Course 1 – Urban Structures

Definitions from last year’s course (Urban Doctrines):

System = an agglomeration of parts or interests, forming a complex whole, that are
characterized by co-variation (correlated variation between the relations within a system)
Systems could have 2 types of relations:
• interior (strong) relations –- these give cohesion to the system
• exterior (soft/weak) relations –- these are the connection between systems / they put
the system in context
Structure = all the relations within a system

Structuralism: a philosophical current that is born at the beginning of the last century and is of
great importance in the middle of the last century.
Structuralism is entering into the depths of things, having a very clear method of approach, but
this approach is static (at a certain moment in time) and does not take into consideration the
fact that it evolves over time.
So, the structuralist analysis is not able to say what happened to a structure in the past or what
might happen to it in the future.
In philosophy, criticism to the lack of dynamism of structuralism was done by phenomenology.
Phenomenology is a philosophical current that does not occur at the mid XX-th century, at the
time that structuralism was strong, being an earlier philosophical current (from the beginning of
the XX-th century). It has rebirth in the second half of the last century, favoring criticism against
structuralism, and so it generates a method of approaching called structural-phenomenological.
This is the way we approach urbanism today. This means that to the structural static analysis
methods, we add dynamics.

A simple example is the Analysis of the existent situation in urbanism.

An Analysis of the existent situation means knowing the place, knowing what was before on
site (by research), how the land destination of the place in question has progressed, knowing
the characteristics of the place, and also forecasting what the place can become.

Proximity is a state of existence of things, beings and people. Our existence is an existence in
the proximity of someone else or in the proximity of something, and that, from a systemic point
of view, means a relation, a relation that exists or establishes itself at any time and in any place.
This could be a relation of well-being or, on the contrary, a relation of inconvenience.
In such a situation, we must take into consideration that, at all times, each of us is included in a
system and in a state of conditionality generated by a network of relations, so of a structure.
This is true for anything else in our environment. Hence a conclusion: in fact, in space, we are
talking about a structure of space that is generated primarily by the neighborhoods existing
within that space.
We must keep in mind that everything that architecture and urbanism means as a way of
organizing space, means solving some proximity problems.

This course refers to the structure of the organized space and has the following parts:

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 1. About the Urban Structure - a chapter of theory, although we will refer sometimes to
real, practical situations
2. Urban layout scheme (Urban Parti1) - the practical application of the theory in the study
of urbanism
3. Urban Restructuring - this chapter will remain for individual study, based on the
bibliography. The references to urban restructuring will be just a few.

First subject - the city as a system – we are referring here to the city as a system of activities

7 explanatory schemes witch define the city

It is not about a certain type of city, but about a generic settlement in a territory.
Such explanatory models appear with the structuralist way of understanding things. All these
models bring their contribution to a modern, contemporary understanding of the city.

First model (Snell & Shuldmer - economists who were interested in the city's problems) -
appeared in 1954-1955.
It is the first time that an explanatory model is produced that shows the influence of
structuralism by the fact that the city is understood as a system.
In this case the system is defined by the existence of 4 components: objects, activities, texture
and infrastructure.
The second grouping of elements is underlined in the scheme, under the name of activities. This
is the first time that the term of activity is used to explain the city's activities (like residence,
work, trade, education, services).

The second model is the Regulsky model. Regulsky was also an economist, dedicated to the
problems of urban settlements. He points out that the city is made of two levels:
 the physical environment (or a physical area) and
 an informational environment (or an area of information).

For each of these levels, Regulsky highlights some components:

 The physical environment (physical area) includes: human as a biological individual, the
physical structures and the supply flows. These very terms are new; they appear for the
first time in this explanatory model.
 The informational environment (area of information) includes: man, as a psycho-social
person, the information structures and the information flows.

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the central concept or drawing of an architectural or urban design

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Regulsky highlights a level of the city's physical existence and a level of informational existence
(or an abstract existence).

The third model – Granai; a model developed by a sociologist (at the end of the 1950’s) who is
considering the city as an ensemble of social products that inter-relate with a localized society,
both inter-related with a global or globalized society.
He considers the city as an ensemble of social products, (a society that produces some goods
not in individual sense, but in a social sense (together) and a localized society (a community
linked to a certain place). Those two parts generate the global society.
The term "localized society" is to be kept in mind.

Fourth Model is Beer model – a model dating from 1964. Beer was also an economist
dedicated to the problems of organized space, so he comments on city problems in 3 published
works. He stated that:
 Several subsystems related to each other make the system that is the city
 The city is a subsystem in a territorial system
 Urban system is made up on two levels:
 a superior organizatory level
 an inferior organizatory level
What is shown in the diagram is derived from three of his works.
In his first work he presents a scheme of a territorial model in which the idea of the system and
the idea of subsystems appears very clearly, meaning that several subsystems related to each
other make the system that is the city. Those subsystems are: the society subsystem, the
population subsystem, the economy subsystem, the administration subsystem, the political
subsystem and another system, named in the diagram, etc. We may consider that this system is
the architectural-urbanistic subsystem.

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In another work, Beer explains more deeply the urban system consisting of two large
subsystems. Beer explains that the city is a system consisting of subsystems and that the other
one is a subsystem in a system that we can call the territorial system.
This subsystem (the city) is an open system, meaning that it has external interactions; it can
exchange information, energy and so on.
In another, later work, we have the explanation of the bottom diagram, highlighting that this
subsystem or urban system is made up on two levels:
 a superior organizatory level (level that includes economic activities and interests)
 an inferior organizatory level (level that includes spatial elements and relations)
The difference between the two levels is not their importance, but in the priorities in terms of
time: what we consider first when we discuss the nature or the definition of a city? Beer brings
into discussion the importance of the activities or, as we could say today, the system of
activities, being essential for defining the city.

The fifth model: Cardarelli. The fifth model is a system that highlights an evolution of
knowledge. Cardarelli was considered (in 1970-75) the number one theorist in the field of
architecture and urbanism in Europe.
He proposes as explanation for the city that is defined on 2 levels:
 a territorial subsystem and
 a functional structure.
The meanings these two terms have for us are actually the physical and the abstract. The
territorial system is a system that regards everything that is physical, while the functional
structure involves an abstract understanding.

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In addition, he explains that the territorial system is expressed through a morphological model,
while the functional structure is expressed through an organizatory model. It is important to
understand and keep in mind this link between functional and organizatory. This understanding
is essential for understanding the urban structure.
The morphological model is imposing the shape of the city in the territory, while the
organizatory model is imposing the organization of the urban space.
There are some terms that were used until then in architectural-urban theory, such as the
limitation of the urban space and joined functions.
With red rectangle are marked the new elements introduced by Cardarelli that actually
generates some specific concepts.

The sixth model is used as a general-informative example. This one dates back to the 1970’s.
There is no interpretation for this model here, but a scheme is reproduced exactly as it was
presented in the author's material. It is a tree scheme, a schematic representation that is
always used for classifications.
It highlights all the subsystems within the city (the system is made up of two types of activities:
between places and within places).
We can notice that the term of activity is again mentioned in an explanatory model of the
urban organism. At the next level we find activities as functions, economic activities and public
services. We must consider, in such a scheme, that classified items must be of the same
semantic category.

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The seventh model is a modern model from the 1980’s, a model appearing in a work you have
in the bibliography of two Romanian authors, the mathematician Mihai Botez and the architect
Mariana Celac.
This model highlights that the city is a super-system, made up of a multitude of subsystems,
each of them made up of sub-subsystems and so on. This is the first time that we have to deal
with an explanatory model for the city, a model in which the essential idea of systemic
approach is put into practice and highlighted.
In this explanatory model, the term socio-spatial system also appears as an inclusion of the
multitude of systems for the city, the socio-spatial model being characteristic to the city. This is
because the city combines spatial character (space, as physical expression) and social character
(people as collectivity).
A conclusion of this model is that the dimension (size) of a socio-spatial system is more related
to the complexity of its structure and not the physical measure of the system.

For example, let’s take a city with a number of inhabitants, made only from ground floor
buildings, spread over a certain area of land and another city with the same number of
inhabitants, but consisting of multi-level buildings that are built on a much smaller land.
Problems will always be higher in the city with the multi-level buildings because agglomeration
occurs. The size of this system results from the density of the relations within that structure.

Regarding the models presented, here are some conclusions that we will use later:
1. The city is a socially localized product
2. The city is created as a system from a sum of parallel and overlapped systems; between them
we can consider the existence of an architectural-urbanistic system
3. The city emerges as an open system (It influences and is influenced by other systems by
exchanging matter and energy)
4. The city is a system based on a system of activities
5. The city consists of two levels: one organizational and a formal one

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Course 2 – Urban Structures

The city is a system based on a system of activities (Beer and Celac)

We could say that at the basis of its existence, the city has the activity.
This idea is the result of researches that are being done in the 1950’s but entered into
urbanistic theory much later. An accurate understanding of the system of activities occurs only
after 1980.
This idea is commented for the first time by two researchers, economists, Clawson and Stewart.
(Marion Clawson, Charles L. Stewart - 1965)
They ask themselves: what is the link between territory and activity? And they answer this
question by commenting on the idea of occupy and use:
 occupy (meaning how the land is occupied: with buildings, farms, industry etc.) and
 use (meaning production, efficiency, a quantitative definition by indicators) We
understand use, also as a relation between activity and space. We can speak now about
the extent a piece of the land is used.
For example: Suppose there is a land (S.), someone's property. It has a defined area and is
located on a traffic artery. On this land, the owner has a building in which he carries out a
productive activity, a workshop where he produces rubber products. We have a relation here,
between an activity, nominally defined (by its nature) and the surface of the land. We could say:
Activity A. occupies territory S.

We can discuss about how the land is occupied under these conditions; occupy in the sense of
destination (designated use), and possible ownership. In this situation we do not have to do
with an effective quantitative definition.
The landowner is concerned about making the most of the land and thus of the activity that
takes place in the building. That means he is interested in making his business more profitable.
In this case, we understand that activity can also be expressed in quantitative terms. So we talk
about land use, meaning that, in addition to the destination of the land, we are dealing with
efficiency and productivity.
That means we can produce more, we can earn more on the same surface. Therefore, having
the same destination, a piece of land may be better put to use or less well used.
When we refer to buildings built on a piece of land we are using some indicators in reference to
the area’s regulations. Those indicators express either how the land is occupied or how the land
is used.
Let’s assume that the rubber workshop produces toxic emissions during production. This means
that what happens on that land influences what happens on the nearby terrains. Here’s why the
idea of proximity is important; because, besides the idea of occupying a space and using it, we
have an affected territory.

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So, at the same time, an activity can occupy 100% of a territory, use only a part of that territory,
and can affect a larger area than the territory itself.

Many times the affected territory is not taken into the consideration and this can cause serious
problems.
This was a simple example and relates to a problem of direct pollution, but if we talk about a
company that depends on a large amount of raw material, then the access road itself becomes
a source of pollution, which is outside the given land. The cost of maintaining that road should
be partially paid by those who use the road more intense.

Here are some more examples of situations that could occur in a territory:
Let’s take for example a cable car for coal transportation (or other raw material).
This means that the activity taking place in that territory occupies a strip of land. This strip of
land is a piece of land on which the cable support pillars are located.

In theory, we could say that the occupied land is where the pillars are placed. But in reality, that
activity occupies the entire strip, because under these cables, between the pillars, the usual
activities cannot be carried out without difficulty or in security, because the materials
transported by cable can fall.
The whole strip of land represents the occupied territory. This means that the owner carrying
out that activity must purchase the land on the entire strip or have to rent it.
This is a relation between an activity and the land on which it takes place, in the sense of
occupied territory and used territory.

The carrying capacity of the land. Or, by extrapolating we can discuss about the carrying
capacity of a territory. This discussion can be carried out on two levels:
 What is the carrying capacity of a land? and
 How big could it be?

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In analyzing an existing situation, we are talking about an effective carrying capacity, and in
analyzing a possible situation by applying a strategy, we have to deal with the presumptive
carrying capacity.

The carrying capacity means taking into consideration the load capacity of the land. Load
capacity is defined:
 by the natural environment (bio-topo-geographic)
 by human existence
 by built environment.
Load capacity is defined by the natural environment (bio-topo-geographic). It is possible to
have a piece of land or territory that is not built – a natural territory. We can take into
consideration its carrying capacity and then the loading of the land is exclusively the natural
environment.
Secondly, we are talking about the carrying capacity by human existence. In fact the human
occupies the territory by an activity. That is, the fact that human, in that territory, through its
activities, generates a certain characteristic for the carrying capacity of the land. (Activity can
be measured by – employee, profit – could be compared with an average value or in a country).
That is by occupying the territory. Occupying is of interest to us, it is highlighted by activity and
legally with the title of property.
So, we are actually talking about occupying territory through activity (which is done through
human activity) and a different occupancy, trough the title of property.

On the right are represented types of activities:

 primary sector (fishing, agriculture, mining),

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  secondary sector (industry, construction, energy),
 tertiary sector (trade, services, transport, communications, tourism, health, education,
administration) and
 quaternary sector (development, innovation).

Let’s consider two examples:

First an individual working in agriculture (cultivating the land with corn or wheat); this means an
activity that is occupying the land and secondly, another individual who works at an office, on a
computer at a research laboratory.
In both cases, we are talking about activities that are occupying the land, but the occupying
ratio is very different.
The activity, whatever its nature, requires the organization of space. Occupying a territory is
imposing an adaptation of that space, thru built environment.
This means that we have a third way of loading of land: the built environment.
In the built environment we have the land use and the affected land or territory.
Land use and affected territory are consequences of the built territory.

Occupying has four meanings (from simple to complex) and is expressed (as location in the
territory) through:
 setting (meaning a general description of the place)
 location (in addition to the setting, we add data regarding environment or general
description with nominal data)
 positioning (meaning entering geo-topographic data)
 placement (entering precise data and contextual information)
We are talking about a location/site when we have as much data as possible about the context
in which the building or land is located.

Fundamental urban categories

Any field of science has at some level the fundamental categories, these being some notions
that are characteristic of approaching and commenting on the respective field.
These are used by specialists in that field of science. Considering our concerns in organizing
space, we are dealing with these notions:
 Urban Activity and
 Urban Space
The activity is the starting element of our reasoning. Activity occupies space.
We can add to those 2 notions (activity and space) the notion of human motive and thus, we
can speak about three fundamental notions for understanding the organization of space.
The human motive consists of intention and desire to do something and generate activity (or an
activity).

Human Human activity Humanized space

Urban activities Urban spaces

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We have this relation between three elements: from human to human activity and to
humanized space. The human motive generates human activity, which is produced in a space,
space that becomes humanized space.
The relation between human, human activity and humanized space has some easy to
understand consequences. Let’s take dwelling, for example. Dwelling is actually a set of
activities that result from the desire to have a safe, comfortable place in space, which actually
means some activities and which means a humanization of that space. Today, we are speaking
of dwelling without restricting this meaning to a house.
When dealing with urban activity, it means that this urban activity will define a humanized
urban space, so an urban space.

A researcher (Waddington) at the Doxiadis Center for Urbanism and Territorial Development in
Athens has developed a theory of human motives.
He states that there are 3 types of human motives:
• Symmetrical human motives
• Human motives that are developing segmentally in succession or alternative
• Opposite (or contradictory) motives

 The symmetrical human motives (are developing from a point of origin, in parallel).
Those motives lead to compatible activities that cooperate in occupying a space - for
example the activities of residence (the idea of residence (residential area) in occupied
territory: meaning residence + compatible activities like small services, retail, etc.).
 Human motives that are developing segmentally in succession, motives that bind to
each other (a motive generates another motive in its evolution). This type of motive is
characteristic of the educational activities. To educate myself at a certain level, I must
have already educated myself at a lower level.
 Opposite (or contradictory) motives - can generate contradictory activities or take place
in the same activity. They are characteristic for recreational activities (generate
diversity). Recreation (leisure) is intentional activity in contradiction with the activity
that generated the fatigue of that individual. Recreation was initially considered only as
rest or sleep or just lying in bed, today recreation is more diverse, like running, cycling.

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Weddington states that those motives intertwine with each other in the existence of a human
being.
As a representation of those motives, we can imagine a cube in a graphical representation, and
inside a point that can represent an individual or a family, even a population. An analysis made
at a given moment on that particular individual’s motives could be recorded as a presumed
evolution in space by a graphic representation. These motives can be represented, according to
Waddington's theory, as trajectories in this space, and he said that there are grouping of the
respective motives that are appearing in some directions.
We can find in a community that these groups of motives that generate intentions can be
analyzed by observing some with constructive (positive) character and others with a destructive
character (negative for the existence of the respective community).

This theory highlights the crisis of the system. Crisis situations occur when these negative
groups of motives are stronger or more dangerous in the community than the positive ones.
And so, in a territory, there are urban forces, or intentional forces (generated by human
motives), and the contextual-spatial forces, (belonging to the space).

Regarding the schematic representation we take into consideration the human motives (as
forces) generates activities thru intention, therefore motivational.
The human motive takes place or it is possible in a certain context, therefore we have to take
into consideration geo-topographic forces (the land with its declivity, hydrography, the level of
the land are forces that become urban forces). For example Bucharest has 20m differences in
land elevation but in Iasi, Brasov and other cities with higher topography elevation this urban
forces (geo-topographical) are very strong.

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On the other hand we have forces that takes into consideration the economic, social, cultural
situation (or contextual forces).
Those urban forces, as an ensemble, constitute for an architect or urban planner the most
important elements that he/she must consider when is starting a project. Those forces can
support an idea or contradict it. Therefore, a professional architect or urban planner has to
understand those urban forces and to try to use those forces to support his idea.

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Course 3 – Urban Structures

We can expand the definition of urban space (starting from activities and human motive), by
introducing other elements in front of the human motive. Those elements are: self-interest and
human need

The human need is decisive for any human action.

You can see above the Maslow’s1 hierarchy of needs.

We have to take into consideration that every need generate an action.
Human need generate an interest, but nothing of our existence is accomplished without an
interest as a starting point.
This is why in urbanism we speak about mediating conflicts and interests within the territory.
Urbanists and architects, as professionals, should always keep in mind the interest (self-interest
or group - collective interest) in any initiative in organizing the space.

In reality we have to deal with a system of activities and a system of spaces, witch, as a whole,
constitute a spatial organization. The concept of a system of activities was brought into
attention by Clawson and Stewart2 in the middle of the last century.
In analyzing a system (in this case the system of activities), we have to always start from
classifying the components of the system in order to show the characteristics of the

1
Abraham Maslow - psychologist (1943 – A theory of human motivation – This means that in order for motivation
to occur at the next level, each level must be satisfied within the individual themselves)
2
researchers, economists, Marion Clawson, Charles L. Stewart - 1965
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components and the relations between components. Therefore, the system of activities could
have some possible classifications:
There could be:
• activities in place (activities linked to a certain place) or
• activities between places (activities defined in terms of mobility).
Or:
• single activities and
• relational activities (correlated, meaning this type of activities need another activity’s
support).
Or:
• essential activities and
• complementary activities.
Or: activities in primary sector of economy, secondary sector or tertiary.
We can make different classifications in different places. The classification of activities in a
given territory should be done in relation to that specific site (territory). It does not necessarily
have to be similar with a classification that was made elsewhere.

In approaching the urban structure we can use a matrix analysis in order to understand the
system of activities in a territory.
There are 2 types of matrix analysis that we can use:
 Square matrix (both coordinate have the same elements)
 Rectangular matrix

The square matrix is used as a tool for analyzing the system of activities from the point of view
of the relations between activities. On both coordinates are the same elements (the activities
that exists in the system).

So, in each box is indicated the relation between those activities. These relations are
highlighted in a simple manner, by marking in the matrix with a symbol.
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We can only emphasize that there is a relation, we can emphasize that there is a relation of
compatibility or incompatibility or of indifference or even to give some direction or value to
that relation when that relation can be evaluated.
With this type of analysis we can highlight the cooperation between activities and the groups of
compatible activities; we can highlight the activities that must remain in the core of the system
and those who must be removed.

The rectangular matrix takes into consideration the relations between activities and spaces.
We can record the extent to which an activity is appropriate (compatible) to one place or
another within that territory, so that we have the possibility of grouping the activities in
relation to places. We can highlight a place or another where there is a compatibility with more
activities.

Clawson and Stewart's theory, regarding “in place” and “between places” activities, generate:
 activities (in adapted spaces)
 activities in "channel-type" spaces.

We must keep in mind that for any kind of activity in the system of activities, an adapted space
is defined.

We use the term flow for an activity in motion, meaning a movement of information or an
object on a particular route.
As a conclusion we can say that the activity is a structuring3 element for the space organization
system, and space is a structural element.
Theoretically, from the point of view of overlapping activity with space, we can consider the

3
Structuring means it helps to structure something; structural = part of a structure
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idea of a total overlap - but this is a special case, and speaking in general, we have to keep in
mind that the activity and the space have a partial overlap.
In overlapping, activity and space, generates, for individual or community, what we call a
service4 (services brought into human existence – a system supplying a public need such as
transport, utilities, communications, and so on).
If we consider the correlation between activity and space (or more precisely between the
system of activities and the system of spaces), and we take into consideration this symbiosis
between activity and space in an evolution over time, it means that we must consider that this
symbiosis is changing over time.

We can say that changes in the system of activities means a behavior generated by inter-
activity (activities combined in different ways) and the changes in the system of spaces means a
behavior generated by inter-actions (spaces inter-act with each other).
We observe the evolution of symbiosis (between activities and space) on the way to an urban
existence or urban space as organized space.

Explanatory model regarding the organization of the spatial-behavioral presence in urban

territory.

Schemes (diagrams) are explanations for processes or situations. These processes or situations
can be explained by some similar schemes or other schemes that are very different. This is just
one of many possible schemes.
The scheme presented below highlights the collaboration (overlapping, symbiosis) between
activity and space, starting from human need. This time, activity/space relation is considered on
3 axes. We need to highlight 3 types of activities. (productive activity, socio-participatory
activity and contemplative activity). The three axes are directed toward the center of the
scheme. (The facts that are drawn like this or otherwise do not matter, it is a theoretical,
explanatory model, it only means that the three human needs converge to one point).
So we start from the human need, but this time we have:

4
Service = a government system or private organization that is responsible for a particular type of activity, or
for providing a particular thing that people need: postal. Health, ambulance, prison, etc.
(https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/service)
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 • a need for material existence,
• a need for psycho-social existence and
• a need for moral-aesthetic existence.
These are the three great categories of needs that an individual feels in his existence.

These needs are going through an abstraction process into their evolution, resulting:
• a functional-existential abstraction,
• a functional psycho-social abstraction and
• a perceptive-aesthetic one. These abstractions, starting from these needs, converge to
urban space, to the space in which the needs are fulfilled.
The human needs, generates some activities. So we have the urban activity (marked with red
hatch) and the urban space, that we call the spatial-behavioral presence.
We have to take into consideration that there are 3 types of activities generated by 3 types on
human needs. So, we speak about:
• a productive activity, (physical or intellectual work)
• a socio-participatory activity (meeting with colleagues, going to the theatre)
• contemplative activity (like sitting on a bench in a park, contemplating, thinking)

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Direct productive activity, marked with a red hatch, needs the existence of another group of
population that is engaged in another activity (socio-participatory or contemplative).
For example, an actor who produces a direct productive activity (because he sells a product -in
this case a show), needs another part of the population to participate as spectators in the show
- in the conditions of the socio-participatory activity - otherwise there is no one to buy his
performance. Or another example: if someone goes to a park, then he is admiring a landscape in
that space. Landscaping is a direct productive activity of an individual (professional) who made
the project, so the spectator, the admirer is coming in response to this product.
So, there are situations when an activity that is occupying space can only be achieved by
combining several activities that are coming from different directions. This combination of
activities that is linked to that particular urban space is the spatial-behavioral presence (marked
on the scheme with dots).
This spatial-behavioral presence, linked to a certain place, in a certain time, evolves (it changes
over time), and it is marked in this scheme with this oblique axis. This actually means an axis of
evolution of urban existence.
We can also notice in the scheme that there are activities that could attract each other
(possible to combine) and others that could dissociate one to another (opposite activities).

We must take into consideration the solidarity (cohesion, unity) of the urban spatial system. It
is a consequence of its structure. This solidarity consists of:
• A mechanical solidarity (an association of planimetric or volumetric shapes)
• An organic solidarity (meaning that there are rules imposed by human nature,
• An energetic solidarity5 (meaning the world's major urban centers - places where
energy circuits and flows converge)

Morphology and urban syntax

We have an explanatory model of how the urban morphology is forming (emerging, appearing)
on two parallel levels. That is:
• on an abstract level and
• on a reality level.

Explanation: This is not something that is fully understood and it is not in our area of competence. It’s a
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sociological and psychological matter. There are cities that have been important until 25-30 years ago and now
begin to regress because they have gone out of these energy flows. Others cities is now concentrating money and
intellectual strength – for example, Abu-Dhabi did not exist 40 years ago, or we did not know about this city. Today
is a very important global city. The new airport in Istanbul – creates an energetic concentration of the minds of the
people working there but also the energy of that new place. We as professionals do not work with this energy but
with the consequence of the respective energy accumulations.
6
In this model we can consider an axis of evolution, horizontally - an axis of time, and the two
vertical axes, as determinants of the population and the site.
For example, let’s take a human settlement. We can discuss about a population on a site.
Activities are made by population (individuals, inhabitants) and spaces (and objects) are
components of the site.

We can consider localized urban activities (located in a certain place, determined) – those are:
material and spiritual products, cultural activities, social initiatives, behavioral initiatives and
events).
On the other side, we have urban spaces (and objects) - determined by urban policy, cultural
principles, urban theory, ethical-moral concepts, economic principles or traditions that work in
urban space.
Activities and spaces are defined in evolution on a horizontal axis, starting from interests,
necessities and going to the components6 of urban existence.
Between activities and spaces there is a relation that we have already talked about (that an
activity need space and is generating a space), but we can also see an influence from space to
activity.
This situation is characteristic in the restructuring process. That is when we have already
existing spaces that are going to be occupied with some activities that may be different than
the original ones. (Therefore, new structures are emerging in the system of activities)
This interaction between activity and space generates: values, assets, attitudes, images.
So, we have two levels: an abstract one (urban life) and a material one, or concrete7 (urban
framework), essential for the urban organism.

6
Become systems – components (economical, legal, etc.) after passing thru the urban organism
7
existing in a material or physical form; not abstract
7
The urban organism represents a socio-economical &cultural organization and a configurative-
ambiental organization.
The result of the interaction of urban activities and urban spaces is an urban way of life. This
urban way of life, considered outside the urban organism, means urban culture.
Therefore, the socio-economical &cultural organization and the configurative-ambiental
organization appear as a result of the urban culture8.

We must keep in mind that the urban organism is defined on two levels:
 an abstract one - constructed (realized - understood) mentally – can be expressed
through schemes
 a concrete one - or a material one - can be perceived directly as an image – and can be
expressed by drawing
Those are the two levels of this urban system (urban organism).
This means that the urban organism has two subsystems:
 subsystem urban life and
 subsystem urban framework.

Although we are discussing these subsystems separately, in reality they are not separated but
are overlapped (merging with each other). We make this distinction only to understand them
better.

Urban life subsystem has the following components, resulting from activities:
a. Functionally determined elements – elements that result from the classification of
activities; could be classified in different ways; these elements are determined by the
activities but are also determined by the elements in group b).
For example, we could have:
• Directly productive
• Indirectly productive
• Activities that relate things, such as circulation and
• Other activities
b. Functional-environmental determinants (these elements are influencing the elements
form first category (a.) in both functional and environmental terms. In this category (b.),
the elements are only those mentioned, others cannot be taken into account. So, we
have:

8
Culture = a way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs of a particular group of people at a particular
time

8
 • temporal (time-related) elements (we are referring here, to the time in which
activity takes place (night / day, summer / winter - those are temporal context
conditions that influence the activity)
• praxeological elements (elements that come from practical experience, from
practice), we know that from experience we gain some conclusions, some
information that we apply in the new organization of space
• psychosocial elements (either from the psychic nature of the person who carries
out the activity or from the psycho-social nature of society, of the group and
which influences the activity)

So, we can observe relations between elements inside the first and the second category, and
we can see that elements from category (b.) generate an ambient condition for the elements in
category (a.)
Therefore, in this subsystem – Urban Life – we can observe a structure, that we can call a
spatio-functional structure. We can understand this structure only mentally.

On a (material) concrete level, we have the elements of the urban framework.

We have here 3 sub-subsytems:
a. Functionally determined elements – (every space9 built for the purpose of carrying out a
certain activity)
• buildings (built values)
• arranged spaces
• planted spaces
b. Functional-compositional determinants (those are determinants for the elements in the
first category (a.), and determine the organization of the space, adding the

9
for example: a basketball court in a park or a bench in the park
9
 compositional principle10. This functional compositional determination is done in 2
ways:
• Urban stylistic effects (for example: the perspective effect in space - it is a result
of composition)
• Behavioral effects11 (it is the result of the behavior of the people using a
particular space is influencing that space) - but we also have to take into account
the behavioral effects of the physical components of the elements of the space
(the physical state of the respective field, which is or is not the same after 3 years
of use - it is also a behavioral effect)
c. Formal-compositional determinants (regarding compositional principles, regarding the
shape)
• perceptual elements (that is, one object can be perceived in a way from a
distance of 10 m and in a different way from 30 or 100m)
• spatio-temporal elements (we are talking about the time of day or season – this
is influencing the behavioral effects in a space)
• aesthetic elements (what are the effects, the aesthetic ways through which the
composition works)

For each of these sub-subsystems there are interior relations and relations between sub-
systems and upward to the built environment.

10
the basketball court is a functionally organized space according to the respective activity, but it is positioned,
organized in relation to the site, with the surroundings as a consequence of the compositional principle that the
entire arrangement implies.
11
We may refer to some individuals who play basketball speaking louder or screaming - these are effects of human
behavior
10
Example: at the level of formal-compositional determinants as aesthetic elements, the scale, the
proportion, the proximity, the color relation are decisive for the effects in the other category
(functional-compositional determinants), so that they can define a perspective effect as a
compositional effect.
This represents a spatio-configurative structure.
Between the two structures a perfect match is needed. But this usually doesn’t happen,
because the spatio-functional structure is changing faster, while the spatio-configurative
structure has to adapt or reconfigure.

So, the urban structure is actually the result of overlapping (merging) the two structures
(spatio-functional structure and spatio-configurative structure) and represents the totality of
functional or spatio-configurational relations within a spatial ensemble.

In the spatio-functional structure the functional schemes are used, and in the spatial-
configurational structure we can use the photography, the facade design, a perspective.

11
Course 4 – Urban Structures

About Functionality of the organized space or Urban Functionality

The urban organism must be understood on two levels:

• An abstract one – constructed (understood) mentally - can be expressed through schemes -
is difficult to understand
• A concrete (material) one; can be perceived directly as an image and can be expressed by
drawing - easier to understand
These two levels are merging with each other but we make this separation only to study these
two levels.
About function, functionality and functioning
A first comment refers on how a function is born within a space, and consequently, an activity.
I have mentioned already that everything that happens in a territory is the result of an interest
(self-interest or group interest). Interest is the reflection of a need.
Interest generates the human motive1. A certain motive defines a particular activity and
further, an adapted space.
This time we have to consider a complexification2 of understanding this path of determination
from interest to space. So we have to introduce in this process with determinant character,
what we call the functional requirement.

Interest Motive Urban Activity Urban Space

Human need Functional requirement Function

The functional requirement attaches itself to the urban space; it becomes a request, oriented
towards the quality of space. Space is required to be prepared to perform a certain function
(role). This functional requirement is a determination at a certain moment of what we call the
urban function.
The functional requirement requires a certain activity; and by doing that it defines a function.
The function is, in these conditions, an attribute of space, an attribute that space gains and
makes it available to an activity.
Here’s what the functional requirement means. We take for an example an initial system, S-0.
Within this system there is an interest determined by the presence of the individual (or of the
population), a motive appears and therefore the functional requirement emerges.
This system (as any system), is reacting to its context. Let’s assume that this system, in a certain
context, has an input, that the respective input produces a change, a transformation of the

1
a reason for doing something; the leading cause of action;
2
the act or process of making something more complex
1
elements of that system, consequently, as an output. We will find that this determination
between input and output, from the point of view of the configuration of the system, is possible
in 3 ways, depending on how the functional requirement is working and how the function brings
the functional requirement inside the system.
1. There is a possibility that the functional requirement may require a reorganization of the
space so that the nature of the space in question is not disturbed, in principle; so we say in this
condition that the functional requirement operates within the system, is born in this system and
stays in this system. We say we're dealing with a centripetal functional requirement; its
orientation being to the core of the system. This is a functional requirement that has a cohesive
character, a character that is maintaining the unity of the system.

2. The second type of functional requirement is the centrifuge-centripetal functional

requirement, meaning a functional requirement that actually “goes outside” the system it
cannot not find in the system those components that are needed. So, the functional
requirement "goes" outside the system, gains substance outside the system, and returns with
that substance in the system. That's why we call it the centrifuge-centripetal functional
requirement, or the acquisition functional requirement. Because it gains the new substance for
the initial system. Certainly the system develops (it has also developed in the case of the
centripetal functional requirement in its interior) this time however, we have to deal with a
development that implicitly has a profound quantitative character – the system is growing.

2
 3. The third type of functional requirement: centrifuge functional requirement. In this
case, the functional requirement does not find in the initial system those components that are
needed and goes outside the system. It generates another system outside the initial system; a
new system in response to that need. It can cause the disappearance of the original system in
some situations.

Here are some examples to better understand what this 3 types of functional requirement
means. In the '70s, the situation of urban centers in Romania was re-examined at national level.
And three situations were visible:

Let’s take the first situation: centripetal functional requirement. If we are thinking about the
centers of urban settlements, we have to consider a central area, a center where answers to
most of the city's central needs could be found, improvements are needed and so, in a process
of urban renovation, additional quality substance could be brought to the respective system.
This means that the center already has cohesion, it is an ensemble, this ensemble is being just
completed, modernized.

In the situation of the extra-Carpathian cities, in that stage of construction of the civic centers,
those centers were developed in the first type of functional requirement - the centripetal
functional requirement. This is because the extra-Carpathian cities had and still have this
feature: they have been developed in a less compact (dense) way of occupying the territory, that
is, with very large reserves of land available for development. So, adding some new components
to the respective centers is enough to complete or modernize them (for instance a theatre, a
new city hall, or a new commercial building). The development of the centers at Ramnicu
Valcea, Pitesti, Botosani and Giurgiu are some examples for the first situation - centripetal
functional requirement.

The second situation: centrifuge-centripetal functional requirement. We could have a situation

in which a number of components, that a modern existence would impose, are missing from
the city center; we can see that some of these components can find their place in spaces still

3
available within the existing system and others can find their place outside the existing system.
So the existing center needs to expand.
In the cities of Transylvania (intra-Carpathian cities), which in general due to their historical
evolution, have developed differently in terms of occupying the territory with well-defined
centers, the theory of the centripetal functional requirement cannot be considered. These
centers, having a valid substance to be preserved, required new components, so an extension
that could not be achieved within the limits of the existing system was needed. As a
consequence, these centers have taken up spaces outside them, in the surrounding area.
This situation occurred in Sighisoara, or in Sibiu. Sibiu, as a city, had until 1970 a center which,
even if it was not completely defined, could not answer all the needs with central character. In
the city center the only interventions possible were of renovation or restoration. It was
impossible to bring new activities that a modern way of life is requiring, because there was no
available space. So, a central ensemble, developed somewhere in the neighboring area of the
existing center, was created clearly and correctly linked to the old center. In this way, the two
areas have become a unitary center for Sibiu. In this new ensemble were built 3 new hotels, a
large general store and a House of Culture3.

Centrifugal functional requirement. We have a third situation where the interest in a center
cannot be solved within the existing space, the number of new components needed is too large
and cannot be satisfied in the existing space, and so the problem of gaining substance outside
of the system occurs, and this means that the construction of a new center, in a different part
of the urban organization, is needed. This could possibly lead to the extinction of the original
center.
For the third situation – the centrifugal functional requirement, in Romania, we have the
situation in Resita, even if we’re not dealing with the destruction of the original center; we are
dealing with the construction a new center. Some of the needs are solved in the old center
where there was some space available and other needs generate a new city center at a distance
of about 3km from the original one. These centers are functionally distinct, because they do not
have a link with central character between them.

In this scheme are shown the connection between the nature of the functional requirement and
the type of intervention within the arranged space.
Therefore, horizontally I have highlighted the types of functional requirements: centripetal,
centrifuge-centripetal and centrifugal, and also what is the meaning, in terms of gaining new
substance for the system.

3
House of Culture was the name for major club-houses in the Soviet Union and the rest of the Eastern bloc. It was
an establishment for all kinds of recreational activities and hobbies: sports, collecting, arts, etc.; the House of
Culture was designed to have room for multiple uses.
4
So, we have:
 for the centripetal functional requirement, addition, that is a supplement of substance,
 for centrifuge-centripetal requirement we have to do with acquisition (for this reason
we also call it the functional acquisition requirement)
 for the centrifuge requirement we have no other situation or a another possible term
than dissolution.
We have two possibilities - the system reconfigures - we take this finding for the first two
columns. For the third column, we must consider that the system disappears.
Below, we have the consequences that the functional requirement is generating, namely:
A. modifying the structure and
B. keeping the structure.
The interesting situation occurs in the case of modification, where we have 2 situations,
modification by reduction (system reduction) and modification by amplifying the system.
The reduction of the system means a decrease in its intensity and the other possibility is the
destruction of the system.
Amplification can also mean destruction of the system, but it can simply mean the
development, the growth of the system.
Let's see what correspondence (concordance) is between these types of situations that may
result and the types of functional requirement. Thus, we find that the centripetal functional
requirement can generate a reduction of the system (a reduction of the quality of the system –
a functional requirement that has more negative effects than positive), but it may also mean
that the system is growing, while the functional requirement of acquisition may lead to the
destruction of the system or the growth of the system.
Regarding the centrifugal functional requirement; it will obviously cause the dissolution of the
system, but this dissolution can occur in two ways: either by extinguish4 or by explosion.

4
to put an end to or bring to an end; wipe out of existence
5
Explosion means instantaneous destruction and extinguish is actually a dissolution over time.
The explosion can occur when a modernization operation, in fact urban regeneration, is being
done in a neighborhood, and a massive demolition is done first of all. The fact that there are a
few buildings left is not important; the neighborhood has disappeared as a system.
Extinguishment is a slow dissolution. For example, a neighborhood, a portion of a
neighborhood or city is subject to this process, when there are no chances of further
development.
This means that construction and activities are gradually withdrawing, are disappearing from
the territory. Such an example happened a few years ago at Targu Ocna, when the salt mine
under the city was flooded and the land was sinking. And so, all the area above the salt mine
has been put into this process – of extinguishment (the whole neighborhood).
Another example refers to the villages that were abandoned by the german minority between
1950 and 1970. These villages have been abandoned or occupied for a while by a nomadic,
extremely needy and poor population who did nothing to maintain them, and so this process of
extinguishment has occurred.
A brief comment on the possibility of modification by growth; growth is recorded in the scheme
as a consequence of the centripetal functional requirement and centrifuge - centripetal
functional requirement. Here we have 2 possibilities for the growth process. We are dealing
with intensive growth (growth of the system in the initially occupied space – in extra-
Carpathian cities, where there are large land reserves) and extensive growth (an increase which
also means an expansion of space; for example in intra- Carpathian cities like Sibiu, where
historical centers could not be disturbed).

Regarding this relation: System versus Environment, we must take into consideration that, in
relation to the existing system (initial –S-0), the functional requirements involved, engages both
the area constituted within the boundaries of the system and the peripheral area. Because, the
forces that oppose the system to the environment, and the forces that oppose the context face
each other. The confrontation of these forces occurs especially in the peripheral territory,
which becomes a confrontation area.
Of course, what happens in such a situation also manifests itself in the interior of the system
and is influencing the system in its core.
A first observation is that the functional requirement can only be born inside the system,
regardless of the intensity with which it is exercised.

6
Below, we have two type of interest in this diagram.

Considering the organization of space, there is, on the one hand the interest of the individuals
who need the space (who will use it), and on the other hand, the interest of the one who, as a
professional, is responding to this need and conceives that particular space.

And we have a psycho-social interest - an interest which is maximal at the moment of defining
the functional requirement, an interest that decreases as it enters on a course of development
to the organized space. – marked on the scheme with red color.
On this moment, when the functional requirement is defined, the architectural and urbanistic
interest is born, the interest which lead towards a real configuration of the space. So, it is the
interest that professional practice requires, which grows and become maximal when the space
has been completed (marked on the scheme with green color).
We have somewhere in the middle, the moment when the two curves meet, the moment in
which the two interests have the same importance in the process. At this point, we actually
define the function.
The function is defined by the project brief5, so when we have a project brief, it means we are in
such a moment.

5
The project brief is the final stage in the process of defining the client's requirements for the development of a
built asset: The statement of need is the first attempt to describe the possible requirements of the project.
The project brief is the key document upon which the design will be based – tema program
7
Regarding the effects that the functional requirement produces within the territory, we have to
discuss about the problem of dysfunction.

We must understand the dysfunction as a negative function. So, we have positive functions and
dysfunctions, or negative functions.
Some people understand the term of function only when it works positively, in the sense that
something is being built (or created) by function (in our case the space, the urban space).
But the city does not exists, it does not develop only by construction, because there is not
enough space, because some of what was built before is outdated, so we say that the city
develops in its existence by construction, but also by de-construction. This is a very simple
explanation of the demolition. Demolition is a type of intervention used in the urban
development process. Of course it is important who uses it, on what basis, and how it is used in
the development process.

In this scheme, I have highlighted where dysfunctions can occur in this process (from need, to
function, to activity, to space), and create a problematic situation, first of all for the ones who
uses that organized space, or for the professional who conceives, who organizes that space.
And we have here some moments of transition from one stage to another.

 First stage – transition from need to function. A condition that is not assumed (or
unassumed) and ignored because it is not discovered, it is not known; the professional fails to
discover the dysfunction in his research on the need. It is possible that in the case of a group of
needs, the professional neglects one of them, so that the other needs he takes into account
generates a state that does not correspond to the reality. For example - in organizing a ski area,
a parking problem can occur, the professional takes into consideration parking spaces for
employee’s cars, for visitor’s cars, but he doesn’t take into consideration parking spaces for
buses.
 Between the function and the activity is a non-engaged condition (the professional is
likely to have information before, but he doesn’t care, does not really give the importance to
that project, wants to finish it as quickly as possible. Of course, it's not just one professional, in
such a condition it's about all the specialists that are involved in this transition from function to

8
activity. (Example: The professional knows that a parking for buses is needed, he also knows the
number of parking lots that are needed, but for some reason he doesn’t take this problem into
consideration; could be something about the costs, a certain deal with the beneficiary or a
postponement).
 Between activity and space we have a condition that is unregulated (or without
regulation) – example: the professional knows he needs a parking space for buses but he can’t
regulate the situation; could be unclear who is the owner of the piece of land where he wishes
to build the parking space, or the land is in a legal dispute, or that piece of land is suitable for a
different activity.
 This risk of dysfunction occurs also after the space has been organized; in these
conditions we have to do with an unmanaged condition, a situation in which the architect
could have a small part: for instance, when the architect did not create a space that can be
managed in a simple, easy way. In this case, the agent responsible for the management of the
respective space is accountable. (Example: the parking space has no ground markings, or there
is no system for regulating the occupancy between small and large vehicles, short term / short
term. This is an unmanaged condition and can cause dysfunction).

First conclusion is that the functional requirements always appear within the system, can
involve the entire system and is influencing the peripheral area of the system and influence the
surrounding area of the system and it can be influenced by the context of the system.
This means that a function within the system may be in a state of stability or instability. Stability
is a characteristic of the state of equilibrium of the system; instability producing a state of
imbalance. The recovery6 of the function within the system, so switching from a state of
imbalance to a state of equilibrium is also accomplished by means of the respective function,
namely, through the regulation (the regulation of the functional requirement).
This regulation may result from:
 changing the functional requirement
 canceling the functional requirement
 finding a context appropriate to the functional requirement (this is the mission of the
professional acting in that space)
A second conclusion, which results from what we have discussed, refers to the difference
between the notion of activity and the function. Activity is a reference to a particular agent -
the one who does the respective activity. The function is a direct reference to that agent.
Let’s take a simple example: a blacksmith makes a metal tool, so he's hammering a piece of hot
metal. Someone else is putting a nail in the wall. A judge is pounding a wood hammer on the
desk to silence the court room. The hammer exerts a concentrated pressure in a certain place

Restabilirea – resetting
6

9
and in time. For each person, the hammer is different. The function of the hammer is the same -
exerting a pressure on another object. But the action (activity) is very different.
So, we have 3 consequences for spatial planning:
 We have to understand the difference between the functional analysis and the analysis
of the system of activities and especially the economic activities.
 Sometimes a confusion occur between the activity corresponding to a certain space
organization and the activity being done for making that space organization (for example, even
today there are studies in which housing construction is considered part of the residential
activities - this can generate misleading information in statistics).
 The internal functions of the urban organism are confused with external functions. For
example: we are talking about the role of the city in the territory, so we are talking about the
influence, the importance that a city has in the surrounding area. This is an aspect of the
existence of the city as a system, and we can understand this as a role of the city in the
territory. This cannot be confused with urban functions, which are cities internal functions, as
an urban organism.
A third conclusion is that functions are related to each other in a territory.
The system, manifesting through a multitude of correlated functions, means that has a certain
functionality7. In order to understand the term of functionality, we must start from the
function8.
In this scheme we take into consideration this path, from function to functionality to
functioning9. A space, an organization, in order to perform a function, is functioning. Between
function and functioning lies functionality as a feature of the space. A certain space that is
designed for a certain function, according to previous reasoning, is functioning.
I emphasize that functionality is the quality of a space or organization to make possible a
certain activity or system of activities.
So functioning implies action, while functionality means a quality of space.

7
Functionality = the quality of being useful, practical, and right for the purpose for which something was made; the
quality of being suited to serve a purpose well
8
Function = the natural purpose of something
9
Functioning = the ability of something to work correctly
10
When we are discussing about functionality, often we think about the form; the form being a
characteristic of space. The space, having a quality, through functionality, is defining this quality
through form as well. From our point of view, as professionals, this means that functionality
imposes the form. So, the form makes functioning possible.
Functionality determines form, implies form, it influences form (the form with reference not
only to space, because we understand form not only on a reality level but also on an abstract
level).
For example, we draw a scheme; we have a project brief for a building and we must define the
layout of that building, therefore, before we define the layout, we make a scheme. This scheme
is the base for defining the form of the space in question, but this scheme has a form, a shape,
it is exposed by a formalization of some principles, which in the mind of a professional were
processed and judged on an abstract level at first.
For example, a bedroom that has 10mX2m has a form that is inappropriate for that function. So
form influences activity, so functioning, so function.

Two reverse relations are highlighted. An influence from form to function; the form can distort
the function when it is unfit, and the other one, from functioning to function. Functioning can
change (modify-deform) the function, or it could make the function to exercise well,
conveniently, favorably.
Also it is important to understand that a proper functioning is dependent on some elements,
factors that interfere with the spatio-temporal context.
1. We have to do with the management of organized space, the management can
influence a proper functioning; poor management can make that space to behave poorly,
although it was well designed, and a good management can make the space behave acceptable,
although that space was poorly thought by the architect.
2. Social or political elements can influence a proper functioning of a space over time.
3. We also have the hazard factor, this could be considered in 2 ways (predictable – like
flooding - a flood10 can be predicted in principle or unpredictable – like earthquakes)
I emphasize that these risks are in fact subject, as far as possible to the foresight. If a
professional makes a project for a home or an ensemble for a neighborhood, he has to be able
to foresee the risks that can occur in the future.

Further, as a result, a few words regarding the stability of the function. We know from biology
that a function needs an organ and generates an organ, in our case the organ is the space. Now,
taking further this reasoning, in order for the space to constitute as an organ, it has to be

10
for example a flood, a flood can be predicted in principle. It can be considered that floods can occur in a territory
up to a certain level periodically over a period of 50 years, up to another periodic period to 30 years, to another
periodic period of 10 years or 5 years. For this purpose, maps of the risk of flooding are made.
11
related with activity and institution. Because any activity needs space, then an urban activity
generates an urban space. Urban space, in order to be functional is imposing an institution. And
that institution is the one that makes the activity possible, thru organization.

All three elements are defining the term territorial equipment. By equipment we understand
everything that is done by us in a territory to make that territory habitable. Equipment, in fact,
means a space, an institution that manages that space and the activity. The equipment,
therefore, has this threefold11 understanding.
Within the territorial equipment, there is that part, let’s say fixed, as a position, linked to the
territory, which is the organized space and the activity that unfolds. Those 2 parts, together,
define what we call professionally, urban endowment.
The stability of the function in these conditions is actually ensured by the stability of the
elements that define the function within the territory. Any modification of one of the three
poles of the territorial equipment produces instability in the function within the territory.
We can say that at every level, a city, a region, or a country, a disturbance of one of the three
poles of the territorial equipment, is producing instability in the function within that territory. A
disturbance at the level of institution generates effects on the activity or space.

Functionality is a feature of the system. Any analysis of an existing situation in a territory will
include the state of functionality. Functionality is a problem to be analyzed also for a space that
needs to be organized. So we can analyze the functionality based on project.
That is why we have to consider:
 A state of potential functionality (seen in a study, in a project)
 A state of effective functionality (one that is conceivable in an existing structure of
space) – this state could be: destructive (when a major dysfunction occur) or
constructive (when we have a strong positive function)

11
having three parts
12
The state of potential functionality is the state that results from the analysis of the existing
situation. We need to emphasize the potential of the analyzed area, to highlight what is
possible, and what could be done with maximum effect, or maximum benefits.

In conclusion, here is a complete definition regarding the structure of the organized space, the
urban structure.
1. The functional structure is replying to a set of needs, those needs being understood in
the widest, not simplistic-biological meaning.
2. The spatio-configurative structure is replying to a set of needs of action indirectly
transposed through the spatio-functional structure and, at the same time, directly, to an
assembly of spiritual fulfillment needs, through an ensemble of perceptions considered
esthetic and ethical, in time.
3. The spatial structure appears like a physical expression of the functional structure.
4. The urban structure is the result of the symbiosis between spatio-configurative
structure and the spatio-functional structure.

13
Course 5 Urban Structures

The analysis of dysfunctions in a territory is called: problematization1. This means to

decipher, to discover the problems that the respective territory has.
It is not just an issue of identifying the problems, but it is also an analysis of the ensemble of
problems, to discover the problems that have a greater importance, what are the links between
those problems and also the effects of those problems. Problematization, in urbanism, refers to
the analysis of the existing situation in the territory.
This study, problematization, has 2 stages. The first stage is the problematization support and
the second stage is the actual problematization.

The problematization support includes:

A1. Researching similar situations; this is a documentary approach; an approach in which we
investigate similar cases according to the relevant published literature or from our own
experience and we identify the problems from a theoretical point of view;
A2. Researching the existing situation, i.e. knowing the history of that place, knowing the
current status, and knowing what development reserves the territory has, therefore identifying
those resources that are not used at this time;
A3. Researching the need: on a strategic level, at the level of the objectives, at the level of
possibilities and analyzing the needs in perspective (in the future). That is, to find to what
extent the existing elements in the area are viable, and could still be usable.

The actual problematization phase includes:

B1. Inventory2 of the relations in the territory in relation to the interdependencies3 that
occur;
B2. Listing the dysfunctions identified; their individual examination and characterization
must be done, as well as a risk analysis (each dysfunction is considered quantitative and
qualitative and it is considered in a possible evolution - so in the future);
B3. Creating a hierarchy of dysfunctions according to the risk level of each of this
dysfunction is necessary; and a possible evolution must be taken into consideration;
B4. Dysfunctional analysis based on a systemic approach to subsumption4 effects. In this
moment we are dealing with dysfunctionality of the entire area; until now, we have been
dealing with separate dysfunctions– or negative functions;
B5. Fifth phase is highlighting the so-called chains of dysfunctionality. These chains of
dysfunctionality occur in consequence of interference in the existing situation of different
negative functions - the chains of dysfunctionality are actually negative effects that overlap or

1
In research, to problematize is to go to the roots of the idea or the concept and question its basic tenets (rule,
principle, law).
2
A complete list of items
3
The dependence of two or more people or things on each other
4
The action of including or absorbing one thing in another.
1
succeed (for example: a negative effect occurs after overlapping of some functions with a
negative character or negative and positive character). The effect is not directly noticeable as a
consequence of each of the functions considered individually, but only when a chain is created
between those functions;
B6. Establishing the succession of interventions to ameliorate or suppress the
dysfunctions, by applying the principle of the critical path5. It is possible that canceling or
reducing a dysfunction is only possible after another dysfunction has been reduced or canceled;
B7. Recommending the intervention proposals – we could have an intervention in the
territory that is done in a single operation - or it may be a phased operation, a succession of
interventions;
This is what an analysis of the existing situation actually means. This particular part - the
problematization - is the part that seeks to identify and solve the dysfunctions in the territory.

Ordering the elements of the spatial system

First of all, we have to understand the components of the space system in an abstract way.
When we are discussing about organizing the space, it means that we are talking about
occupying the space - in fact, whether we call it urban planning or urbanism or land planning or
architecture, this is a way of organizing a certain occupation of space, that is an organization of
space in relation to a certain requirement; a certain determination.
In relation to this requirement for occupying space, the urban life elements are organized.
These urban life elements are “placed” in what we call textures. Historically, we can find some
organized spaces that are not the result of people's thinking, but are haphazardly6 made over
time – are built in a natural evolution over time.
Organizing the urban life elements in textures means an abstract understanding of the term of
texture. This term is specific to the textile industry. The texture is an appearance of the
intertwining of fibers that produce a material. The meaning that we must take into
consideration is that of the fabric; the fabric of some fibers.
We must mentally understand the fabric as a network; a network that has the elements of
urban life in its nodes. The actual network is generated by relations between these elements.
So, the urban life elements are organized in some networks that have nodes (where the urban
life elements are placed), the actual network (representing the link and the consistency of the
relations) and the loops that are empty.

In occupying the space we could have simple textures7 and complex textures.
For each of these urban life elements8 there is a simple texture, which in the scheme is drawn
as the green, red, and blue texture. But in a territory, those textures are overlapping.

5
The critical path is the longest sequence of activities in a project plan which must be completed on time for the
project to complete on due date.
6
in a manner lacking any obvious principle of organization
2
This overlapping could be:
 simple overlapping
 overlapping with relations between levels - resulting in a complex texture

In a simple texture, all elements are the same, they have the same importance, but in the case
of a complex texture, the elements are very different (having a different importance, a different
nature or size).
Any texture can be characterized quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantity means quality and
vice versa. Quantitative accumulation leads to a qualitative leap in any situation.
There are situations where the analysis of a texture is getting our attention first of all in a
qualitative sense, while another texture can draw our attention in a quantitative sense.
 In analyzing a texture of urban life elements of a formative nature – meaning
educational activities, we see first the qualitative aspect, i.e. the level of education. Quality, by
default, gives information about quantity level. This is because the activities are taking place in
some spaces and we know that a certain activity occupies a certain space. Within the project
brief there are some dimensions that allow the future construction to have a favorable
functionality.
 We have a different situation in another sector of activity, for example commercial
activities – which, at first sight, highlights the quantitative aspect. We can talk about commerce
for daily use, periodic use, or occasional use. But there are some quality differences between
those types of retail spaces (retail spaces used for periodical or occasional use9 have a better
quality than the daily use retail spaces – as an example: a shopping mall vs. grocery). Thus, at
first glance, commercial activity is defined quantitatively in a territory, but this quantitative
definition hides quality.

We can register this data in a plan, in a drawing, once we have analyzed a situation and have
made some calculations. This is done through the so-called "unit of activity" or “unit of use”. So,
we have to mark in a plan the way the territory is occupied (the position of the activity) and

7
For instance regarding the educational system in a city we could have a texture of the elementary school
elements
Urban life elements = functional determined elements – resulting from classifying the activities (actual activities)
8
9
For clothing or for electronic devices
3
how much space that activity is using. That is, a specific activity occupies or requires a certain
space within the territory.

"The unit of activity" or “the unit of use” is a conventional representation in a plan and it gives
information about the nature of the activity and the size of that activity. That is a quantitative
and qualitative representation.

For example, a square represents a commercial activity – let’s say fashion or clothing retail. The
size of the square represents the size of that activity - or the volume of that activity.
In such a situation, we could take into account different data, like:
 the space occupied; the surface or the volume, or
 the quantity of products sold, or
 the amount of money earned through that activity, or
 the number of sellers, or
 the number of buyers.
Depending on our purpose, we can use one or more of these references.
So, we take a square with precise dimensions that indicates a certain activity in a certain place
on the plan. In the plan legend we have several squares on a value scale, in a geometric
representation, corresponding to some size ranges that are usual for the respective research.
So, in a schematic plan of that territory, we can see the marked area on which a certain activity
is carried out. In this analysis of an existing situation, we can see a global image of the
respective territory and the texture of urban life elements or activities, using this graphical
representation. And so, a good image is obtained in the respective territory regarding the
system of activities within the territory.

Another aspect of this problem is the typology of functional structures; typology resulting from
the topology10 of urban structures.

10
Topology refers to a part of mathematics, geometry, namely, research and knowledge of the place in terms of its
mathematical definition.
4
In the theory of the functionalist model, the city was understood in a tree configuration, a tree
scheme. The functionalist model highlights a perfect hierarchy from a city center, a link to some
neighborhood centers - from neighborhood centers, to community centers and so on. Centers
are representing in fact by the urban endowments at corresponding levels; meaning you could
find in such a spatial organization specific urban endowments at a certain level, like cinemas
only in the city center, for example.
A more recent understanding of this model involves direct links between elements on different
levels of importance; this represents a constellational configuration. In this scheme is
represented with red links. This second scheme is an accurate representation of the hierarchy
principle, but because we need a link from an element located on a lower level to an element
located at a higher level, this link can be made by crossing the other levels of interest. There
could be many links like this one, hence the term constellation. As an example: In this case we
could find cinemas in other places, like shopping malls or located in parks, not only in the city
center, meaning that this service is provided in a more comfortable way for the population in
that territory. The constellational configuration provides a better, a more comfortable service
for the population in the territory.
This understanding of the structure’s topology (expressed in the diagram) could explain what
integration means: integration as overlapping of two or more systems. When we have at least
one common element to all the systems at the same time, we have an integration of the
systems.

Here's what the resolution cones mean for a structural organization. This organization in
resolution cones is in fact a type of tree scheme organization with reference, this time, not to
the elements of the structure, but to the way the structure is approached; the way this
structure is understood.
The approach is like a light reflector. From where we are (stand), we turn the reflector over to
another place in the context. The context is dark, so the place that we are lighting becomes
easily and very clearly perceptible.

5
So, understanding the structuralist approach, in this sense of ramification, means going from a
global understanding of the situation and directing the interest to a certain element, towards a
certain component of this global approach. So, starting from a global approach we can discover
the detail. Or, from the point of view of the process of understanding, we are going from a
synthetic approach to analysis.
Analysis means understanding each element on each of the analysis levels, synthesis on the
contrary, aggregating all the information from the detail to the whole.

The issue of distribution within the territory is always associated with the issue of organization
within that territory. Distribution means positioning the elements within the respective
territorial area; this means the distribution of the texture components within the territory.
Considering the geometry of the relations, we have to do with:
 A topological configuration (takes into consideration the position - the distances
between components)
 A functional configuration (meaning the types of relations between the elements)
A network structure in the territory can be characterized at the same time by the topological
configuration and by the functional configuration. So, when we want to represent in a drawing
(graphically) a type of spatial organization in the territory, we represent it through the
topological configuration, the functional configuration or both. These configurations have
graphical differences, but they express the same state or situation.
The ability to represent the same situation, in different graphical ways, highlights a quality of
that spatial organization which it must be taken into account, namely globality11 (the character
of globality).

Below is a schematic representation of a possible situation.

We have a scheme for a functional configuration and a scheme for a topological configuration.
Both are representing the same spatial organization in a territory.
In the topological configuration we must place the elements in the actual spatial reality, in
terms of dimensions. A topological configuration highlights the distances between the system
components and the position of the elements. In this scheme, the elements are represented by
stars and the relations between them are highlighted. These stars are precisely positioned on
the respective surface (plan) – they are not randomly positioned. This is a topological
configuration – on the right side.

11
The quality of being global; universality, totality
6
We have three levels of importance (green, red, blue) within that structure. For each of these
plans the respective components are highlighted, and the lines of the same color highlight the
possible relations between these components. Considering the structure as a whole, we see the
relations recorded in black. This representation of the structure is a topological representation.
This complex structure is also visible in the first scheme, which is a representation that
emphasizes the functional configuration. In this first scheme we don’t have any reference to
the position within the territory. The reference is only to the relations between components, as
they are constituted, on a first level, a second and a third level.
A result of the previous representation (with overlapping plans) is the representation from the
lower right corner, a representation of the overall structure, of the complex texture involved,
and which highlights this complexity of the whole structure. This representation points out that
in a structural organization we cannot have a uniform distribution of the elements in the
territory.
The issue of uniformity of texture elements has been discussed in urbanism for many years, and
it was supported by the functionalist model12. The functionalist model pursued uniformity and
equality within the territory; hence the idea that the elements should be evenly distributed
throughout the territory.
This is not really possible, for many reasons:
 We should take into account that in the territory there are groups of populations that
have special needs or requirements, different needs than another group. Therefore, the
urban life elements that have to meet these needs are not identical.
 Then there are topographical differences in the organization of the space, there are
parts of territory that cannot be occupied by constructions. This means that the

12
Its origins are in the Bauhaus and the work of Le Corbusier; its credo is the Athens Charter of the Congrès
Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM), issued in 1933. Workability and competence are its goals. It is the
equivalent in urban planning of the modern movement in architecture.

7
 topography of the place becomes an impediment to the distribution of these elements,
so there is a different dispersion of the elements.

Therefore, there are different types of occupation of a territory between an area and another
area, between a place and another place, differences regarding the density of the urban life
elements. Thus, there are areas where the urban life elements are concentrated and different
areas where elements are rarer. Places of concentration become so-called weight points or
points of interest.

In order to understand this intuitively - here is a representation with a grid; we hang weights of
different values - these weights represent the concentrated or dispersed urban life elements, so
that the net is deformed by the weight of those elements. Where multiple elements are
concentrated, the net has a greater deformation. This is a suggestive graphical representation
to understand what these weight points or points of interest are within the territory.

Here’s how the concentration of population in the territory is represented, for example.
Geographers have invented what it is called the concentration index of the population in the
territory. This index was later used by urban planners to analyze the territorial distribution of
urban life elements, or to locate the urban equipment within the territory.
Distribution means spreading some elements on a territory. This distribution can be: uniform or
non-uniform. When it's uniform, it means that on the surface unit, anywhere in that territory
we will find the same number of elements. When it is non-uniform, it means we have to deal
with groupings, concentration of elements, which are constituted in weight points.
First of all, we are interested in establishing the character of this spread, so of the distribution.
To evaluate this character (the nature of this spread), we use a grid as reference. It means that
in the graphic representation of the territory we overlap a grid to be able to make this
evaluation.
This means that we can divide the territory in some parts of territory, areas or subzones, each
of which has a particular homogeneity (condition and criteria). In our example there are 4
subzones. In fact, on a concrete analysis in a larger territory, the number of subzones is much
higher. In these subzones we have some information: the areas (measured in square meters,
let’s say) of the respective subzones and the population that is located within. So we can find

8
the population density; that is the ratio between the number of people and the related surface.
This is the first step in our analysis. Second step is making a list of all these areas in terms of
density value; a decreasing listing of density.

Dividing the territory in parts

Using a grid as reference Square graph
with the same homogeneity
Step three is obtaining a graphic representation - a square graph. On the two coordinates we
place the values for the population and the corresponding areas, the number of population on
the vertical and the value of areas on the horizontal. The convention is that these coordinates,
becoming the sides of the graph, must be equal and divided into 100 units.
We mark on the graph, starting from origin, the values (area and population) starting from the
highest value, in a decreasing order. These values are cumulative and the total value must be
100 units. The total area and the total population represent 100%; this is why the graph has 100
units.
So, we mark one area after another and the values for the population in the same way.
The curve resulting from this graph is drawn as you can see in the third image – with red color.
The concentration index in the territory13 is double of the graph area between the resulting
curve and the diagonal graph line. Double of this surface is the surface colored in red.
The index is a mathematical formula and is calculated like this:
Ic = (red area-blue area)/10000
0 < Ic < 1
We divide to 10000 because there are 10000 units in the graph, that is, 100X100, to get a value
between 0 and 1.
That means the value is:
 1, when the population is distributed evenly, and
 0, when the population is concentrated in one point
These are theoretical situations (0 and 1 values); are not possible in reality.
This sub-unitary value characterizes the concentration of the population in the territory; or the
concentration of urban life elements with a certain character in the territory.

13
This concentration index is artificial. Natural index = is the ratio between 2 natural sizes - real sizes. Artificial
Induces = Invented Index (Mathematical Invention) - Works only partially with natural values, uses references to
virtual, imaginary and uses symbols.
9
Since textures are difficult to compare, we need to characterize the texture. This
characterization can be done with some reference values of this concentration index. That is,
we find in the relevant published literature some reference values on certain types of areas
(residential area, central area, production area) and then we can compare the index we have
obtained in our analysis, with the reference values we have found.
Such an index is used in a comparative analysis of textures. There are other tools that show the
concentration of urban life elements in the territory, also discovered by geographers, applicable
by comparison.

Here is this mathematical formula, called Reilly14's formula, that is showing the shopping ratio
in point A and B of a population that is located in point C or vice versa, which is the shopping
ratio of a population located in A and B versus place C. This occurs in the context of commercial
urbanism. This is an area that has been separated from the general assembly of urbanism and
has as its object, the commercial activity.
We could consider 2 cities or 2 locations. These cities do not have or they have insufficient
shopping centers, so there is a need for a third center. The question is: where we should
position the third center, and how large should it be? In Reilly's formula, we have this equation:
Pop.a CB² A B
=
Pop.b CA² C
That is, on an imaginary line on which points A and B are placed, point C is found.
Reilly states that: "Two centers attract trade from intermediate places in direct proportion to
the size of the centers and in inverse proportion to the square of the distances from the two
centers to the intermediate place".
However, this law makes assumptions that people shop in a logical way and will travel to the
center that is nearest to them. This is not always the case - people may be willing to travel
further distances in order to, for example, obtain slightly different services or goods.

Godlund's formula is a similar instrument, an instrument that highlights the centrality.

Centrality means the quality of a system to have a central character, that is, to serve a territory
around it. Centrality is highlighted by the influence radius in the territory.
Godlund states that the population occupied in services multiplied by 100 and divided to the
total population of a neighborhood or a locality must be greater than 3.4 so that the respective
neighborhood or locality has a central regional role (in a much larger territory). If the value is
less than 3.4 it means that the center serves the local population, if bigger it has a central role
in the region.
Ps x 100
14
In economics, Reilly's law of retail gravitation is a heuristic developed by William J. Reilly in 1931. According
to Reilly's "law," customers are willing to travel longer distances to larger retail centers given the higher attraction
they present to customers.

10
 = Ct > 3.4
P
Generally speaking, we can define centrality in the territory by:
1. The extent of the influenced area (quantitative criteria)
2. By the complexity of the offer of that center (qualitative criteria)
3. Intensity of supply (quantitative-qualitative criteria)
When we talk about the offer of a place, we have to consider a number of characteristics of this
offer, like: the proximity to our home, the size of the space in which the activity takes place, the
lighting quality of the respective space, the quality of the product on the shelf and so on. We, as
specialists, do not have the possibility to intervene in some aspects of the offer, such as the
quality of the product, but in terms of distances, surfaces, the environment, we can intervene.

Another instrument - very applied – is a geometrical approach to the centrality problem.

We start from the idea that the power of a system is determined by the intensity of the
influence, and the intensity of the influence is expressed by the length of the influence radius,
the possible direction of the influence radius and the intensity (power) of this influence.
Theoretically, the territory of the system is circular around the center.

But in reality, this territory takes a different configuration depending on how the forces in the
center are acting on this territory. The forces in the territory are acting in some directions
closer, in other directions further, because those forces find opposite forces in the surrounding
(the peripheral) area, forces that are generated by other centers. Depending on the size, the
importance of a center and the other centers, the distance to the center we are referring to is
smaller or larger.

Starting from here, and considering the principle that if a center exists, than a system exists, we
can use a geometrical approach to the centrality problem.
We have two centers that exist (A and B); these centers have areas of influence, which are
theoretically defined graphically by these red circles, determined radially in relation to a
particular criteria (for example, the distance, or the time to reach that place). Theoretically,
these distances are considered radially, and therefore these circumferences are actually circles
around the centers, located at the distance that results from that criterion (journey time or
distance in meters).

11
 In a real situation though, we need to keep in mind that there
are streets, roads, and the shape of the circles are changing
according to the distances traveled or the travel time on the
respective streets (which may have a zigzag path, or could be
curved streets), so the form will be an irregular circle shape
around the center that marks these 4 areas of influence of the
center.
These centers generate a balance of interests - the line that
joins the points of intersection between the curves with the
same value. This means that from this line - the interest of the
population is towards a center or the other center. This is a
theoretical approach, because it also depends on the quality of
the elements in those centers.

We can find that the two centers, A and B, can no longer meet the requirements of their
respective neighborhoods and a third center is need. Let’s say that we found a possible area,
suppose in point C. Then, if we have the place, we do the same thing that we did for the two
existing centers; we do the same interference analysis of the curves with the same value, so
that we can find two more balances of interest that are intertwined with the existing one and
thus we can find the corresponding area of this third center15. Surely this representation can
also be done in a section, like in the second scheme, emphasizing the intensity of the use of the
respective center.
Regarding the centrality analysis I emphasize that the situations are very different in reality - for
example, in some cities, the center is dispersed at the level of the territory.
Also we should keep in mind that there are some “unique territorial equipment” that cannot be
dispersed.

Here is an example for the study of Urban Parti16. This example is a theoretical understanding
of what the study of the urban parti means. This study ensures the transition from the
functional configuration to the topographical configuration.
The functional configuration is absolutely theoretical and occurs in the study of the urban parti,
in the analytical approach of the situation, when you do not have to work with the plan, but
only with the project brief17, while the topographical configuration begin to appear when
elements are applied on the plan.

15
Such a study was made for locating the Sun Plaza Mall. It has shown that this shopping center will be successful
and it was later proved that the analysis was correct.
16
the central concept or drawing of an architectural or urban design
17
The project brief is the final stage in the process of defining the client's requirements for the development of a
built asset: The statement of need is the first attempt to describe the possible requirements of the project.
The project brief is the key document upon which the design will be based – tema program
12
 Functional configuration
We analyze all the relations in this situation (functional configuration). It is important only to
highlight a certain relation, the position of the elements at this moment is not important. We
have to deal with an analysis of these relations; from the first moment, to moment 2-3-4. The
elements are standing in the same place in the respective scheme, but the relations change
from the point of view of their representation, because there are relations that are more
important or less important, who have cumulated effects or simple effects and so on.
From the functional configuration we move to the topographical configuration. Trough research
and detailed representation of the relations of the elements, we highlight relations in relation
to positioning. Later on, we will make a schematic representation in which we emphasize the
importance of the respective elements. Those elements have the quality of becoming “central
places” the idea of centrality emerges, although it is not related to the actual position in the
territory. Also we can see that we have important components and less important components.
Then we can make a schematic representation of the functional configuration transposed in a
topographical way. The position of the elements is only defined by reference to another
element and not exactly to the territory.

13
If we follow the elements, we see coupling of some elements as functionality, coupling which is
the support for the city center in reality.
It also appears that an element remains outside this group with a central character due the fact
that it has a particularity; an element that needs distinct placement, which is also found in the
scheme from which we started, in a node. – represented with blue color.

14
Course 6 – Urban Structures

In order to exhaust the most important aspects of distribution in the territory, here are the main issues
that the distribution (of urban life elements) implies in the spatial organization within the territory.
There are 4 issues:
 The positioning issue
 The measurement issue
 The problem of regionalization
 The issue of decision

The positioning issue, means (represents) the interest that we have in positioning elements within the
space. We understand through arrangement, the way that the texture’s elements are scattered in the
respective territorial space. If this dispersal pursues an organizational principle, then it is an organized
occupation, and organized occupation requires some rules.
Positioning elements in space requires a modern understanding of what we call space. It is about
considering space as absolute and relative. Space must be understood both as relative space and as
absolute space.
Absolute space means a traditional understanding of space, an understanding that has been
developed over time; it means locating space in a unique coordinate system, in the metric system (that
is, measured in meters).
Relative space has been taken into consideration from the beginning of the last century. This
understanding of the relative space means to discuss the space in relation to a set of coordinates
resulting from the interest of the observer, therefore the evaluation criteria is very different. So, the
system of measuring and evaluating space is not unique, that is, we have different units of
measurement that we use depending on the objective that we, as observers (researchers) are
following. Therefore, the unit of measurement is different from one situation to another.
Understanding space in an absolute way or in a relative way involves knowing a multitude of
interpretations of the same space.

Let's see what this means from a practical point of view. Let us imagine that we have to study a
problem in space, regarding the positioning of activities (eg activities A, B, C, D and E). These activities
have their own characteristics and a different position in space.

Usually we take into account the distances between the places where these activities are located,
these distances being a consequence of understanding these activities in a system (depending on the
relations between them).
Suppose we have one of these activities as the reference, whose position becomes a starting point in
this space-related discussion. This is activity A. In this discussion about the system of activities, we
might be interested in a problem regarding the distance from activity A to the location of the other
activities.
We approach this distance in absolute space that is, in the metric system. So we have a set of activities
on a scale according to this (first) scheme, in this order A, B, C, D and E. That is, Activity B is the closest,
C is farther, D and E are even further.
This is accurate when we discuss activities in the absolute space that is, in the metric system.

1
If we take into account the travel time from place where activity A is located to other places where the
other activities are located, we have a different situation. The order of activities is different this time.
That is, with respect to activity A, activity C is closer, followed by activity B; and activities D - E are at
the same distance.
In this case we consider time in relation to the distance, but also to the type of transport used to cover
that distance. We measure time in hours or minutes. It is possible that in a certain situation, the
distance is longer, but traveling with a faster means of transport the travel time could be shorter. In
this analysis our interest is the travel time from place A to the other places.
So the system is organized in a certain way, when the organization is resulting from the distance
measured in meters and is organized in a different way, when the system is organized taking into
account the travel time depending on the means of transport.
Below is a third situation, a possible situation organized differently (in this order A, B, D, E and C). This
situation is possible when the criterion taken into consideration for distance measurement (evaluation)
is of a social nature.
If we have talked about measurable criteria earlier, we can now discuss a social criterion. For example,
we can take into consideration the attachment of an individual (person) located in place A for other
individuals (persons) who are located in other places (B, C, D, E). We assume that the individual
(person) located in place A has a higher attachment to the individuals (persons) located in place B and
a reduced attachment to individuals (persons) located in place C, so that the order of places on the
ordinate is changing accordingly.
Or, economic criteria may occur in this comment: for example, the cost of transport to reach place A. It
is possible that between place A and place D, transport is only possible on foot, and thus the cost is
minimal. If the transport from place A to place B is possible only by bus, then the cost of transport is
the price for the bus ticket, or if the transport from place A to place C is only possible by taxi, then the
cost will be higher.

So, after such an analysis, we can have findings that are different for the same situation.
We say that we have analyzed the space in relative terms. So, relative space means absolute space +
the objectives of the research (study) we are doing. We get in this condition a multitude of relative
spaces for each of the issues considered necessary in the study. So we can talk about a complex
structure of the relative space. This complex structure is the result of considering all the analyzed
situations as a whole.
This multitude of relative spaces represents in fact, each of them, the so-called relevant contexts.

2
We speak, therefore, of an understanding of space as the synthesis of relevant spaces within what we
call the global space. We can say that we are working with global space resulting from overlapping a
multitude of relevant contexts.
A result of this understanding, which has a great importance in urbanism, is the fact that the relative
space is mobile (has mobility). Space mobility means a change within the space system; when
something changes inside a system, a reaction occurs. It’s because of this mobility, a chain reaction can
occur in everything that happens in a territory.
For example, canceling (changing) a bus stop on a public transport line could be permanent or
temporary. This will change the whole situation of the public transport system and the movement of
people across an entire area. That is because there are some changes that go beyond the mobility
pattern in that territory. Thus some bus routes could become busy and other could become less used.
This principle of chain reaction has to be taken into account. Because any change to some
functionalities means changing the complementary functionalities.

Positioning is a consequence of considering space as absolute space and relative space.

In order to define an activity related to its territory, we use three terms in urbanism:
 Positioning
 Location
 Placement
Positioning is what is defined firstly. Positioning means the determination of the place where the
activity is located, resulting from cadastral data, that is by interpreting the position in relation to some
coordinates in a unique reference system. GIS (Geographic Information System) is designed to work
like this. It provides the position of the activity in space.
When this position receives topographic data, we have to do with location (we can see the level curves
and all the natural components or elements).
When physical elements appear, like neighborhoods or boundaries, for example an indication of
buildings or landscaping in that space, we are talking about placement.
Therefore, when we are talking about the placement study, then we are talking about a research that
addresses all aspects of an activity in reference to physical, natural or built-up environment.

Our second issue is the issue of measurement or measure

We have many different interpretations in urbanism regarding this subject, because we need to
measure data; and these data could be:
 Primary data
 Secondary data
Primary data are those data that are used in the form in which they are recorded (are used exactly the
way we record them). These primary data are also called initiating data (starting data) when we refer
to a specific study.
Secondary data is the primary data that becomes secondary from their first processing. Data
processing is a process of enriching information about the objective the respective data refers to.
Let’s say that we are interested in the color problem of some objects and we have some primary data,
so we are listing the respective objects by marking the color of each object. This means that we have to
deal with some primary data. When we discuss the color intensity, it means that we are processing
some data and if we make a new listing of those objects from the point of view of their color intensity,

3
then we get some secondary data. So any processing of primary data leads to secondary data. In this
processing the measurement occurs; the evaluation of the measure.
In a different analysis, the size of some objects, or the weight of some objects, or the distance between
some objects can be evaluated. So, the measurement takes into account any evaluation regarding the
components of the system. We can measure quantity or quality.

There are 4 scales for evaluating the measure.

Ratio scales tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, and they also have a
clear definition of zero. Good examples of ratio variables include height and weight.
Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know both the order and the exact differences between
the values. Time is an example for this type of scale, because the difference between each value is the
same.
With ordinal scales, the order of the values is what’s important and significant, but the differences
between each one is not really known. For example, if we ask what is the condition of a building?
Excellent, good, satisfactory, poor, unsatisfactory
Nominal scales are only used for labeling1, without having any quantitative value. Example: what color
is a specific building? white, grey, orange or other.

In the table below, I have presented the relation between the scale (the type of scale used) and the use
of that scale. I have listed the four types of scales on the vertical:
 Ratio scale
 Interval scale
 Ordinal scale
 Nominal scale
The role of those scales is, as their name implies, first - to define exactly the order of the elements
within the system with reference to an origin, then - to highlight the distance between the components
of the system, to highlight the order between the elements of the system (ordering the system) and to
classify the elements (or to label them).

With star symbols we have highlighted the role that every one of the four scales has.
We can see that the ratio scale, i.e. the scale that has a fixed point (an origin), is usable as a working
tool for all four objectives, while the interval scale (which highlights the distances between elements) is
only useful for 3 objectives, the ordinal scale (which highlights in a sequence the system components -

1
classification
4
ascending or descending in relation to a certain criterion) is only usable to obtain order in the system,
while the nominal scale is only used for classification or labeling.
We can say that classification is the most complex objective that measurement could impose in a
study. Classification involves all three other types of measurement in its definition.

Classification is the process of dividing the system’s components into groups according to their type, in
relation to the similarities or differences between them. Classification is based on a criteria system.
These criteria may be very different. They can refer to the role of the elements within the system, the
cause of their determination or to the frequency of the presence in the system of the respective
elements. Classification means highlighting the hierarchy within the system. This hierarchy can be
expressed by a dendrogram2.
generality

particularity

The dendrogram highlights the state of the system starting from particularity (the lower level of the
dendrogram) up to generality (the upper level of the dendrogram).
Everything that happens from the lower level to the higher level falls into the so-called classification
field. Within the classification field there is a scale of classification levels (or classification degrees). In
the dendrogram, the groups of elements are highlighted in relation to their similarities and so, the
differences are highlighted.
For example, we have a listing of elements, and through an analysis, we find that element 2 with
element 3 are similar or identical if we take into consideration criterion A.
We can see that between element 5 and element 6 we have an identity considering criterion B, to a
higher level than that the previous one. From the analysis we can see that elements 2 and 3, in relation
to criterion C, are identical with elements 5 and 6. So at level C, there is an identity between these
elements.
In such an analysis, we can see that an element in the initial listing has nothing in common to any other
element of the system. This is a sign that draws our attention to a special feature on this system, and
that the element must be investigated. In this scheme is element 4.
This element shows an irregularity (for example, in the case of a system of activities - a system
dysfunction) or a very characteristic feature of the system, which becomes the uniqueness of the
system, and it is situated above the other elements.

The third problem is the problem of regionalization

Regionalization is originally a mathematical problem. Mathematics has a research area that relates to
distribution and its consequences in the territory.

2
a tree diagram
5
Regionalization is defined as an operation, meaning the classification of places according to a certain
criterion, and we add to this classification a so-called constraint3 criterion. Or we could say a constraint
restriction. It is about defining functional areas based on the interdependencies between a center and
its territory.
Though theoretically, the center’s influence is the same in all directions, because of the opposition it
encounters through the forces of its context, the limit of the system is not a circumference, but has an
irregular circle shape. This is the region that a center defines in a territory. This region (or nodal region)
is defined and studied by its elements: interactions, networks, nodes, and interstitial spaces. Interstitial
spaces are the spaces that remain between the paths (links) where the interactions (relations) occur.
Nodes are (at territory level) centers of interest. Taking into consideration that there are many such
nodes, the nodal region has a hierarchy. When we discuss such a region in the territory, it means we
highlight a system of centers and areas of influence.
From a practical point of view, the most common example of this theory of the system of centers of
interest is the administrative division of a territory. The division of Romania's territory into
development regions, counties, towns and communes is in fact the consequence of applying this theory
of regionalization. Administrative regionalization is just one of the many ways in which this theory
applies.

There are 4 rules on regionalization which must be taken into account, even though these rules could
occur naturally in the territory and not necessarily as a result of human action, or with intent. These
rules are a product of the natural existence.

1. The size, the power, and the area of influence of a center are
proportional. That means that we can have 2 centers in a region
that has not been regionalized. In this territory, in a process of
regionalization, even natural, these centers become nodes. These
nodes are characterized by forces, the intensity of their forces. This
means that if two nodes are equally important, they will define
equivalent areas of influence. The power of the nodes is evaluated
in terms of serving the population within the territory. This could
be an issue of food supply or cultural services.
2. The impulse of economic change is transmitted from top to bottom,
so from the strongest place to the less important place. If within the
territory we deal with 2 nodes, and one node is more important
than the other, then there is an influence from the main node to
the secondary node, and the influence that spreads within the
territory is greater for the main node than for the secondary node.
3. Development of a certain place in a territory is dependent on the
distance to the node. So in the territory, the development of a
place depends on the distance to the respective node; the closer a
place is to the node, the faster it grows. This is a rule of diffusion of
influence of an economic or cultural nature within the territory.

3
to set the value or quantity limits
6
 These rules are nothing more than a territorial equivalent of the
laws of mechanics in physics.
4. The development potential of an area along an axis, between
nodes, depends on the intensity of interactions between the two
nodes. In the scheme there are 2 different nodes and the axis
between them. The configuration of the area of influence results
accordingly – as you can see in the drawing. It should be taken into
account that along the axis generated by these 2 nodes there is a
process of development. Given that we are dealing with a network
of nodes, this network covers an important territorial area and this
is the territory that is developing. Regionalization should be made
so that the influence in the territory also covers the interstitial
space that remains in the respective loops.

This theory of a structuralist nature, born in the 1950s, is considered for the first time in space planning
in the UK, in London, when the municipality found a series of dysfunctions in urban and extra-urban
territory.
Without going into details, there was an agglomeration of the city in the early 1960s, with various
activities, including economic activities, and the problem of housing for a new population occurred.
Without expanding London’s territory, the idea of developing new cities (in fact of some rural localities)
in the neighboring area has emerged. So the theory of the satellite city appears.
The theory of the satellite city involved the development of new localities on the main roads leading to
the city (represented with blue color in the scheme). So this was a first step solution. This solution has
highlighted a number of dysfunctions, meaning that these satellite cities generated some growths
along the main roads to London, which tended to unite. Considering this happened on all the main
roads leading to the city, another principle of approaching the city's growth problem was needed.
The satellite city was a location for the residence of the inhabitants who were also working in London,
so the policy of expanding the industry in these communes emerged. Thus, a problem related to
transport occurred, the movement of the population in the peripheral territory, and no other main
roads could be made. This is how the suburban subway line appears. An extension of subway lines from
inside the city to extra-urban territory, extending to interstitial territory (the green line). Within the
subway transport network were included the former satellite cities and several other subway stations in
the localities on the route. So there is an evolution in time of these rural settlements (marked green),
which become important residential districts and even locations with economic character. Today, the
London system is considered the best stabilized system in the territory.
This is how the interrelation of nodes of various sizes, in a hierarchical system, becomes the support of
urban development of a very large territory.

7
The problem of the decision
The decision does not belong to the professional in spatial planning but belongs to the political factor.
Of course, in the case of an architectural object, it belongs to the developer, the one who has the
financial strength. The professional must provide the arguments in order for the decision maker to
make a correct decision.
The decision is based on the arguments that the professional provides. Multiple variants of the project
are required to reach the optimal solution. The solution, in principle, is one of the variants. The
solution is the product of a decision. The architect, the urban planner must provide the variants of the
project and the political factor or the developer must take the decision.
It is important to understand that all variants must be the same in terms of effort. If some variants are
studied superficially, then the professional makes a mistake of professional ethics.
With regard to urban planning, we are dealing with a decision-making process and the preparation of
the decision.
In regards to the decision, as a conclusion, we must keep in mind that the professional must provide
the decision maker multiple variants of a project. And also, in order to make a correct decision and to
be able to make an accurate evaluation it is necessary for the decision maker to understand the
context, the determinants and the conditionality of the respective place.

8
Course 7 – Urban Structures

Following the commentary on the four issues that the distribution puts into question: the
position, the measure, the regionalization, the decision, we must keep in mind that these 4
elements are involved in solving a number of problems in the territory, like: zoning, location,
distribution of urban equipment, flows, allocation and diffusion.

Of all these characteristic problems for the organization of space in the territory, we will stop on
one of them. It is the most common to us and because it is the oldest problem in urban practice.
This is zoning.

Zoning is an operation of dividing the territory into parts, this division being realized theoretically,
and sometimes also practically, in the territory for very different reasons. We can see a type of
zoning in the ancient city and in the medieval city (even if the medieval city is not a product of
urban conception). Zoning was later a principle for the modern city. Zoning is the characteristic
feature that the functionalist model1 produces and explains in urban practice. Today, zoning is
necessary in urban planning. Depending on the purpose, zoning has different consequences from
one era to another.

In the Middle Ages, zoning was primarily done for religious reasons, and then socially defined
(that is, a difference in terms of location of rich population relative to the poor). In another era,
zoning was done as a means of fire protection (in major port cities), because of the grain storage
areas in the proximity of the ports, fires were occurring so that a zoning of storage area from the
rest of the city was necessary.

Later, zoning became a principle of modern urbanism; it is the zoning principle, to which Le
Corbusier refers from the beginning of the nineteenth century, which becomes a fundamental
principle through The Athens Charter in 1933. This type of zoning means for Le Corbusier, a
separation, an urban segregation in the territory of the human settlement between 3 or 4
territorial areas, each identifiable by a certain activity. So, it results in an area for residence,
another area for work, another area for commerce and recreation. Corbusier also mentioned
circulation (traffic) corridors but not exactly as a specific zone. This type of zoning, in the 50-70s,
caused an urban segregation process in the urban territory. Urban segregation, meaning not only
a separation, but a categorical separation that does not accept influences, does not accept
influences between one area and the other.

This state of urban segregation has produced at the time a state of uniformity of the built
territory. Thus, a modern construction, with advantages in some respects for the comfort of

1
It is the equivalent, in urban planning, of the modern movement in architecture; Its credo is the ATHENS CHARTER
of the Congres Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne (CIAM) issued in 1993
1
existence, became an area that had shortcomings because of this state of uniformity, of lack of
differentiation. In this time period, the “sleeping districts” and large shopping centers were built,
being affected by these characteristics of uniformity and lack of differentiation.

As early as 1953, at the International Congress of Modern Architecture in Dubrovnik, these zoning
issues become evident. During the congress some papers are presented that draw attention to
urban multi-functionality and the interest in differentiating space organization. Differentiation will
be gradually understood as absolutely necessity in the existence of human in the organized space,
from a psychosocial point of view. By the late 1950s, when some large neighborhoods were
opened around Paris, Madrid, or in Sweden, physicians observe some psychiatric illnesses
considered to be determined by living in these large neighborhoods. For this reason, today in the
medical dictionaries there is a disease called "sarcellite" named after this neighborhood in Paris,
the Sarcelles neighborhood.

In this condition zoning becomes the subject of severe criticism involving philosophers, writers,
sociologists and architects. Criticism does not target zoning as a necessity, but it underlines the
need for a new interpretation of zoning. As such, a new zoning theory is gradually being created in
the sense that the professional must seek in the organization of the territorial space the
association of functions, not the segregation of functions, which will result only as an absolute
necessity and not as a principle.

As a consequence of changing the understanding of zoning notion, the theory of multi-

functionality appears, and later the functional integration in urban territory.

Let's see what the zoning principle means, as we understand it today. It is important to associate
functions, considering that this association is an advantage both for the activities that they
involve, for the population and for the image of the city. In order to achieve a functional
association, a very careful analysis of the system of activities is required. In the old meaning of
zoning, the analysis of the system of activities means to put on one side good activities and on
the other side negative activities (harmful for society). In the new understanding of the zoning
principle we need to make a very careful analysis of the system of activities because we are
interested in associations of activities by groups of activities, actually seeking in these
associations the advantages of one association or another association. So, the advantages and
the disadvantages in the way we look at these associations of activities are more important,
therefore the idea of cooperation, collaboration, and co-ordination in defining the system of
activities is of prime importance in the space organization.

Advantages of applying this new zoning principle are:

2
1. Functionalities in accordance with the complexity of urban life, generating in the territory the
reality of very complex urban structures

2. An increase in interest in urban space, both in terms of its occupation and the resulting image

3. Premises for creating an attractive, varied, interesting space

4. An opening at the territory level and of the respective space for further development (ie a
process of continuous development, obviously related to mobility) – there are situations in which
spaces that were built on land surfaces in the old idea of zoning were demolished in the 2000s, as
happened in Lyon, for example, and rebuilt in this new concept of zoning, meaning the "mix" of
functions.

5. A better, more economic use of the territory

Let's see what this zoning means practically in urban territory. There is the question of defining
the character, because if we consider the Corbusier principle, meaning the division of urban
territory into three categories in the territory, then it is very easy to define the character of the
area: residential area, production area and commercial area or other urban equipment.

When we make an analysis of this type of activities, highlighting the relationship between
activities, such as the relationship between activity A and activity B, in the simplistic sense, that
activity A influences positively activity B, activity B influences activity A (the first relationship –
upper right corner) and so on, we can find out the situations in which the two activities could not
only coexist but associate in a convenient association and which are the situations in which the
two activities cannot associate. If an activity has a positive influence on another activity, but this
second activity has a negative influence on the first one, associating these activities is not
possible.

In this situation, the question of how we define the character of an area and how we define the
actual area (the boundaries of that area) occur.
3
For example, the influence of a center, the influence of some urban equipment in the territory
spreads into territory to exhaustion, it dissipates; this is a similar effect to mechanical physics;
only these time the effects come from different parts, they intersect, they come into opposition
with the effects of other equipment or centers. When they enter in opposition, a limit is defined;
a limit of the respective area of influence. It should be borne in mind that this opposition can
arise not only from another influence, but also from the context (it may be a territory that is in a
topography that makes impossible the expansion - a slope, a ledge, whether it is an occupation of
the territory which makes it impossible to extend that influence).

There are several procedures to set boundaries (limits) in a territory. The simplest approach is by
multi-criteria analysis. That is, we define the characteristics of an object considering at the same
time a multitude of criteria. The most important issue is choosing the criteria. A selection must be
made of the many criteria that may be taken into account. There are two conditions that we need
to take into account. The criterion must be very obvious (specific) for what we are interested in
finding, and secondly, the criterion must be clearly evaluated.

Here are the steps of this multi-criteria analysis:

1. Listing the criteria (the listing that the researcher makes based on documentation and
experience)

2. Analyzing the criteria considered individually (to highlight everything that is specific to the
criterion, everything that the criterion can highlight, so that it is possible to evaluate the power of
these criteria in order to obtain a listing of the criteria in a clear order)

3. Criteria evaluation (eg criterion X has 3 points, criterion Y has a value of 1 point, on a scale set
by us)

These three moments of the multi-criteria analysis are analytical.

4. Criteria analysis in the territory. This is a tough research because we have to search within the
whole territory and analyze each criterion in every place. This operation is done through a
mathematical modeling (the entire territory is divided into a grid; the information points are

4
considered as nodes of the grid; in each node the criterion is analyzed and the finding on that
criterion is recorded). In this recording we can record a value or we can mark the information
with a symbol.
5. Applying the criteria limits on a plan. That is, to circumscribe in the territory that we have
analyzed some different areas with regards to some criteria; each criterion defining an area, so a
limit. In order to define these limits, we are considering a constraint value with a restrictive
character, that is, a constraint restriction.

6. Overlapping the criteria limits. That is, an analysis by overlapping criteria that generates
cumulative criterion values.

7. Defining the area that interests us.

Here's an example. We assume that we are interested in locating in a locality the central area or
the actual center in a territory.

We make an analysis starting from the system of activities. For simplification, we assume that we
analyze 3 activities (A - blue, B - red, C - green). These are characteristic activities for what we are
looking for; the central character of the territory, for example. The listing, after going through the
first three steps above, means that has some criteria with value of importance (A - 1 point, B - 2
points, C - 3 points).

We proceed to examine the territory and circumscribe the area in which activity A was
discovered. In this scheme we have a larger and a smaller area. We have the same situation for
activity B – red; an area in which this activity manifests itself; also we can highlight an area for C -
green activity.

5
We then overlap the boundaries of these activities and get a mosaic of territory parts. Then we
cumulate the values and we get areas with cumulative values (blue + green = 4, red + green +
blue = 6, and so on). Each of the parts of the mosaic has a value resulting from the cumulative
values of A, B, and C.

An evaluation scale ranging from 1 to 6 is resulting (cumulative maximum values). Afterwards, an

element of subjective nature is occurring, in which the participation of the researchers is
important, namely setting the constraint restriction. This is done using the experience of the
researcher, the knowledge gain from other analyzes or from documentation, and the constraint
restriction is established (for example the restriction value is 5). Therefore we can consider the
center as the territory that has a cumulative value greater than or equal to 5. So we get this
brown hatched territory that is the territory we are looking for.

This analysis can highlight what we call structural barriers, with reference to data within the
territory. In such an analysis, when there is a linear overlap of these criteria limits, the question
arises as to what is happening in that place. This is called “barrier of structure”, in the sense that
the structure changes (disappears or changes). This change may be historical, contextually geo-
topographic (a watercourse or ravine), or of a social nature. This structural barrier of social nature
is typical for American cities. For example, in New York or Chicago, there are situations where on
one side of a street (avenue) there are ground floor buildings and on the other side very high
buildings, skyscrapers. Or, on one side of a street we can find a poor neighborhood, almost
abandoned, and on the other side can be a luxurious neighborhood or a university campus.

About Urban Integration

The state of integration at the level of the urban organism has first begun to concern the
theorists since early as 1960s and then the practitioners. We are talking about philosophers or
sociologists, such as Henry Lefebvre and not professionals in architecture and spatial planning.

Multi-functionality occurs in the 60s as a consequence of criticism of the functionalist model. The
functionalist model was based on the idea of a uni-functional zoning, so of a separation in the
territory of parts with different functions. As a consequence of this critique of the functionalist
model, the theory of multi-functionality appears. That is, the multi-functional assembly, which
means a state of association, a combination of different functions within the same spatial
structure.

Integration means not only a combination of functions but a merging those functions, ie the
functions of an object combined with the functions of another object is generating not only an
ensemble of functions but a new functional system.

6
Here are the functional integration’s possible situations within the urban territory:

1. Integration on program’s level; it's about the architectural program. This integration results
from the simple combination of different functions, so the different units of space generated by
these functions. In a space (building) we will find several adjacent functions.

2. Integrating on a level of object functions; this is about the object resulting from this association
of functions, which becomes a state of integration. Integrating to the object's functions is an
integration that leads to another state of functionality of that object. That is, taking into account
the same ensemble of functions, we can assemble these functions by simply joining them in a
conglomerate, which can be an ensemble, or we can deal with an association of activities that can
generate a state of integration, a condition in which the respective functions cannot be identified
very easily, directly, individually. So we are not talking about an ensemble made by putting
together some functions, but it is a state in which functions are combined. In a space (building)
we can find combined functions that determine a state of integration.

3. Integration at the level of urban functions. That is, a state of integration that no longer refers
to a distinct architectural object, but extends to the urban territory, generating what we call a
state of functional urban integration.

Here is a scheme that shows the state of functional urban integration. It has several components
that generate it. We assume that in a city, within its texture a center is generated, a central
ensemble (A); we may have to do in this situation with integration at the ensemble level. In the
development of this urban organism, other centers (B, C, D, E) may appear over time. Between
the first center and the other centers, extensions are created on the principle of action in the
territory and thus a very complicated organism appears in the territory, which means an
extension in that territory, which has a central character and at the same time a state of urban
integration.

The state of urban integration within the territory means:

 the existence of integrated multifunctional centers (cores, assemblies)

 Integrated corridors (these are defined on integration paths, they typically follow
characteristic elements of the texture such as carriageways or pedestrian ways)

7
This is a process of development over time, so we can discuss about the integrated area within
urban territory. Therefore 3 concepts results: the integrated multifunctional ensemble (blue
circles), the integrator path (black lines) and the integrated area (red line).

The integrator process can be realized either naturally or conceptually, ie based on the project.
Here are the problems that arise in such an integrating process when this process is intended, ie
conceptually, by professionals:

1. Identifying the integration needs

2. Choosing the functions that are involved in integration; these functions actually mean
activities; there are 3 types of functions (in the sense of activities):
 integrative functions (generating integration),
 integrated functions and
 auxiliary functions.
Integrative functions are the most important, are defining functions which generate the
character of integrated areas within the territory. Integrated functions are absolutely
necessary functions in relation to the integrative functions; are required by the integrative
functions. Auxiliary functions are functions that can occur randomly. For example, we can
discuss a state of integration in a territory with a residential character, so the integrative
function is the residential function. Then, integrated functions can be a commercial function,
small production function or recreational function. Another example of an integrative function
is the commercial function. For example a commercial ensemble, a center of interest within
the territory; within such an ensemble, the residential function can occur as an integrated
function.
3. Analyzing the groups of functions. Here is a feature of the integration state. We assume that
we have several determinations at the level of activities within the architectural program.
That is, we can have a spatial assembly with a certain purpose and that is characterized by
activity A, B, C, D, E, F, H. We can have another spatial assembly, characterized by activity B,

8
 D, F and H. We can have yet another spatial assembly, characterized by activity A, D and H. At
this moment of the integration analysis, ie the possibility of association, grouping of functions
becomes obvious. Then the question of having these activities carried out in the same place
and not dispersed occurs. This means that in the spatial ensemble, in that configuration we
will not have 3 spaces (for activity D or H) with the same destination, but we will have only
one space for that destination. So, to make a project in the state of integration means to pre-
process the architectural brief received and to generate a new brief capable to integrate
functions.

A A
B B
C
D D D
E
F F
H H H

4. Locating of the integrated multifunctional ensemble is possible in a certain structural logic,

being in fact an issue of urban parti
5. Defining the urbanistic architectural conception means defining the configuration in the
occupation of the territory, that is, extruding a possible volume starting from the parti
scheme.
6. Specifying how the space is managed. It is about answering the question: how to maintain the
functionality of that space during time? That's because functionality is evolving, is changing
over time. The architect must ensure the flexibility of the space, ie the possibility to change
over time without very high costs. There are other aspects of management also, such as space
heating, power supply and others.

Advantages of integration are:

 Of an economic nature (economy in land usage in terms of occupancy but also economy of
energy for example)
 Functional-ambient (advantages resulting from the proximity of spaces of different
functions; the possibility of creating a certain environment of ambient comfort; for
example the advantages of a shopping mall for users in bad weather are obvious in terms
of comfort over a commercial street)
 Of social nature (refers to social relations, community existence)

Examples of integrated multifunctional ensembles may be shopping malls (where integrating

function is the commercial one, the other functions are complementary, for example cinemas).
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About structural limits in urban structure

It is about understanding the relation between the center of the system and the area of the
system, that is, the surface in which the center of the system has its influence. The force of the
center defines a limit of influence in that territory. We can speak of a natural boundary of the
system (it is where the respective force is lost, it exhausts its power) or a constraint, resulting
from the context (the force of the center receives the opposition of the force of another center).
This defines the system limit. Regarding the system and structure, this limit is not the only one to
which we can refer. Generally, we say that a limit characterizes a decision-based analysis when
we refer to a limit that one can establish and impose on that system. That is because there are
also context limits: a river, a mountain slope are natural boundaries, physical boundaries or
context boundaries.

These boundaries, which arise through the decision, are of several ways depending on their
purpose and are characterized by their usefulness at different scales of space representation. We
therefore have:

1. Development (growth) limits are generally qualitative limits. Some are referring very clear
about the quantity (example: the extent of a residential area up to the “A” street), but
they can also refer to quality (for example: a certain territory must be developed so that
the residential space must have 15 square meters of living space / capita)
2. Operational limits. These limits are used either in study, in research, or are used on the
ground in defining urban operations (for an urban restructuring operation, an intervention
area is established based on research that exceeds the actual building area)
3. Functional limits are actual limits of structure (structure being an expression of
functionality). These limits highlight the structure. For example, the limit of a center is a
limit of structure.
4. There are also normative limits (generated by the norm, rules with official character in any
country, or functional norms (for example Neufert architects data); there are also
textbooks for urban space that contains norms, for example a road must have minimum
7meters wide is the result of a norm)

We can say that a limit marks in a territory (in a structure) the actual or virtual transition from a
certain quality to another quality, thus we must understand a change in the type of quality or the
level of intensity of that quality.

In principle, we can consider that the limit is a performance criterion for the system.

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