Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
net/publication/273217504
CITATIONS READS
54 246
1 author:
Robert Dunn
United States Department of Agriculture
73 PUBLICATIONS 3,505 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Robert Dunn on 09 September 2015.
ABSTRACT. Air quality standards set forth by the Clean Air Act and its amendments have established guidelines for reduction
of harmful ground level emissions from the aviation sector. Biodiesel, defined as the mono–alkyl esters of fatty acids derived
from vegetable oil or animal fat, in application as an extender for combustion in compression ignition (diesel) engines, has
demonstrated a number of promising characteristics including reduction of exhaust emissions. This work examines the fuel
properties of BioJet fuel blends consisting of 0.10–0.30 vol. frac. methyl soyate (SME) in JP–8 and in JP–8+100 jet fuels.
Testing of cold flow properties indicated that blends with as little as 0.10 vol. frac. SME may limit operation of aircraft to
lower altitudes where ambient temperature remains warmer than –295 C. Treatment of SME with cold flow improver additives
may decrease this limit to –375 C. Blends with winterized SME gave the best results, reducing the limit to as low as –475 C,
a value that meets the standard fuel specification for JP–8. Water reactivity studies indicated that SME/JP–8 blends absorbed
very little water from buffered solution following contact with the oil phase. Although interface ratings for blends with up
to 0.50 vol. frac. SME were “1b” (clear bubbles covering not more than 50% of the interface) or better, separation ratings
no better than “(3)” (formation of cloudy suspensions in the oil layer) were observed. Even though fatty derivatives such as
biodiesel undergo oxidative degradation more readily than jet fuels, careful production, transport, and storage of BioJet fuels
should not present a significant problem.
Keywords. Biodiesel, Cloud point, Cold filter plugging point, Flash point, Jet fuels, Kinematic viscosity, Methyl soyate, Oil
stability index, Water reactivity.
T
he effects of ground level emissions from power takeoffs and reducing the use of reverse–thrust upon
commercial, military and general aviation on local landing will generally require longer landing strips (FAA,
air quality have earned considerable national and 1995).
international attention in recent years. Although Another approach that has gained recent attention is
improvements in technology and stricter regulatory development of cleaner, “greener” alternative fuels by
requirements are predicted to stabilize or decrease harmful blending jet fuel (JP–5 or JP–8) with biodiesel (hereafter
emissions from most transportation sources by 2010, ground referred to as BioJet fuels). Biodiesel, defined as fatty acid
level emissions from commercial and military aircraft are mono–alkyl esters derived from vegetable oil, used frying
expected to continue rising. For example, the aircraft oil, or animal fat, has a number of potential advantages in
component of mobile source nitrogen oxides emissions are applications such as jet fuel extenders. Biodiesel is produced
expected to increase from 0.6–3.6% in 1990 to 1.9–10.5% by domestically and is renewable, nonflammable, and relatively
2010 based on forecasted growth in ten major urban areas of safe to store and handle. Biodiesel has kinematic viscosity (ν)
the U.S. (U.S. EPA, 1999). and gross heat of combustion characteristics comparable to
As early as 1995, the Federal Aviation Administration those of No. 2 diesel fuel (D2). Biodiesel enhances lubricity
(FAA) recognized the need to develop strategies for reducing and cetane number of conventional diesel fuels (Goering et
ground level emissions from commercial aircraft. One option al., 1982; Schwab et al., 1987). Biodiesel reduces harmful
is to increase scheduling of low–emissions aircraft to operate exhaust emissions such as particulate matter, volatile organic
in areas with air quality problems. Aircraft would be ranked compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, carbon
according to their minimum emissions per unit payload or per monoxide, and smoke (Clark et al., 1984; Masjuki et al.,
unit thrust, each measured with respect to one landing/takeoff 1993; Scholl and Sorenson, 1993; Krahl et al., 1996).
cycle. Another approach is to minimize the number of Biodiesel has a negative carbon dioxide balance and a
engines in operation during taxi–in and taxi–out positive energy balance in excess of 2:1 (Krahl et al., 1996).
(single–engine taxis). Other strategies such as derated– Application of biodiesel as a jet fuel extender also raises
several concerns. First, biodiesel increases cloud point (CP)
in blends with No. 1 diesel fuel (D1) and D2 (Dunn and
Bagby, 1995); therefore, BioJet fuel blends will be more
Article was submitted for review in June 2001; approved for susceptible to operational problems such as clogged fuel
publication by the Food & Process Engineering Institute of ASAE in lines than neat jet fuels. Another concern is its reaction to
October 2001. contact with water. Pumping of fuels through pipelines over
Mention of company or trade names is for description only and does not
imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. long distances may lead to contact with moisture in the pipes.
The author is Robert O. Dunn, Chemical Engineer, USDA Agricultural In addition, in military applications water pumped into empty
Research Service, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, storage tanks to maintain ballast on aircraft carriers may
1815 N. University St., Peoria, IL 61604; phone: 309–681–6101; fax: leave behind aqueous residues when it is removed. A third
309–681–6340; e–mail: dunnro@ncaur.usda.gov.
concern is reduction in nitrogen oxides emissions because
Figure 3. CP (5C) of BioJet fuel blends prepared with 0.10 vol. frac. addi-
tive–treated SME. Additive loading = 1000 ppm (before blending). Source
for SME: Interchem. See figure 1 for abbreviations.