/dc boost converter due to the power ripple, the voltage loop in the
conventional control system must have a very low bandwidth in order to
avoid distortions in the input current waveform. This results in the
conventional PFC controller having a slow dynamic response against load
variations with adverse overshoots and undershoots.
 CHAPTER – 3

PROPOSED SYSTEM

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Generally, the ac–dc converter consists of a full-bridge diode

rectifier, a dc-link capacitor and a high frequency dc–dc converter. These
converters absorb energy from the ac line only when the rectified line
voltage is higher than the dc link voltage. Therefore, these kinds of
converters have a highly distorted input current, resulting in a large amount
of harmonics and a low power factor. To solve the harmonic pollution
caused by ac–dc converters, a number of power factor correction (PFC) ac–
dc converters have been proposed and developed. The PFC ac–dc converter
can be implemented by using two power-processing stages. The PFC input
stage is used to obtain high power factor while maintaining a constant dc-
link voltage. Most PFC circuits employ the boost converter. The output
stage, which is a high frequency dc–dc converter, gives a desired output.
Two power-processing stages require each control circuit consisting of gate
drivers and those controllers. In general, the PFC ac–dc converter can be
categorized into two types: two-stage ac–dc converters and single stage ac–
dc converters. Two-stage ac–dc converters consist of two power-processing
stages with their respective control circuits. However, two-stage ac–dc
converters raise power losses and the manufacturing cost, eventually
reducing the system efficiency and the price competitiveness. In efforts to
reduce the component count, the size, and the cost, a number of single-stage
ac–dc converters have been proposed and developed. The main idea is that
a PFC input stage and a high frequency dc–dc converter are simplified by
sharing common switches so that the PFC controller, the PFC switch, and
its gate driver can be eliminated. Most single-stage ac–dc converters in low-
power application employ single-switch dc–dc converters such as fly back
or forward converters. These converters are simple and cost-effective.
However, they have high switching power losses because of the hard-
switching operation of the power switch. Thus, to overcome the drawback,
single stage ac–dc converters based on the asymmetrical pulse width
modulation (APWM) half-bridge converter have been proposed. They have
low switching losses because of the zero-voltage switching (ZVS) operation
of the power switches. However, the conventional single-stage ac–dc
converters have high voltage stresses or a low power factor in comparison
with the two-stage ac–dc converter. Also, the PFC circuit used in the
Single stage ac–dc converter requires the dc-link electrolytic
capacitor and the inductor. The dc-link electrolytic capacitor and the
inductor raise the size and the cost of the converter. To solve these
problems, the dc-link electrolytic capacitor should be removed from the
circuits. The approach of achieving this is through the alleviation of the
pulsating component of the input power by sacrificing the input power
factor. The main idea is to intentionally distort the input current such that
there is little low-frequency power-ripple component being generated at the
input. Consequently, non-electrolytic capacitors such as film capacitors or
ceramic capacitors can be used instead of electrolytic capacitors. This
approach is mostly applied to single-switch PFC ac–dc converters.
Compared to the conventional single-stage ac–dc converters with the dc-
link electrolytic capacitor, the converters using this approach are small and
cost-effective; on the other hand, they have drawbacks such as low power
factor and low efficiency because of the discontinuous current mode (DCM)
operation and the hard-switching operation. Therefore, these converters are
attractive in low-cost and low-power application such as a light-emitting
diode (LED) power supply. In view of this, the objective of this project is to
propose the single power-conversion ac–dc converter with the high power
factor and the high power efficiency. The proposed converter is composed
of a full-bridge diode rectifier and a series-resonant active-clamp dc–dc
converter. The proposed converter provides a simple structure, a low cost,
and low voltage stresses because it has only high frequency dc–dc
converter. To obtain high power factor without a PFC stage, a novel control
algorithm is proposed. The proposed converter provides high power factor
and single power-conversion by using the novel control algorithm instead of
the PFC circuit. Also, the active-clamp circuit clamps the surge voltage of
switches and recycles the energy stored in the leakage inductance of the
transformer. Moreover, it provides ZVS operation of the switches. Also, a
series-resonant circuit of the output-voltage doubler removes the reverse-
recovery problem of the output diodes by zero-current switching (ZCS)
operation. The design guidelines for the proposed converter are discussed
and experimental results are obtained to show the performance of the
proposed converter.
3.2 PROPOSED METHOD

Figure 3.1 Schematic of Proposed System

The single power-conversion ac–dc converter. It consists of a full-
bridge diode rectifier, a high frequency dc–dc converter, and a control
circuit. That is, the single power-conversion ac–dc converter has also one
control circuit because it has no PFC circuit. However, it requires the
control algorithm for both PFC and output control, unlike single-stage ac–
dc converters. Also, it has a large ac second-harmonic ripple component
reflected at the output voltage in comparison with two-stage and single
stage converters because it has no dc-link electrolytic capacitor. However,
the single power-conversion ac–dc converter provides a simple structure, a
low cost, and low voltage stresses because it has no PFC circuit composed
of the inductor, power switching devices and the dc-link electrolytic
capacitor. Therefore, the single power-conversion ac–dc converter is
preferred option when the cost per unit is more important concerns than
reliability.

Figure 3.2 Proposed closed loop circuit Topology

The boost converter (step-up converter), is a topology of power to
regulate voltage DC/DC that can be implemented like intermediate
component of a more complex system, and that is widely used for the active
correction of power factor (PFC). The input to this converter is often an
unregulated rectifier line voltage, which will fluctuate due to changes of the
line voltage magnitude. The main objective of control of this circuit is to
convert the unregulated DC input voltage into a controlled DC output
voltage in front of changes in the load. Additionally, in many applications it
is desired to maintain a sinusoidal input current (PFC). The problem of
regulating the output voltage of these converters has been a subject of great
interest for many years, due to the switching property included in their
structure, DC/DC converters have a non-linear behavior and consequently
their controlling design is accompanied with complexities. In addition, due
to the non-minimum phase nature of the boost converter, much effort has
been directed at the control of this configuration. The proposed circuit
topology is shown in the following figure 3.4.
In this work, a PID current mode control fit by genetic algorithms
(GA) is proposed and its characteristics and application to the regulation of
the power converters and PFC are investigated. The advantage of the
proposed hybrid control is that not only it retains the advantages of the
existing current mode control, but it also affords an additional tuning
parameter which can be used to modify the output response.

3.2.1 DC/DC converter

Electronic switched-mode DC-to-DC converters convert one DC
voltage level to another, by storing the input energy temporarily and then
releasing that energy to the output at a different voltage. The storage may be
in either magnetic field storage components (inductors, transformers) or
electric field storage components (capacitors). This conversion method is
more power efficient (often 75% to 98%) than linear voltage regulation,
which dissipates unwanted power as heat. Fast rise/fall times are required
for efficiency; however, these fast edges combine with layout parasitic
effects to make circuit design challenging. The higher efficiency of a
switched-mode converter increases the running time of battery operated
devices and also reduces the amount of heat sink material needed.
Efficiency has improved since the late 1980s due to the use of power FETs,
which are able to switch more efficiently at higher frequencies than power
bipolar transistors, while incurring lower switching losses and requiring a
less complicated drive circuit. Another important innovation in DC-DC
converters is the replacing of the flywheel diode with the method of
synchronous rectification using a power FET, whose "on resistance" is
much lower and that thereby reduces switching losses. Before the wide
availability of power semiconductors, low-power DC-to-DC synchronous
converters consisted instead of an electro-mechanical vibrator followed by a
voltage step-up transformer and a vacuum tube or semiconductor rectifier or
synchronous rectifier contacts on the vibrator.

Most DC-to-DC converters are designed to move power in only one

direction, from input to output. However, all switching regulator topologies
can be made bi-directional by replacing all diodes with independently
controlled active rectification. A bi-directional converter can move power in
either direction, which is useful in applications requiring regenerative
braking.

Drawbacks of switching converters include their complexity,

electronic noise (EMI / RFI), and, to some extent, their cost, although cost
has come down with advances in chip design.

DC-to-DC converters are now available as integrated circuits/ (ICs)

requiring only minimal additional components. Converters are also
available as complete hybrid circuit modules, ready for use within an
electronic assembly.
3.2.2 Boost Converter

A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter

with an output voltage greater than its input voltage. It is a class of
switched-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two
semiconductors (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy storage
element, a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. Filters made of
capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added to
the output of the converter to reduce output voltage ripple.

Figure 3.3 Basic Schematic of a Boost Converter

Operating principle:

The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an
inductor to resist changes in current by creating and destroying a magnetic
field. In a boost converter, the output voltage is always higher than the input
voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage is shown in Figure 3.8.

(a) When the switch is closed, electrons flow through the inductor in
clockwise direction and the inductor stores some energy by generating a
magnetic field. Polarity of the left side of the inductor is positive.
(b) When the switch is opened, current will be reduced as the impedance is
higher. The magnetic field previously created will be destroyed to maintain
the current towards the load. Thus the polarity will be reversed (means left
side of inductor will be negative now). As a result two sources will be in
series causing a higher voltage to charge the capacitor through the diode D.

If the switch is cycled fast enough, the inductor will not discharge
fully in between charging stages, and the load will always see a voltage
greater than that of the input source alone when the switch is opened. Also
while the switch is opened, the capacitor in parallel with the load is charged
to this combined voltage. When the switch is then closed and the right hand
side is shorted out from the left hand side, the capacitor is therefore able to
provide the voltage and energy to the load. During this time, the blocking
diode prevents the capacitor from discharging through the switch. The
switch must of course be opened again fast enough to prevent the capacitor
from discharging too much.

The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states:

 In the On-state, the switch S (see figure 1) is closed, resulting in an

increase in the inductor current;
 In the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to
inductor current is through the flyback diode D, the capacitor C and
the load R. This results in transferring the energy accumulated during
the On-state into the capacitor.
 The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen in
figure 2. So it is not discontinuous as in the buck converter and the
 requirements on the input filter are relaxed compared to a buck
converter.

Continuous mode:

When a boost converter operates in continuous mode, the current

through the inductor ( ) never falls to zero. Figure 3 shows the typical
waveforms of currents and voltages in a converter operating in this mode.
The output voltage can be calculated as follows, in the case of an ideal
converter (i.e. using components with an ideal behavior) operating in steady
conditions:

During the On-state, the switch S is closed, which makes the input
voltage ( ) appear across the inductor, which causes a change in current (
) flowing through the inductor during a time period (t) by the formula:

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation

period T during which the switch is On. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is
never on) and 1 (S is always on).

During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current

flows through the load. If we consider zero voltage drop in the diode, and a
capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain constant, the evolution of
IL is:

Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is:

As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions,

the amount of energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at
the beginning and at the end of a commutation cycle. In particular, the
energy stored in the inductor is given by:

So, the inductor current has to be the same at the start and end of the
commutation cycle. This means the overall change in the current (the sum
of the changes) is zero:

Substituting and by their expressions yields:

This can be written as:

 The above equation shows that the output voltage is always higher
than the input voltage (as the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that it
increases with D, theoretically to infinity as D approaches 1. This is why
this converter is sometimes referred to as a step-up converter.

Rearranging the equation reveals the duty cycle to be:

Figure 3.4 Wave forms of Continuous mode

Discontinuous mode:

If the ripple amplitude of the current is too high, the inductor may be
completely discharged before the end of a whole commutation cycle. This
commonly occurs under light loads. In this case, the current through the
inductor falls to zero during part of the period (see waveforms in figure 4).
Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage
equation. It can be calculated as follows:
As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum
value (at ) is

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after :

Using the two previous equations, δ is:

The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID). As can
be seen on figure 4, the diode current is equal to the inductor current during
the off-state. Therefore the output current can be written as:

Replacing ILmax and δ by their respective expressions yields:

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as follows:

Compared to the expression of the output voltage gain for continuous

mode, this expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in
discontinuous operation, the output voltage gain not only depends on the
duty cycle (D), but also on the inductor value (L), the input voltage (V i), the
commutation period (T) and the output current (Io).

3.2.2 Grey Wolf optimization

The GWO algorithm imitates the leadership hierarchy and hunting

mechanism of grey wolves in nature proposed by Mirjalili et al. [14]. Grey
wolves are considered to be at the top of food chain and they prefer to live
in a pack. Four types of grey wolves such as alpha (α), beta (β), delta (δ),
and omega (ω) are employed for simulating the leadership hierarchy. In
order to mathematically model the social hierarchy of wolves while
designing GWO, we consider the fittest solution as the alpha (α).
Consequently, the second and third best solutions are named as beta (β) and
delta (δ), respectively. The rest of the candidate solutions are assumed to be
omega (ω). Fig. 3 shows three main steps of GWO algorithm, namely
hunting, chasing and tracking for prey, encircling prey, and attacking prey
which is implemented to design GWO for performing optimization.

In this section the inspiration of the proposed method is first

discussed. Then, the mathematical model is provided.

i) Inspiration

Grey wolf (Canis lupus) belongs to Canidae family. Grey wolves are
considered as apex predators, meaning that they are at the top of the food
chain. Grey wolves mostly prefer to live in a pack. The group size is 5–12
on average. Of particular interest is that they have a very strict social
dominant hierarchy as shown in Figure 3.3.The leaders are a male and a
female, called alphas. The alpha is mostly responsible for making decisions
about hunting, sleeping place, time to wake, and so on. The alpha’s
decisions are dictated to the pack.

Figure 3.3. Hierarchy of grey wolf (dominance decreases from top

down).

However, some kind of democratic behavior has also been observed,

in which an alpha follows the other wolves in the pack. In gatherings, the
entire pack acknowledges the alpha by holding their tails down. The alpha
wolf is also called the dominant wolf since his/her orders should be
followed by the pack [46]. The alpha wolves are only allowed to mate in the
pack. Interestingly, the alpha is not necessarily the strongest member of the
pack but the best in terms of managing the pack. This shows that the
organization and discipline of a pack is much more important than its
strength.

The second level in the hierarchy of grey wolves is beta. The betas
are subordinate wolves that help the alpha in decision-making or other pack
activities. The beta wolf can be either male or female, and he/she is
probably the best candidate to be the alpha in case one of the alpha wolves
passes away or becomes very old. The betawolf should respect the alpha,
but commands the other lower-level wolves as well. It plays the role of an
advisor to the alpha and discipliner for the pack. The beta reinforces the
alpha’s commands throughout the pack and gives feedback to the alpha.

The lowest ranking grey wolf is omega. The omega plays the role of
scapegoat. Omega wolves always have to submit to all the other dominant
wolves. They are the last wolves that are allowed to eat. It may seem the
omega is not an important individual in the pack, but it has been observed
that the whole pack face internal fighting and problems in case of losing the
omega. This is due to the venting of violence and frustration of all wolves
by the omega(s). This assists satisfying the entire pack and maintaining the
dominance structure. In some cases the omega is also the babysitters in the
pack.

If a wolf is not an alpha, beta, or omega, he/she is called subordinate

(or delta in some references). Delta wolves have to submit to alphas and
betas, but they dominate the omega. Scouts, sentinels, elders, hunters, and
caretakers belong to this category. Scouts are responsible for watching the
boundaries of the territory and warning the pack in case of any danger.
Sentinels protect and guarantee the safety of the pack. Elders are the
experienced wolves who used to be alpha or beta. Hunters help the alphas
and betas when hunting prey and providing food for the pack. Finally, the
caretakers are responsible for caring for the weak, ill, and wounded wolves
in the pack.
In addition to the social hierarchy of wolves, group hunting is another
interesting social behavior of grey wolves. According to Muro et al. [47] the
main phases of grey wolf hunting are as follows:

Tracking, chasing, and approaching the prey.

Pursuing, encircling, and harassing the prey until it stops moving.

Attack towards the prey.

These steps are shown in Figure 3.4 In this work this hunting
technique and the social hierarchy of grey wolves are mathematically
modeled in order to design GWO and perform optimization

Figure 3.4 Hunting behavior of grey wolves: (a)–(c) chasing and

tracking prey; (d) encircling prey; and (e) attacking prey.

iii) Mathematical Equations:

In order to mathematically model the social hierarchy of wolves

when designing GWO, we consider the fittest solution as the alpha (a).
Consequently, the second and third best solutions are named beta (b) and
delta (d) respectively. The rest of the candidate solutions are assumed to be
omega (x). In the GWO algorithm the hunting (optimization) is guided by a,
b, and d. The x wolves follow these three wolves.

Grey wolves encircle a prey during the hunt and the encircling
behavior can be modeled by the following equations:

⃗ = |𝐶 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝑋𝑝 (𝑡) − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑋𝑝 (𝑡)|

⃗
𝑋(𝑡 + 1) = 𝑋(𝑡) − 𝐴. 𝐷

Figure 3.5 2D position vectors and their possible next locations

Where t denotes the current iteration, D, A, and C denote coefficient

vectors, Xp is the position vector of the prey, and X indicates the position
vector of grey wolf. The vectors A and C are calculated as follows:

𝐴 = 2𝑎. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 − 𝑎

𝐶 = 2. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2
 Where components of a linearly decreases from 2 to 0 during the course
of iterations and r1, r2 are random vectors in [0, 1]. The hunt is usually
guided by alpha called leaders followed by beta and delta which might also
participate in hunting occasionally.

The pseudo code of the GWO algorithm is presented in Figure 3.6 To

see how GWO is theoretically able to solve optimizationproblems, some
points may be noted:

 The proposed social hierarchy assists GWO to save the best solutions
obtained so far over the course of iteration.
 The proposed encircling mechanism defines a circle-shaped
neighborhood around the solutions which can be extended to higher
dimensions as a hyper-sphere.
 The random parameters A and C assist candidate solutions to have
hyper-spheres with different random radii.
 The proposed hunting method allows candidate solutions to locate the
probable position of the prey.
 Exploration and exploitation are guaranteed by the adaptivevalues of
a and A.
 The adaptive values of parameters a and A allow GWO to smoothly
transition between exploration and exploitation.
 With decreasing A, half of the iterations are devoted to exploration
(|A|P1) and the other half are dedicated to exploitation (|A| < 1).
 The GWO has only two main parameters to be adjusted (a andC).
 Figure 3.6 Pseudo code of the GWO algorithm

There are possibilities to integrate mutation and other evolutionary

operators to mimic the whole life cycle of grey wolves. However, we have
kept the GWO algorithm as simple as possible with the fewest operators to
be adjusted. Such mechanisms are recommended for future work.

3.2.3 Ant Colony Optimization

Ants live together in colonies and they use chemical cues called
pheromones to provide a sophisticated communication system. An isolated
ant moves essentially at random but an ant encountering a previously laid
pheromone will detect it and decide to follow it with high probability and
thereby reinforce it with a further quantity of pheromone. The repetition of
the above mechanism represents the collective behaviour of a real ant
colony which is a form of autocatalytic behaviour where the more the ants
follow a trail, the more attractive that trail becomes. The above behaviour of
real ants has inspired ACO which has proved to be an effective
metaheuristic technique for solving many complex COPs [3, 5, 9, 11, 14].
This technique uses a colony of artificial ants that behaves as cooperative
agents in a mathematical space where they are allowed to search and
reinforce pathways (solutions) in order to find the optimal ones. The
features of artificial ants are: having some memory, not being completely
blind and the process time is discrete [8]. In the proposed work an
initialisation phase takes place during which ants are positioned on different
duty cycles with empty tabu lists and initial pheromone distributed equally
on paths connecting these sessions. Ants update the level of pheromone
while they are constructing their schedules by iteratively adding new
sessions to the current partial schedule. At each time step, ants compute a
set of feasible moves and select the best one according to some probabilistic
rules based on the heuristic information and pheromone level. The higher
value of the pheromone and the heuristic information, the more profitable is
to select this move and resume the search. The selected node is putted in the
tabulist related to the ant to prevent to be chosen again. Heuristic
information represents the nearer sessions around the current session, while
pheromone level “memory” of each path represents the usability of this path
in the past to find good schedules. At the end of each iteration, the tabu list
for each ant will be full and the obtained cheapest schedule is computed and
memorized. For the following iteration, tabu lists will be emptied ready for
use and the pheromone level will be updated. This process is repeated till
the number of iterations (stopping criteria) has been reached. In more
details, the proposed GPS-ACO technique constructs the cheapest
observation schedule for a GPS network using the following two stages:

Schedule Construction Stage

After each move, an ant leave a pheromone trail on the connecting path to
be collected by other ants to compute the transition probabilities. Starting
from the initial session i, an explorer ant m chooses probabilistically session
j to observe next using the following transition rule:

 
   i , j    i , j  
     if j  S m  i 
 (1)
Pm  i, j     


    i , j  
kSm  i    i , j    

0 otherwise

where
(i,j) : the intensity measure of the pheromone deposited by each ant on the
path (i,j). The intensity changes during the run of the program.
 : the intensity control parameter.
(i,j) : the visibility measure of the quality of the path (i,j). This visibility,
which remains constant during the run of the program, is determined by
(i,j)=1/l(ij), where l(ij) is the cost of move from session i to the session j.
 : the visibility control parameter.
Sm(i) : the set of sessions that remain to be observed by ant m positioned at
session i.
Equation 1 shows that the quality of the path (i,j) is proportional to its
shortness and to the highest amount of pheromone deposited on it (i.e., the
selection probability is proportional to path quality).

Pheromone Updating Stage

Ants change the pheromone level on the paths between sessions using the
following updating rule:
 i, j     i , j    i , j  (2)

where
 : the trail evaporation parameter.
(i,j) : the pheromone level.

The amount of deposited pheromone is the mechanism by which ants

communicate to share information about good paths. Stagnation may occur
during the pheromone updating and this can be happened when the
pheromone level is significantly different between paths connecting the
observed schedule. This means that some of these paths have received
higher amount of pheromone more than other and an ant will continuously
select these paths and neglect the others. In this situation, ants keep
constructing the same schedule over and over again and the exploration of
the search stops. Stagnation can be avoided by influencing the probability
for choosing the next path which depends directly on the pheromone level.
To make better use of the pheromone and exploit the search space of a
schedule more effectively, several ideas based on the pheromone control
strategy have been implemented, tested and analysed. Some of these ideas
are: additional pheromone trail limits, smoothing of the pheromone trails,
re-initialization of the pheromone trial and additional reinforcement of the
pheromone, etc. In the following section, different approaches based on
these ideas have been proposed and implemented to effectively diverse the
search space and select the best possible observation schedule for a GPS
network.

Ant Colony System

Ant Colony System (ACS) differs from the other ACO instances due to its
strategy of constructing an observation schedule [10]. This strategy can be
categorized in three step. An ant positioned on session i selects the session j
to observe by applying the following equation:



arg max ksm i  [ i ,k  . i ,k  ] if q  q0
p(i , j )  (3)

I otherwise

where
I : a random variable selected according to the probability given by
Equation 1.
q : a uniformly distributed random number to determine the relative
importance of exploitation versus exploration q[0,..,1].
q0 : a threshold parameter and the smaller q0 the higher the probability to
make a random choice (0 q0 1).
In each step of building a schedule, an ant located at session i samples the
parameter q to move to session j. Using Equation 3, an ant selects the best
path to reach the next session when (q q0) (exploitation). Otherwise, the
ant will probabilistically choose the next session to be observed using
Equation 2 with a bias toward the best possible path (biased exploration).
While ants build their schedules, at the same time they locally update the
pheromone level of the visited paths using the local updating rule as
follows:
 i , j   1     i , j    0 (4)

Where
 : a persistence of the trail and the term (1- ) can be interpreted as trail
evaporation.
0: the initial pheromone level which is assumed to be a small positive
constant distributed equally on all the paths of the network since the start of
the survey.
The aim of the local updating rule is to make better use of the pheromone
information by dynamically changing the desirability of paths. Using this
rule, ants will search in wide neighbourhood of the best previous schedule.
When all ants have completed their schedule, the pheromone level is
updated by applying the global updating rule only on the paths that belong
to the best found schedule since the beginning as follows:
 i , j   1     i , j     i , j  (5)
  C 
 if  i, j   Global  Best  Schedule
1

 i , j    m (6)

0 oherwise

where
: a pheromone decay parameter.
Cm : the cost of the best schedule performed from the beginning by ant m.

This rule is intended to provide a greater amount of pheromone on the paths

of the best schedule, thus intensifying the search around this schedule. In
other words, only the best ant that took the shortest route is allowed to
deposit pheromone.

MAX-MIN Ant System

The strategy of the MAX-MIN Ant System (MMAS) states that if the
amount of the pheromone has a finite upper bound max and a positive lower
bound min, then ACO converges to the optimal solution [21]. The main
features of MMAS algorithm for obtaining an improved performance on the
basic ACO metaheuristic are as follows:
Deep exploitation to the search space of the best found schedule by
allowing a single ant to add pheromone after each iteration. This ant may be
the one which found the best schedule in the current iteration (iteration-best
ant) or the one which found the best schedule from the beginning (global-
best ant).
Wide exploration to the search space of the best found schedule by
initialising the pheromone trails to max. Thus, in the next iteration only the
paths that belong to the best schedule will receive pheromone, while the
pheromone values of the other paths are only evaporated.
As shown from the above, the aim of using only one schedule is to make the
paths of the best found schedule receive large reinforcements

ACO Algorithm with Additional Reinforcement

The function of ACO algorithm with Additional Reinforcement (ACO-AR)

is to force ants to search for a better schedule by divorcing and exploring
the search space while keeping the best found schedule [13]. This can be
carried out by adding extra pheromone on the unused paths during the
previous iterations and this will force ants to diverse the search space and
choose other new directions without repeating any bad experience and
trapping again in local optimality of the schedule search space. The
modified pheromone update rule in ACO-AR is given as follows:
 i , j     i , j   q1  max (7)

where

ξ  1 if unusedpaths are evaporated

 otherwise

q10 : a reinforcement parameter;

max : asymptotically the maximal value of the pheromone.
This condition (q11 - ρ) must be satisfied to fulfil the above criteria of the
ACO-AR technique for updating the pheromone.
3.2.4 Particle swarm optimization

In computer science, particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a

computational method that optimizes a problem by iteratively trying to
improve a candidate solution with regard to a given measure of quality. It
solves a problem by having a population of candidate solutions, here
dubbed particles, and moving these particles around in the search-space
according to simple mathematical formulae over the particle's position and
velocity. Each particle's movement is influenced by its local best known
position, but is also guided toward the best known positions in the search-
space, which are updated as better positions are found by other particles.
This is expected to move the swarm toward the best solutions.

PSO is originally attributed to Kennedy, Eberhart and Shi and was

first intended for simulating social behaviour, as a stylized representation of
the movement of organisms in a bird flock or fish school. The algorithm
was simplified and it was observed to be performing optimization. The
book by Kennedy and Eberhart[4] describes many philosophical aspects of
PSO and swarm intelligence. An extensive survey of PSO applications is
made by Poli. Recently, a comprehensive review on theoretical and
experimental works on PSO has been published by Bonyadi and
Michalewicz.

PSO is a metaheuristic as it makes few or no assumptions about the

problem being optimized and can search very large spaces of candidate
solutions. However, metaheuristics such as PSO do not guarantee an
optimal solution is ever found. Also, PSO does not use the gradient of the
problem being optimized, which means PSO does not require that the
optimization problem be differentiable as is required by classic optimization
methods such as gradient descent and quasi-newton methods.
Algorithm

A basic variant of the PSO algorithm works by having a population

(called a swarm) of candidate solutions (called particles). These particles
are moved around in the search-space according to a few simple
formulae.[8] The movements of the particles are guided by their own best
known position in the search-space as well as the entire swarm's best known
position. When improved positions are being discovered these will then
come to guide the movements of the swarm. The process is repeated and by
doing so it is hoped, but not guaranteed, that a satisfactory solution will
eventually be discovered.

Formally, let f: ℝn → ℝ be the cost function which must be

minimized. The function takes a candidate solution as argument in the form
of a vector of real numbers and produces a real number as output which
indicates the objective function value of the given candidate solution.
The gradient of f is not known. The goal is to find a solution a for
which f(a) ≤ f(b) for all b in the search-space, which would mean a is the
global minimum. Maximization can be performed by considering the
function h = -f instead.
Let S be the number of particles in the swarm, each having a
position xi ∈ℝn in the search-space and a velocity vi ∈ℝn. Let pi be the best
known position of particle i and let g be the best known position of the
entire swarm. A basic PSO algorithm is then:

Figure 3.2 PSO algorithm

The values blo and bup are respectively the lower and upper
boundaries of the search-space. The termination criterion can be number of
iterations performed, or a solution with adequate objective function value is
found. The parameters ω, φp, and φg are selected by the practitioner and
control the behavior and efficacy of the PSO method.

Convergence

In relation to PSO the word convergence typically refers to two different

definitions:
 Convergence of the sequence of solutions (aka, stability
analysis, converging) in which all particles have converged to a point in
the search-space, which may or may not be the optimum,
 Convergence to a local optimum where all personal bests p or,
alternatively, the swarm's best known position g, approaches a local
optimum of the problem, regardless of how the swarm behaves.

Convergence of the sequence of solutions has been investigated for

PSO.These analyses have resulted in guidelines for selecting PSO
parameters that are believed to cause convergence to a point and prevent
divergence of the swarm's particles (particles do not move unboundedly and
will converge to somewhere). However, the analyses were criticized by
Pedersenfor being oversimplified as they assume the swarm has only one
particle, that it does not use stochastic variables and that the points of
attraction, that is, the particle's best known position p and the swarm's best
known position g, remain constant throughout the optimization process.
However, it was shownthat these simplifications do not affect the
boundaries found by these studies for parameter where the swarm is
convergent.

It has been proven that PSO need some modification to guarantee to

find a local optimum.This means that determining convergence capabilities
of different PSO algorithms and parameters therefore still depends
on empirical results. One attempt at addressing this issue is the development
of an "orthogonal learning" strategy for an improved use of the information
already existing in the relationship between p and g, so as to form a leading
converging exemplar and to be effective with any PSO topology. The aims
are to improve the performance of PSO overall, including faster global
convergence, higher solution quality, and stronger robustness.[38] However,
such studies do not provide theoretical evidence to actually prove their
claims.
 CHAPTER – IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 SIMULATION PLATFORM

Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and

analyzing dynamical systems. It supports linear and nonlinear systems,
modeled in continuous time, sampled time, or a hybrid of the two. Systems
can also be multi rate, i.e., have different parts that are sampled or updated
at different rates. For modeling, Simulink provides a graphical user
interface (GUI) for building models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag
mouse operations. With this interface, you can draw the models just as you
would with pencil and paper (or as most textbooks depict them). This is a
far cry from previous simulation packages that require you to formulate
differential equations and difference equations in a language or program.
Simulink includes a comprehensive block library of sinks, sources, linear
and nonlinear components, and connectors. You can also customize and
create your own blocks. Models are hierarchical, the models are built using
both top-down and bottomup approaches the system can viewed at a high
level, then double-click on blocks to go 5 down through the levels to see
increasing levels of model detail. This approach provides insight into how a
model is organized and how its parts interact.
After a model is defined, it can simulate, using a choice of integration
methods, either from the Simulink menus or by entering commands in
MATLAB's command window. The menus are particularly convenient for
interactive work, while the command-line approach is very useful for
running a batch of simulations. Using scopes and other display blocks, the
simulation results can see while the simulation is running. In addition, the
parameters can be changed and immediately see what happens, for "what if"
exploration. The simulation results can be put in the MATLAB workspace
for post processing and visualization.

Figure 4.1 Library Browser for Simulink

Model analysis tools include linearization and trimming tools, which
can be accessed from the MATLAB command line, plus the many tools in
MATLAB and its application toolboxes. And because MATLAB and
Simulink are integrated, you can simulate, analyze, and revise your models
in either environment at any point.

Figure 4.2 Window for model using functional block

4.1.1 Blockset power system

The Power System Block Set or SimPower System (after renamed)
had just introduced to the modeling environment of Simulink by
Mathworks. The Power System Block Set provides tools for modeling and
simulating electrical power systems within Simulink using the standard
notations for electrical circuits. Its block library contains blocks that
represent standard components found in electrical power networks. It is
easily to incorporate electrical systems and controllers into complex system
models.
4.1.2 Sophiscated blocks manage diagram
a) Interpretation
The blocks in the Power System Block Set provide methods that
interpret diagram connectivity in a topological manner. This capability
allows us to model electrical systems without worrying about the
directionality of signals and currents. You can create electrical Simulink
diagrams on the computer just as you would on paper [3]. The Power
System Block Set allows scientists and engineers to build models that
simulate power systems. The blockset uses the Simulink environment,
allowing a model to be built using click and drag procedures. Not only can
the circuit topology be drawn rapidly, but the analysis of the circuit can
include its interactions with mechanical, thermal, control, and other
disciplines. This is possible because all the electrical parts of the simulation
interact with Simulink’s extensive modeling library. Because Simulink uses
MATLAB as the computational engine, MATLAB’s toolboxes can also be
used by the designer [4].
The blockset libraries contain models of typical power equipment
such as transformers, lines, machines, and power electronics. These models
are proven ones coming from textbooks, and their validity is based on the
experience of the Power Systems Testing and Simulation Laboratory of
Hydro-Quebec, a large North American utility located in Canada. The
capabilities of the blockset for modeling a typical electrical grid are
illustrated in demonstration files [4].
b) Simulate it
The Power System Blockset is completely integrated with Simulink at the
block level. Combining Power System and other Simulink blocks creates a
unique environment for multi-domain modeling and controller design. This
environment allows the combination of electrical, power-electronic,
mechanical, hydraulic, and other systems models [3].
For time-domain simulation, the Power System Block set takes
advantage ofSimulink’s powerful variable-step integrators and zero-
crossing detection capabilities to produce highly accurate simulations of
power system models. In addition, you haveaccess to all of the block
building and masking features, allowing you to build morecomplex
components from electrical primitives [3].
c) Area of the power system block set
Power system networks
• RLC branches and loads
• Pi section lines
• Linear and saturable transformers/td
• Surge arresters
• Breakers
• Mutual inductances
• Distributed parameter lines
• AC voltage and current source
• DC voltage sources
Electric machinery
• Complete and simplified models of synchronous machines
• Asynchronous machines
• Permanent magnet synchronous machines
• Excitation systems
• Hydraulic turbines
• Governors

Figure 4.3 Library Browser for SimPower system

Power electronics
• Diodes
• Simplified and complex thyristors
• GTOs
• Switches
• MOSFETs
• IGBT
Control and measurement blocks
• Voltage and current measurements
• RMS measurements
• Active power calculations
• Timers
• Synchronized 6-pulse generators

4.2 SIMULATON MODELS

The figure 4.4 depicts the overall that is designed in MATLAB

Simulink platform.

Figure 4.4 overall simulink model

The specifications are provided as per the following Table 4.1 parameters.
 Table 4.1 Specification of PV model
Vin 220 Vrms
Vout 300V
Switching Frequency 5kHz
L 600𝜇𝐻
Capacitance 2000𝜇𝐹
Rload 50Ω

The following figure represents the control blocks for the proposed
algorithm

Figure 4.5 Control algorithm blocks

The power factor measurement blocks are shown in below figure

 Figure 4.6 Power factor measurement block

4.3 SIMULATON RESULTS

The results obtained from both the GA based PID, conventional PID
models and GW optimizations are shown in the following figures.

Figure 4.7 Input voltage response

Figure 4.8 Output DC response in proposed GA+PID model

Figure 4.9 Output DC response in PID+PID model

 Figure 4.10 Output DC response in GWO based control

Figure 4.12 Output current response in proposed GA+PID model

 Figure 4.13 output current response in PID+PID model

Table 4.3 Comparison between existing and proposed system at line

side
GAPID+PID (Existing) Grey wolf optimization
(Proposed)
DF 0.99 0.99

Distortion factor 0.9995 0.9998

PF 0.9895 unity
 Table 4.3 Comparison between existing and proposed system at load
side
GAPID+PID (Existing) Grey wolf optimization
(Proposed )
Delay time 0.55 0.1

Rise time 10.6542 5.35

Settling time 18.08 11.40

The graphical chart that comparing the proposed work on both load
and source side is shown in the following two figures respectively.

Load side perfromance

20

15
values

10

0
Delay time Rise time Settling time
parameters

GAPID+PID (Existing) Grey wolf optimization (Proposed )

Figure 4.14 load side comparison

 Source side perfromance
1.002
1
0.998
0.996
values
0.994
0.992
0.99
0.988
0.986
0.984
DF Distortion factor PF
Parameters

GAPID+PID (Existing) Grey wolf optimization (Proposed)

Figure 4.15source side comparison

4.4 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT OPTIMIZATION

ALGORITHMS

The proposed work is implemented with three different evolutionary

algorithms such as Particle swarm optimization, Ant colony optimization
and Grey wolf optimization. These algorithms are the global optimizers
where these are following the food searching behavior of birds, Ants and
grey wolves respectively. The main requirement to conduct these
evolutionary algorithms is nothing but the swarm operation.

The AC-DC conversion is very easier whenever the system is

controlled by means of an optimization algorithm alone. This is possible by
replacing the controller based closed loop control by the optimization
algorithm based control loop.
 The main aim of the approach is to reduce the line side drop in terms
of PF improvement. This can be assured in this optimization based work
where the three algorithms provided source side PF as nearly unity through
the testing periods. In order to prove it, the source current is shown with the
minimum THD which is less than 1%. The following figure is shown the
THD at source side (0.18%)

Figure 4.16 Source side current THD

 The overall system efficiency is the notable performance in this
optimization based work. The following figure is showing the efficiency of
the proposed work for the three different optimizers.

Figure 4.17 Efficiency comparison for the different optimizers

The GWO is producing the maximum efficiency as 99% and the PSO
is producing the second maximum efficiency as 96.2%. The ACO based
system is producing the least efficiency in this work which is 76.8%.
 Table 4.3 Comparison of different optimizers

GWO ACO PSO

Total running 452.038819 429.715094 438.01294

time seconds. seconds. seconds.

DC ripples High Low Low

THD at line 0.18% 0.19% 0.19%

current

Efficiency (max) 99% 76.8% 96.2%

Rise time 5.35 5.35 5.35

Setting time 11.40 11.40 11.40

PF at source side Unity Unity Unity

The above table is elaborating the various aspects of comparison

among the three optimizers.
 CHAPTER – V
CONCLUSION
5.1 CONCLUSION
This project work has proposed GWO based single power-processing
ac–dc converter with a high power factor and high power efficiency. Also,
analysis, design, and simulation results for the proposed converter have
been presented. The proposed converter combines the full-bridge diode
rectifier and the dc–dc boost converter. Also, the proposed converter
provides a simple structure, a low cost, and low voltage stresses by the
single power-conversion without a PFC circuit. Therefore, the proposed
converter is suitable for low-power applications. The proposed converter
has high power factor of UPF by using the based control algorithm for both
PFC and power control. The proposed control algorithm can be used to the
boost type PFC dc–dc converters since it is based on the control algorithm
of the PFC boost converter in the continuous conduction mode.
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