Environmental Impacts of Construction and Demolition Waste and Sustainable Management

Solutions

-Ruqaya Aljabery

Sustainability is the word of the moment (Low et al., 2005). And in the construction industry;
it means ensuring that materials are being used efficiently. There are a lot of producers for
waste such as; households and economic activities. However, the main producer is the
construction industry. Construction and demolition waste (CDW) has been defined in many
ways. In 1981, BRE defined waste as ‘any material apart from earth materials, which needed
to be transported elsewhere from the construction site or used on the site itself other than the
intended specific purpose of the project’. And in Hong Kong, HK Polytechnic stated that
construction waste is ‘The by-products generated and removed from construction, renovation
and demolition workplaces or sites of building and civil engineering structures’. The
Environmental Act, in 1990, stated that waste is ‘scrap material or an effluent or other surplus
substance arising from the application of any process.’ Generally, CDW are generated due to
building new structures, maintenance, renovation, total/ partial demolition and developing
infrastructure projects. Many of CDWs are being dumped in landfills, legally and/ or illegally,
like; concrete, gypsum, bricks, metals, glass, plastic, solvents, wood and excavated soil,
(European Commission, 2016).
Many regions/ countries around the world, including the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the
United States (U.S) and Europe (EU) are going through the challenge of attaining sustainability
on construction sites. However, the increasing quantities of material waste produced by the
construction activities and dumped in landfills are one of the main barriers. According to the
U.S Environmental Protection Agency report that in the U.S in 2003, 170 million tonne have
been produced and that the disposed material waste is being collected by 1900 C&D landfills,
where 25-30% of all waste generated in EU is CDW which is one of the heaviest waste streams
produced there. The UAE is considered as one of the biggest producers of waste, 75% of its
waste is construction waste (Al-hajj and Hamani, 2011). All these reports show that the way of
handling waste and disposal should be urgently improved by considering other waste
management practices like recycling and reusing.
The generation of CDWs is due to some factors that have been categorized into four groups:
handling of materials; design; procurement; and operation, (Ekanayake and Ofori, 2000). That
means the reduction in CDWs should be started at the initial stages of any project. Improper
design is one of the main causes of these wastes. According to (Lingard et al., 2000), reducing
waste amounts significantly depends on the behavior of the labors and their awareness
regarding waste issues. So, the culture is one of the affecting factors as shown in figure 1.

1
Figure 1: Sources of construction waste, (Lingard et al., 2000)

The CDWs can be hazardous and hence cause harmful risks to the environment if not managed
properly. One of the main implications made of the excessive quantities of CDW is the illegal
dumping, which means disposing the waste materials into the land that is not specified/
designed for this purpose or this type of wastes. This unethical process causes serious health
risks and environmental issues (e.g. pollution). For instance, illegal dumping next to the
waterways causes oceanic pollution and hence damaging the aquatic life. Moreover, illegal
dumping affects the plants and wildlife negatively. Because, toxins leach into the soil and the
surrounding environment, and that may kill the plants and damage the food source of animals
as stated in (Clean up, 2011).
One of the hazardous CDW materials is plastic. Plastics are widely used in construction
purposes like pipes, PVC sheets, storage tanks, floorings and roofing. When plastic materials
are dumped into the earth, they prevent the generation of nutrients in the soil. Hence, they will
reduce the fertility of the soil and that affect the agriculture sector. When Plastics are disposed
in the environment, they will break down and release damaging chemicals. These chemicals
are considered as pollutants, and they contain heavy metals like lead and chemicals like
benzene and other pollutants, that all release dangerous toxins into the air, soil and water. Some
of the plastic materials are being disposed into landfills where they are being buried deeply into
the earth. That will not stop plastic from affecting the environment because it is so strong that
its chemicals may sink into the nearby land and hence pollute groundwater.
Many researches have shown that Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) treated wood quantities
in Florida’s C&D landfills (that are mostly unlined) are increasing and exceeding the guidelines
of Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) (Townsend et al., 2001a) These guidelines
are based upon toxicity and precipitation. A leaching test have been conducted, and the results

2
have shown that CCA treated wood leakage is causing the wood to be a toxic hazardous waste
and causing groundwater pollution at unlined landfills (M. Solo-Gabriele, G. Townsen and Cai,
n.d.). CCA treated wood disposal causes ash pollution as well as soil pollution, and that have
been concluded after testing the soil which was situated below CCA treated wooden decks. The
results have shown that arsenic level in the soil exceeded the guidelines of Florida for risk-
based soil, and that means the soil may cause risks to the environment and health risks to the
human beings (M. Solo-Gabriele, G. Townsen and Cai, n.d.)
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) is another hazardous material that is being released into the
environment due to the illegal dumping, disposal into landfills that are not designed for
hazardous waste and poor maintenance of hazardous waste sites. It exists in plastics; rubber
products and thermal insulation materials. PCB wastes can remain in the environment for long
periods moving between soil, water and air. Light PCBs can be transported easily for long
distances from the polluted source. PCBs stick to the surfaces of organic particles. For example,
it can accumulate in the leaves, food crops, sediments and fish. And as a result, the potential
risk to human beings will increase. It has been proved by the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) that PCB causes serious and/ or deadly health risks like cancer, and it affects the immune
system, nervous system endocrine system as well as reproductive system in both human beings
and animals.
To reduce the environmental impacts of CDWs that have been mentioned earlier, it is important
to encourage construction companies to start adopting environmentally friendly solutions like
recycling; reusing and reducing. The stability between improving the built environment and
protecting the environment can only be attained by using a cyclic process that is based on
prevention, reuse and recycling of material waste instead of the traditional production process.
To achieve better protection for the environment and maintain relatively low cost, CDW should
be reduced. This reduction can be attained by adopting new construction methods. A survey
has been conducted by (Dainty and Broke, 2004), and it has been concluded that the off-site
prefabricated elements are being widely used to reduce the waste on site. Another way of
reducing construction waste is by staff training and increasing the awareness. This can be
achieved by arranging regular meetings and sharing posters that highlights the advantages and
principles of waste on site.
In Singapore, 2013, approximately 1.69 million tonnes of construction waste have been
produced at a recycling amount of 99%. CDW then usually sorted manually or by machines
(e.g. magnetic separators) to recover some useful materials like wood; ferrous metals; and
plastics. The recovered materials are then transported to recycling companies for further
transformation. The recovered wood can be reused in construction and the remaining waste
that contains concrete; bricks, gravel; and stones, are then crushed to generate aggregates that
can be reused for other construction purposes (Zero Waste Singapore. n.d.)
One of the CDW materials that can be recycled are aggregates. (Edge Environment, 2011) has
conducted a case study on the benefits of recycling aggregates in Farfield City Council
Sustainable Resource Centre (SRC). The SRC which was established in 1992 in Australia,
turns CDW into new materials by recycling/ re-using them and returning them to the
construction industry. The SRC has recycled more than 150,000 tonnes of material in 2011. It
produces new materials from recycled asphalt, crushed concrete and cement stabilized sands
as shown in figure 2. Yearly, more than 100,000 tonnes of materials have been diverted from
landfills by the SRC. In this way, valuable lands can be saved, and less raw/ virgin materials
are used. However, they have faced few challenges regarding the recycled concrete properties,
since the aggregates that are obtained from the recycled concrete contain high amounts of

3
cement. So, the recycled products
will tend to absorb more water and
that will change the behavior of the
materials and the curing times. The
difficulty of using recycled materials
is one of the negative perceptions by
the construction industry, which is
considered as a challenge to the SRC.
They are working on changing these
perceptions by conducting field trials/
experiments that show how to use the
recycled materials in a way that their
maximum performance can be
reached.
Figure 2: Recycled asphalt showing recycled material
Another case study has been aggregates, (Edge Environment, 2011)
conducted by (Edge Environment,
2011) on the benefits of recycling
glass. Fletcher Insulation used glass
from CDW and other waste resources like scrap cars and glass bottles, to produce glass wool
insulation. And they have stated that 70% of the total glass production in the Australian
industry (50,000 tonnes) can be recycled. In addition to the economic benefits of this recycling
process, its efficiency has been proved. Using recycled glass has reduced the required energy
in the furnace (i.e. 1600°C is needed to produce glass from raw materials whereas only 800-
900°C is needed in case of using recycled glass). Fletcher Insulation now is working on
producing binders that allow the glass to be restored from glass wool insulations and has
worked with the recycling industry to form a steady supply of glass waste material of the same
quality.
Waste wood can be used as a source of renewable energy. According to (Statistics Finland,
2014), 142,000 tonnes of wood waste have been collected from all sectors in Finland, of which
4.2% has been collected from construction waste in 2013. Waste wood collected from CDW is
mostly considered as dirty because it is treated with chemicals and metal fasteners that make it
ineligible for recycling and reuse. The recycling and reuse of waste wood are limited by the
quality specifications allocated for construction materials. However, these massive quantities
of collected wood from the CDW can be used for energy recovery. This is a proven option for
encouraging the industry to use renewable energy sources instead of fossil fuels.
CDW materials can be reused on construction sites, that will reduce their impact on the
environment and reduce the overall costs as well. For example, concrete has been reused for
two projects of the same type. During the demolition of two multi-family houses, the in-situ
concrete has been sawn into elements and then, it has been transported to another construction
site that is 64 km away and reused in a new project of multi-family houses (Roth, 2005)
Clay bricks can be reused form old building in completely different construction projects. First,
the masonry elements in an old hospital have been removed and cleaned, i.e. the masonry
elements, and each brick has been deconstructed manually and then cleaned. That caused 25%
of the material losses. Then, the clay bricks have been stored and then transported to a new
construction site which is 17 km away. In addition to 5 tonnes of reused wood studs and 1
tonne of new steel, 5 tonnes of virgin wood studs were needed for the new construction project.
Whereas in the old structure, 8 tonnes of new wood studs were needed without steel. Totally,

4
90 tonnes of clay bricks were reused for the new structure, while the old building needed 80
tonnes of new clay bricks (Roth, 2005)
Other CDW materials can be recycled and used including plasterboard, which is too expensive
to be thrown away. It could be reprocessed to produce new plasterboard. Another material is
plastic which can be recycled to manufacture street signs or used in other construction sites.
Moreover, Cardboard can be cut to generate house insulation. Finally, metals can be recycled
to manufacture high quality metals. This process is more energy efficient than making metals
from raw materials.
To conclude, waste materials are generated from many sectors like households and factories.
However, in many parts of the world, the main producer is construction and demolition sector.
The construction and demolition waste (CDW) amounts vary from country to another
depending upon the types of the structures being built, materials that are used and construction
processes. The largest percentage of these wastes is generated due to the improper design that
can result in excessive cut-offs. Other reasons include inappropriate handling and having
unskilled labors. Many of CDW materials are hazardous and have negative impacts on the
environment like plastics, materials that contain PCBs and CCA treated wood. All of these
materials can cause serious damages to the environment and health risks to the human beings
if not managed properly. These wastes can be reduced by adopting new construction techniques
like using and raising the awareness between staff. In addition to recycling and reusing waste
materials. And as a result, the environmental impacts and health risks of these wastes is
eliminated or reduced.

References

A. Knoblauch, J. (2009). The environmental toll of plastics. [online] Washington Post.

Available at: http://www.ehn.org/agency-rethinks-how-climbers-dispose-of-poop-on-
alaska-peak-the-washington-post-2541003130.html [Accessed 26 Feb. 2018].
Al-Hajj, A. and Hamani, K. (2011). Material Waste in the UAE Construction Industry: Main
Causes and Minimization Practices. Architectural Engineering and Design Management,
[online] 7(4), pp.221-235. Available at:
https://researchportal.hw.ac.uk/en/publications/material-waste-in-the-uae-construction-
industry-main-causes-and-m [Accessed 23 Feb. 2018].
Cleanup.org.au. (2011). Illegal Dumping - Fact Sheet. [online] Available at:
http://www.cleanup.org.au/files/cua_illegal_dumping_factsheet.pdf [Accessed 28 Feb.
2018].
Du Plessis, C. (2007). A strategic framework for sustainable construction in developing
countries. [online] Jordangbc.org. Available at:
http://jordangbc.org/uploads/main_gbc/06a6ab1208e4ff53f9d37b2a10fca105.pdf
[Accessed 26 Feb. 2018].
Ekanayake, L. L. and Ofori, G. (2000), Construction material waste source evaluation. In
Proceedings of 2nd Southern African Conference on Sustainable Development in the Built
Environment: Strategies for a sustainable built environment (35, 1-6), August 23-25,
Pretoria, South Africa.

5
Ec.europa.eu. (2016). Construction and demolition waste. [online] Available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/construction_demolition.htm [Accessed 27 Feb.
2018].
Environment.gov.au. (2012). Construction and Demolition Waste Guide- Recycling and Re-
use Across the Supply Chain. [online] Available at:
https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/b0ac5ce4-4253-4d2b-b001-
0becf84b52b8/files/case-studies.pdf [Accessed 28 Feb. 2018].
Lingard, H., Graham, P. and Smithers, G. (2000). Employee perceptions of the solid waste
management system operating in a large Australian contracting organization: implications
for company policy implementation. Construction Management and Economics, 18(4),
pp.383-393.
M. Solo-Gabriele, H., G. Townsen, T. and Cai, Y. (n.d.). Environmental Impacts of CCA-
Treated Wood Within Florida, USA. [online] ccaresearch.org. Available at:
http://www.bing.com/cr?IG=4F58B9CE7B164A0CBE0FC4AA9479D48F&CID=3CBB
2EF2A2156F8D25912557A3BA6EE3&rd=1&h=GKCqxXZRkvjvsI-
hajSGDekhVr9ugAAWL7FEJ0GXQDA&v=1&r=http%3a%2f%2fwww.ccaresearch.org
%2fccaconference%2fpre%2fpdf%2fSoloGabriele.pdf&p=DevEx,5064.1 [Accessed 27
Feb. 2018].
Roth, L. (2005). Reuse of construction materials - Environmental performance and assessment
methodology. [ebook] Sweden: Environmental Technology and Management, pp.42-43.
Available at: https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:21001/FULLTEXT01.pdf
[Accessed 28 Feb. 2018].
Stat.fi. (2013). Tilastokeskus. [online] Available at:
http://www.stat.fi/til/jate/2013/jate_2013_2015-05-28_tau_002_fi.html [Accessed 28
Feb. 2018].
US EPA. (n.d.). Learn about Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) | US EPA. [online] Available
at: https://www.epa.gov/pcbs/learn-about-polychlorinated-biphenyls-pcbs [Accessed 28
Feb. 2018].