Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
O U.S. ARMY
FOREIGN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY CENTER
43 MATERlI.
HELICOPTER DESIGN
by .I-'c
V. N. DALIN 1F
SEP 9 19T
COUNTRY: USSR D
D
of" ths
or*iginal .foreign rendition
i,8 a text without any
EThi8ý.document
analytical or editorial comment.
Reprodwced by
NATIONAL TECHNICAL
INFORMATION SERVICE
of Commerce
U S Department
Springfield VA 27151
AUTHOR: V. N. Dalin
NOTICE
The contents of this publication have been translated as presented in the original text. No
attempt has been made to verify the accuracy of any statement contained herein. This
translation is published with a minimum of copy editing and graphics preparation in order
to expedite the dissemination of information. Requests for additional copies of this
document should be addressed to Department A, National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Virginia 22151. Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.
FI
Foreword
:nt roduc t i en
-3-
-In 'th0 same year, a rotor control assembly which was
hrist used by him on his helicopter and installed on tiie
-4-
*- *- - -- ,
-5-
~V
at the beginning of the twentieth century as the result of
increasing cases of flying accidents with airplanes.
3Re
}8'
-. I< 4 "
S-R~l . .
a) C)
r -6-
Multitudinous investigations and -expertments with
autogyros led to an articulated fastening of the main
rotor blades to its hub, providing their free flapping
during rotation of the rotor and providing equal distribution
of the lift force along the area described by the main
rotor in horizontal flight.
-7
and N. K. Skrzhinskiy, A-12 (see Figure 2c). The A-7
autogyro, designed by N. I. Karnov, was series-built, in 1940,
and took part in combat operations of our forces during
the Second World War.,
-8-
S- Figure 4 i-EA ingle-Rotor Combination Helicopter
5 SFigure
First Experimental Helicopters in which the
Experience of Autogyro Construction was Used:
,s. .. ....
I -
C)
Li
d) e)
-10-
iA , l w , = 1 m i e= " , m m I , •• i i , •
I-¢
t~
Designed by A. S. Yakovlev
, ,H
H,, , H , , . . . .. L ..... .. .• ....
,,,.==
= ,,=m
, ,••,.,.,.,•
• • ,•.=I
= ,,e~m,=,,,,
J.. .=,.', =
Helicopter construction has developed along two
directions -- that of indreasing pay load and that of mi1-
proving the flying, technical and economic characteristics.
Table 1
C1 Bel)TO.40TIA
b CCCP . C CILIA
,-,I_ I
I
,, _ I MS-
I
s.5,
51 I s.5 I S-64
I I
e l'OA BIAIIycNa 19018 1952 1957 91016 1954 1962
I'-
py2oloMeit. 0,3 1,2-1,6 8-12 0,ý 1,2 5-6
HOCTh, 0 Ml
9 ro7T 1et
,iTec
0 2.3 7,2 39-4.1 2,3 (;,0 17,0
((
• "Figure 10 Single-Rotor Ifelicopters
Designed by M. L.
Mill
VIM,
4t
0
83. r M.•*:Mj
a 1_lab
I" JO I / I
wa
-. •-se'm-,e , . . t . . .
-14-
-r _77r77r m
-15-
0*
•,, - -,.F
'," .
'w~q. Oz3rY
r T";
-- 6
Figure 12 Ka-22yneRotor
Figure 12 "RotdyneRotor Wing
Wing
-kk ' ~ '
-17-
Chapter 1 J
Helicopter Layouts
( air and its equal Mt, where Mt is the torque moment on the
main rotor shaft.. This moment attempts to turn the fuselage
of the helicopter in a direction opposite that of the main
9 rotor's rotation.
S~-18-
dretiont of the "1ower
-shaft the one. The mainof rotors
same number turn inandopposite
revolutions their
Sreaotion m6tments are mutual-ly cancel ling. The planea; o-f
rot0tidii6f the- mai•h rotors-are separated from each other
:bk, some distance so, that -ihe blades of the upper and lower
4eotbrs cdannot collide in any flight configuration.
-19-
t -4
Y.I
From the point of view of aerodynamics, helicopters
of this layou÷'have an essential deficiency -- the negative
effect of the front main rotor on the rear one at low air-
speeds.
_ Win_.
_Rotor Due to a decrease in the required liftirg
force on the main rotor of a helicopter with a wing and an
increase in drag from the wing, the main rotor must be
inclined forward at a large angle, and since the amount of'
the inclination of the main rotor forward is limited
according to aerodynamic and design conformities, in order
to obtain even higher helicopter air speeds, additional
engines are installed with either thrusting or tractor
propellers. A helicopter with a main rotor, wing and tractor
(thrust) propeller; is called a combination or rotor wing,
and therefore it is a combination of' a helicopter and an
airplane (see Figures 4, 13 and '4).
-20-
A rotor wing takes off like a heli-copter. gt
,
tth
H
T,'
flight configuration, the rotor wing is controlled similarly
to an airplane with aerodynamic control surfaces.
-21-
r Two types of main rotor jet power are possible:
-22-
speed is increasing, the rotor wing can transfer to a
e onfiguration in which all the lift will be created by the
wing and the turning main rotor will only interfere with
flight, creating additional drag. In order to increase
airspeed, it is necessary to streamline the main rotor in
some way or another, which is to say transform the heli-
copter into an airplane.
-23-
/{
V
p
7f
S n o--
' , --
4L1
-24-
and., the amoun't of forces and moments acting on them is
changing.
-25-
-I
x. t
-W' -- " lt"" 47"rA- l, ,,
-6
-26-
wing warp increases as the wing section approaches the
position of equilibrium. In position 3, the wing does not
stop, but continues further due to inertia. Forces Pu and Pin
reverse their direction and therefore, the angle of warp
decreases (position 4). in position 5, wing sag is maxi-
mized and angle of warp = 0. Wing positions 6, 7, 8 and 9
can be constructed similarly.
-29-
P 1) Moving the center of gravity of the blade toward
its leading edge as much as possible under the design
conditions;
Flexure-Aileron Flutter
V,ý
-'0
iue
If"
ex - e
P a2 Cte
'7 4 Ppp
P P
Wing Instability
-33- ,
Aileron effectiveness and the critical velocity-of
reversing depend on the aerodynamic, geometric and rigidity
characteristics of the wing. and aileron. By changing the
parameters of the aileron or rigidity characteristics of
the wing, it is possible to increase the critical velocity
of reversing if the iatter lies within the flight range
(lower than the maximum air speed).
Buffeting
-A4
'he structure of the separated stream is eitremely
complex. Pulsing loads act on the streamlined body itself.
Besides this, they act on all the parts or elements of
design where the adjoining vortices of the stream fall.
If a pulsing load is applied to a, flexible body$. it, will
accomplish oscillations with prevailing frequency -equal to
the frequency of natural oscillati6nsý In this case,
resonance will occur with a frequency which coincides with
the frequency of natural oscillations 6f the flexible system.
-35-
- *~f
b) *
Work of a Helicopter Main Rotor in Horizontal
Figure 21
Flight
a - diagram of the forces applied to a single rotor heli-
vertical
copter in rotor, plane, b - diagram of blade flow-past of
Fiuthemain T mr - main rotor thrust, Ymr - main rotor
lift. G - weight, Q - frontal drag, R - result of aero-
dynamic force's, DF - direction of flight, c.g. - center of
gravity, V - velocity of horizontal flight, u = oR - cir-
cular velocity of blade end, DR - direction of main rotor
rotation, tp - azimuth, * zone of reverse flow around
A
• ~ ~~ -. o ~ ~ .... ~ ~. ~ -. ~ •.• 7 1,. .I -••-. ýý- • •- 7• ,.÷ - r
ww7 . ., .-- TIT
and lateral (i' = I/2, ' = 3/2-r ) sections of the main rotor
disc.
4Y
AR
-37-
'4
hinge, begins to move upward.
-38-
-- -y- --747W
i i
S$ U
o)
" I
Figure 23
jHorizontal
Aerodynamic Forces Loading the Main Rotor in
Flight of a Helicopter:
I, ;,a - aerodynamic forces acting on the main rotor with the
-Ito
oscillations can at determined rates be equal to the natural
frequencies of oscillation of the flexible system of the
V} fuselage -- the dampening rod with its pneumatic cylinder.
-lt 1 -
4--
Aerodynamic Requirements:
b) Interchangability of blades;
rotor;
-42-
Types of Main Roters
a) (see
the hub Main Figure with hinged fastening of each blade to
rotors 24);
2) Centrifugal force;
-4:3-
I ..........-..... ..
......
With the exception of centrifugal force and their own
weighti these forces are not constant during the progressive
flight of a helicopter. They change periodically depending
on the azimuthal position of the blade.
-lilt
The main rotor must be balanced. Balancing the main
rotor consists of equalizing the lift forces and hinge
moments of each of the blades so that during rotation they
all describe the same conic surface (rotate in the same cone),
and identical hinge moments are transmitted to the control
organs.
t-5
It is possible to create cyclic warping of the blades
with trim tabs and thereby adjust the flapping motion of the
blade in pogressive flight.
By deflecting the trim tab upward, the blade is warped
in a direction so as to increase its angle of attack, the
lift force of the blade is increased and blade 2 is raised
upward. Ry deflecting the trim tab 1 downward, the blade
is warped in a direction so as to decrease the angle of
attack, the lift force of the blade is decreased and the blade
is lowered. (Figure 25)
-46-
Main Rotor Blade Design
VuW n • m . •wN
Sis destroyed, as the result of
which a bending moment is
L 23 S I 7 8 1 0 n it 1i A If ifi1is 7l
ig
S•= /I I I I I~
1U h1 I -t II I- .
-48-
The blade spar is manufactured of a one-piece steel
cold-rolled h'eat treated tube having varying wall thicknesses
and cross sectional shape along its entire length.
• l. ýl.•4 3 2
ry-R
,• +~
I-D 72 J
:19Y 8 7 65
L Key:
•)
i) tip connector,
rubber seal, 5)
2)
ring, 6)
flexible ring,
bolt, 7)
3)
spri.ng, spar,
8) slotted
cone, 9) nut, 10) screw locking plate, 11) insert,
12) plug, 1j) visual signal mechanism, 14) changing
"coupling, 15) pin
-50-
I2
-51
The formation of the trailing portion out of separate
sections is explained with the following considerations:
when twisting of the blade occurs due to inertial forces,
the blade bends backwards in the plane of rotation and
the trailing portion of the blade is in the area of com-
pression and, therefore, the trailing stringer must
either have corresponding allowable critical stresses or
must not have to completely absorb the loads from
compression.
-52-
'S
L
liners taper into an edge in the direction toward the
trailing edge of the section.
The front part of the skin and liner have -a slot for
the skin of the leading portion of the sections,. The
skin and liner
rigidity are bonded to honeycomb block 6 which gives
to the trailing portion. The honeycomb block Is
bonded out of sheets of aluminum foil.
{t
?2
I
£54
5
V 1;."
-56
At the blade tip, structural member 4 is connected
fz to diaphragm 9, on which the contour light lamp 8 is
fastened. This diaphragm is also riveted to the front
structural member 15 of the leading portion of the fairing.
Two pins are screwed into threads in the boss and a set
of steel balancing plates 10 are fastened on them with nuts.
The balancing plates are necessary for equalizing the static
moments of the blade in each set relative to the axis of
rotation.
-57-
[-
Spar 6 is a hollow beam with an inner contour of
constant section. The spar is formed on the outside
according to the given section of the blade leading edge
profile. The interior and exterior surface of the spar are
cold worked with steel balls by the vibration method.
I
A
-59-
[I•
3 4
-60-
Srr
ý7 lxRJ
IV
JFJ
P,,
"- ------ SJFu--
-1-IT
• " 4 ,
1 2 l i a0
-62-
-. 5 5 7 8 .
PIRI
- -T
.41W~
F:i(,.
Key:
38Main RoLor Current; Pickup:
) brush holder body, 2) )insulating rings, 3)
t a cts and bolt,. Por brush shoo, 4)
con-
brush shoe, 5) rubber4
i
boot;, 6) commnuL-ator body, 7) curvent pickup cover,
8) tension bolt, 9) brushes, io) pressure sprinps,
11) contact rig,12) plug disconnector
-63-
thyratron circuit along this circuit, as the result of
which electric current flows through the tI'yratron. A
relay is included in the anode circuit of the thyratron
and voltage from the on-board circuit is simultaneously
transmitted through the closing contacts of it to the
signal lamp in the "turn-on anti-icing system" panel, to
the anti-icing automatic engagement diagram and to the
heating element of the sensor. When the anti-icing
system is turned on, current is fed to the signal lamp
of the "anti-icing system on" light panel.
4 -
"-65-
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*1 4)
Key for Fig. 106:
I) rocker fork, 2) seal, 3) shaft, 4) bushing, 5) screw,
6) longitudinal direction rocking lever, 7) guiding slide,
8) pin, 9) rod, 10) lateral direction rocking fork,
ii) rubber cap, 12) ball bearing, 13) shaft, 14) lower
rod' end, 15) ring, 16) rubber ring, 17) cover, 18) nut,
19) ball bearing, 20) nut, 21) rubber cap, 22) grease
fitting, 23) cup, 24) bolt, 25) rod shaft, 26) rod
upper end, 27) grease fitting, 28) body, 29) collar,
S30) bearing, 31) 'bushing, 32) flange, 33) collar,
34) ring, 35) shield, 36) nut, 37) universal joint
outer race, 38) shrinkage bracket, 39) bolt, 4o) collar,
41 nut, 42) pin, 43) cover, 44) shaft, 45) pin,
46) -piih, 47) universal'joint inner race, 48) nut, 49)
warping link, 50) plate, 51) lever, 52) blade turning
rod, 53) cover, 54) pin, 55) pin, 56) grease fitting,
57 nut, 58) warping lever, 59) nut, 6,0) body,
61) rod'end, 62) nut, 63) pin, 64) needle bearing,
65) shaft, 66) ball bearing, 67) bronze bushing,
68) slide, 69) slide bracket, 70) bronze bushing,
71 collar, 72) pin, 73) bolt, 74) longitudinal
direction scale, 75) nut, 76) lateral direction scale,
77) disc, 78) pin, 79) pin, 80) bushing, 81) shaft,
82) nut, 83) link, 84) pin, 85) brackot,A)section
across plate universal joint, B) section across lateral
direction rocker, C-C) collective pitch support lever
I%
A
Ir
Ilub body 5 is linked with the main reduction gear shaft
by evolute lines and centering cones: the lower one 47 --
a bronze with one cut, and an upper one, 2 -- a steel one
consisting of two halves.
-67-
has an additional band for protecting its main working
edges from dust and premature wear.
-69-
F• In order to limit blade droop when the main rotor is
not working or at low revolutions, a centrifugal droop
limiting mechanism is installed in a bracket.
2 ,
-10'
-70-
E
from friction dampers, hydraulic dampers have more stable
Scharacteristics and a lower weight.
-q¢,
-71-
"-aives 24 -- tw6 on each side of the piston. The piston
is fitted with an :oil sealing ring 23 which is protected
by polyfluoroethylene resin rings 22 on-both sides.
-72-
-------------- -------
"M") through ball "K" -way from the seat. During this,
the low pressure space remains connected with the- compen-
*• sation reservoir. Such a system provides the reliable and
fa-ilure-free- operation of the hydraulic damper-. The
compensation system is drained -througjh a hole in the
compensation reservoir body.
Section 3
Wings
4,
-73
[ -7:3-
1 4
I.
The aerodynamic requirements lead to the minimum
interaction of the main rotor and the wing during hovering.
The wing must have a high aerodynamic quality during
cruise flight, have effective mechanization for obtaining
the necessary lift at a corresponding rate of flight,
must possess the necessary torsion strength and must fully
satisfy the requirements of the norm for strength.
74-
Tapered irserts of aluminum alloys, textolite and
other materials are used when connecting the bands with
curved sections of the wing's skin (see Fig. 4 5c). Normal
stresses of tension and compression arise in the spar bands
due to the action of bending moments. Under tension, the
bands are destroyed by tension less than the temporary
resistance of the material a . This is explained by the
weakening of the section due to the concentration of
stresses at the holes for rivets and bolts.
The Skin
-76-
L ------
Normal and tengential stresses arise in the skin due
to the togtal bend and twisting of the wing Normal and
* tangential stresses of lateral bending from local air loads
are insignificant. The strength of the skin, depending on
its parameters, is determined by the amount of normal
stresses of compression or tension or by the amount of
-. tangential stresses.
i" Ribs
-77-
simplifying wing assembly and improving its quality. These
are called frame ribs. Differing from beam ribs, they are
less usable in a weight relationship. This is explained by
the fact that each half of the frame rib works under
bending independently, b% a two-band beam.
I0
.-----------
-78-
- .
Disassembly and Butt-jointed Parts
iI
-80-
I
2) The entire process of-wing manufacture is-eased-;
............................
1 ;414
-81
1) Contour detachments, in which all strength elements
of the wing are connected together;
Adr. oil.I.
Fig 51 ConourWigDtahmets
a)~ b)
1) balanced.;
2) unbalanced.
-84-
"Full balancing of large openings is accompli-Ohed by,
means of installing removable load-bearing panel3 which are -
-85-
The basic deficiency in ýhe design of this type con-
sists oi- the fact that the s•'ringers and skin of teho- fus.e-
lage do not participate in absorbijng the fiexion mbawnt.
NoiOimal stres-ses in- the skin -and lonetitudinal -'leient's
fastened to it are practicaliy absent a~long thiG sedtion-
0or th inbeard_ rib due to the low rigidity of the, rib- in
the, direction- perpendiculav t.o its plane. Normal- stresses
aineciease as distance fromn the Tuselage- increases. At a
distancE. approximately equal to thO spading between •tcfe
spars, -the skin- and stringers partic2-pate in absorbing the
Sflexion moment of the wing.
7'
Fig. 53 Wing Center Section:
-T~j-vrrr~r,-rr
Fig.~~~~ 54
Wing ofaSnl-oo Slcpe-
~
Key: 1)
of5lg
~
cnerscin
(sa
wigfttin
-fasenig
ionr),') supenioni'A~tin
em
,-j 2
fle
, 4 _f,11.-16
4
il
o .-
rnrl
'win
iVhn ;'r
6) .wi.A
tpfii ,8'sil VLa,
ort
i2)'U (ari-ýariy tunedby 00)
fopojt~o
hts 13)
The- span (Fig. 55) is a riveted construction and con-
-sists -of a center, leading and trailing portions, and a tip.
-The- center portion of the span is a box-shaped type of
ri'veted construction and consists of a loneitudinal set of
Sstringers 4, fastened with diaphragms.
On the bottom of the beam near the front wall are two
fittings 2 for attaching the wing to the fuselage and a
fitting on top for fastening the hydraulic mechanism for
-ontrol of the wing. The wing is fixed in two positions.
In all configurations of motor flight, the wing is fixed
in a single position, and with a transfer to autorotation
of the main rotor, the angle of wing setting is changed
by the hydraulic mechanism, and the wing is fixed at another,
"-lighter, angle.
In view of the fact that the induction stream of air
from the rotor is assymetrical, the right and left spans
have different angles of setting.
Fig.
Key:
561) Suspension of Wing on-Fuselage (Fillet -iemoved):
center section beam, 2) hinged wing suspension
I• fitting, 3) f'langed butt joint of wing with center section
- -.
beam
-88-
There are fillets on the wing to provide a swooth-
joint between the wing and fuselage (to cover the center
section beam and the hole in the fuselage skin). The
fillet consists of two separate parts: one of its parts
is fastened stationary to the fuselage, and the other,
a movable one, is fastened on the wing and deflects
together with it.
High-Lift" Devices
The term high-lift devices indicates structures which
d) control of circulation.
N ..
-90-
Control of the boundary layer (suction or blowing)
delays stalling, increases the lift force and decreases the
drag of the wing. The slot through which suction of the
boundary layer occurs is located at the point of possible
stall.
-91-
p @I I I II I. . .. . ... .
'II
* M • , u
a;
ZV
"'I
1A1
I i•
-93- xt
"A1
The design of a controllable stabilizer fin (Fig. 60)
differs little from the design of a stationary one. 'The
major difference is determined• by the fact that the fasten-r!
ing of a controllable stabilizer fin to the tail Beam must
provide free rotation of the stabilizing fin through some
range of angles,.
I!I
. ~5 4 ,
ti 0adsaiie i igdfseigftiI h
! -
6S 6
-95-
v
Internal aerodynamic balancing is used on the aileron.
"The leading edge of the aileron is connected to the rear
wall of the wing by rubberized' fabric which hermetically
separates the upper and lower areas of the rearward surfaces
of the wing. Due to the, difference in pressure on the
"leading edge of the -aileron, a moment is crested relative to
its axis of rotation which is opposite the moment from its
trailing portion.. As a result, f'he hinge moment from the
aileron is decreased. The o&-tterweight in the form of a
"steel plate is usually fastened• to. the leading edge of the
aileron to prevent vibration.
Secti6n 4
-96..
Tail Rotor Blade Design
if 0 r-_
8-8 5 6 r
-7
The e1ctr~ I eaingel'ment s 5;(Fig. 6-3) which 'are
-bondd 61hee.
the la~yers of' X'~ega~ 'are installed on
te4eadig oI talroo'baes.
bde
ah Rubber 2 and
~i~te
' f stai~fs teel, Are bonded-o'n the leading edges
of ' th ýbais.- to J;6tdc them from ablrasiLve action.
Thie 1ieer, is locae nl~g-the entire, length of' the-
blade~ cui'et pickup serýves t' tratismitcret ro
th6;-le
6no-66ardi c tici-It t'o -theheat'Ing ýelements of' the blades.
ftR_
77
theating
Packet with~ heating elements, 4)
elements, 6) wire
connecting buses, 5
-98-
Tail. Rotor 'Htb DesiJgn
~ 7- All
1~17
-..--
I1'
Section 5
Turboprop
installed engines
on modern .with a free
helicopters turbine are generally
with,ffi~chanica~l-ly driven
main rotors. The basic roe'uirements stipula-ted for the
power plant of' a- helicopter are th6 following:
Mounting of Engines
Turboprop engines are mounted to the frame of -a heli-
copter with two bands (Fig. 65.). The front mounting band
(section A-A) is located on the compressor-body. The
front suspension provides the possibility for the engine to
move forward relative to its rear support durii.g its thermal
expansion.
-102-
- .~
:5--
4. I~~
1
- T*....
on a Helicopter:
! Fig. 65 Diagram of Fastening. Engines
bracket for fastening
i) adjustable mounts, 2)
Key: bracket for fastening engine
engine on outer side, 3)
4 4on inner side.
,,Cloating"
support of the rear mount has a
ring, The second
is not fixed relative to the bracket body (see
shicoh
• Pig. 66,). Due to this support design, additional axial
expansion of the engine
loads in the support during thermalband are not created.
in the area of the rear fastening
-103-
.3i
z2
* I
772~~-
71r
- !1-
0) i)
I0*-I. -- I-
fiiII=
vgtL
" r17 .
21f22a23 2 25 2OV72
.---
284. 219 - - L:}MJ'
J 3150 npap48HZ
32, 17 IiO
pended fuel tanks, 14) pipeline for heating vent with war.m
15 possiito sonsor ; 16) muta v:~al.ve ; 1,7) ri.Itlt,, nock,,
cvin ~va yed 26) coneo clcnn, ri. Itot'; 271 pioILIn
sodimn drain vav;2)roLsys Lemii ll.ho-+;9) 29 k,
shi; urr valvo;;3) vopjmpi
p btohso f'v arl.'tg seondty
vo Ios ; 35) (iatf-aP( vnLvo; 16) oh', blood m; vu; 17) Muot,
pt'ossu
Si to 'nsat; 18 ) ruo ooI.~lo.toratav; 19 ) ~imao lPop d ro111.n1ign
I'toI. rf'im lippoi' taonks ; 111vol~vo Popt dvao it(.nn Niool, Cro'aw
iappou' tonIzs ; 1,11) Stlutl(o va z,vo Pop separat dP0inn of....0'
Niel, 17-. 1 Pourthi
C (l! r C (d g rat;ps of't~W1tlCS ; 1;2)
i 0d stitspend od,
Wionk Pillo v nook; 4i3) s51t5()od1li tboti vontIL.it; ui;4) ri .1Lo~ v
line 45)I
f.,~ Y ot~.ntconnectioan or rust'I mitd 50000(1 taonk Upop~js;
46) valve P~op drau i~ni.ng sod iwmo o 't'
Frm uomicw t;i"IT tHinas andl
1
Tot,P P0 (iot-ig Gro~~au p ::ITT toanks; 48) t'o p~ttill1 iLng , .1_n1m; 119)) ('ito I.
V -~ (IPLdrain Valvo Popt L~ower (;links ; 50) uan u'so a loon imng 1>1,1t-o t
11I) oI' pa t'; Shto t'yo~ ; '52 )
"Stoku I'I.t 1 in ('a
Pop mntutp.1 nl Niel,
Idleut giotin find.t' l in I'Ligh; Prom) m IA clJA lias o
v- I;I'llnd v'at'ittutl).Ie
insc-
toi I' it; (cipi gniho Pofono l~traInosut'lov
131tilcs so;;sops 0 P
The tanks are filled with fuel through filler necks 17.
" The tanks may be filled with fuel. from ground storage
-(in the absence of a fuel service vehicle) with a special
on-board filler. The on-board filler consists of an electric
pump and a fuel filter.
S~-107-
-° -
io0 CQ
-108-
Suspended fuel tanks are fastened along the sides of
the fuselage (Fig. 69). The suspended tanks are cylindrical
in form and are welded. The construction of the tank con-
sists of a skin, load-bearing and intermediate frames and
bulkheads with holes to dampen hydraulic shock of the fuel
during the helicopter's maneUvers.
'61•
b4
Key:
_left 1__ t Lk r /,2)
_/_/.. ... .
3,4\5I bn' 6, ..
I LAgirt-
:'I ~
:f--x of f.-10
9)- dieto flgt view••.[:"
vet itt an t- oe ar a itigfrfe
•,ar upeareun
whihe ou tsie tane sids of thler
fuelkage
with braces.
-i09-
'The neutral gas syst-em (fig. 70) is intended to prevent
the formation of explosive, miixtures of fuel vapors and
oxygen from the air in the fuel tanks.
Carbon dioxide (C02) located in cylinders 10 is used
as the neutral gas. The cylinders have a blocking
head with- a remotely controlled pyrotechnic release 11.
Carbon dioxide in a gaseous condition flows along the
pipelines into reduction va.0 3 and then, at a reduced
: ~pressure, into the metering calibrated nozzle and from! it
into the upper part of the fuel tanks, filling the free
K3 ý
l ~-110O-
Smr i ]14I
To prevent the reduction valve with the metering
nozzle from freezing, it is, insta'lled on a bracket on 'the.
frame fastening the main reductihn gear in an area of high
,temperature from the engine exhaust pipe.
I7i
(1 (
u,,
c .
ThFig.
72 Fan Installation:
Key: I) fan, 2) universal joint shaft, 3) fan.fastening
!!• cross, 4) struts
The flow portion of the fan (Fig. 73) is formed out of
-112-
-
I,
- II -
i/
z
JI
a. 1i
r-.
\. LJ>
P'ig. 73 1?ar. Block.:
Key: i) :C&iring body, ring, 3) 4 eccentric pin, 4) rod
with baaring 5) blado shaf, 6,) rotating blade, 7) guiding
apparatusThody., .8) fan rotor disc,, 9) fan drive body,
10)
12) interna-3. cliffusor. 13) radiator fastening body, -14)
bearing race, 15.) ball bearing, 16) fan drive spring
17) axis, iinkage drive shaft,
cover with ioQk
-113-
4
-. ......
5 1'"...............
. .. ............
7 12
" . S..
7 2 ii; .. 417p it
117
-114-
The oi'L sys~t~m -of the miain reduc tioi' -gear -a-nd £rteee
turbines (Oig. 75) coss o two radi~a'toes 2i-,by'.jPass
va Yves 3 and -pi; elines fbr feeding oil1 iJto the lnain ýredudtiohr
gear .and turbines..
A5
-116-
ii"
V8
/' \ J4*
\( ,
-117-
..- - _
, ,assembling
The cowling design must provide the possibility. for
and disassembling the engines and madn reduction
gear without removing the cowling covers from the fuselage.
The covers of the engine, reduct -on gear and tail corn-
partments of the cowling which open have special areas pro-
viding the possibility f'or service personnel to be located'
on them. Each area is opened by a hydraulic cyl.inder or
manually, when the hydraulics are not working. The under-
I S~-1"18-
•L7
3 -
.li&• 77 Coiin g :
-'19-
provide the'possibility for movement of the engine relative
-to their suipborts while it is working. The engine air" intake ,r
Sfairings are heated with hot air which flows out of the
engine compressors (Fig. 78). The hot air moves along hose 4
to air switch 5 which has an electric mechanism. When the
anti-icing system is turned on,, the air switch opens and
allows air to flow along hose 3 to collector 1. There are
holes in the collector throough which air moves into. the slot.
between the coll( t-or and the skin of the engine intake
installation fairing, heating the intake ,tunnel of the
engine.
51.
22
-120-
4
j Fire ,Extinguishing System
L#2
'Cxrmat
PajaweWtuR &ImiCKoo Cdv.ZI'tIJ.7ttUU 1O/amsp4
"" L
. N'4I
l,.:e, .?x. qf'x-
:.
,- .. ......
_.. t-, ..
~ r
) -c.
v- s r ;, i .. . .. ... , ....
9
All the protected space is divided into compartm-nts:
the right engine under-cowiing space compartment; tLK "left
-engine under-cowling space, compartment; the main, reduction
gear and fuel tank compartment and;, the heater compartment.
Each compartment .has its own group of signalling mech-
anism which consists of sensors and an, anti-fire valve.
The fire extinguishers are divided into two stages of
triggering. The first stage is automatic. When a fire
appears in one of the compartments, an electric current is
generated in the signalling mechanisms of this compartment,
as a result of which the corresponding display on the electri-
cal panel i'n the pilot's cockpit is lit up and the required
anti-fire valve is opened. The anti-fire valve closes the
electrical circuit of an explosive cartridge located in the
head of the fire extinguisher. The cartridge, exploding,
opens the lock and the fire extinguisher composition is
forced into the area of the f:ire.
-122-
d • m, ......
= •
ink - -.. . ' ,
Section 6
I-J
I'
The location of the transmission must provide con-
venient assembly and disassembly of its components and
also convenient access to it for inspection and servicing
during operation.
S7)
Shaft connections: splined and elastic sleeves,
universal joint;
8) Shaft supports;
77b
4 ¢
The front end of the tail shaft is fastened to the
main reduction gear output.
1) ]dle clutch;
-126-
--. •'M=:< ,- _ _.
•"~d -fl .Z
•r''
•:
S..
~Tito kinematic diagram or" the ma~in reductiLon gear is
. .. . .. r ii ii ii i ii ii I11 -r • : • ..
-127-
,L V .. .. .. . . : ;
K LI
fi.pulod nucoco5"*
I(omfpecropa ~
Otb nrOeObY
o w" •bn
'Y'' /b, n
All the power for the main and tail rotors, as well as
for the drive of the auxiliary componenbs is transmitted
through the idle clutch (£free-wheeling, clutch).
-128-
The id~le -6iutdh consists of an outer ring azid a
-star, bet. 14weent which are, located a retainer with cylindrical
ro!Ai,e-ssr, rhe retainer' serves to prevent the rollers from
becomingg insaligned-relative to the working surfaces of
the st.•, and, the outer ring, and alsoto ensure the simul-
taneotus . -igagement of all rollers. The retainer has pro-
jecti-ons 6.i-thd side of the outer ring which limit the
play of theaollers and. the retainer when the clutch- is
disengagdd,- resting in limiting projections on the face of
the star when ,this happens.
Heated oil from the reduction gear flows into the oil
radiator where it is cooled to the required temperature.
Oil. i.s pumped into the oil sump from the radiator by the
transfer stage of the oil pump. The body of the oil sump
has an inner bulkhead for the purpose of dividing the
areas of cool and hot oil.
There are breather holes in the upper portion of the
bulkhead and holes for collecting residues of the hot and
cold oil in the lower part. The breather holes are necessary
to equalize air pressure *in the compartment.
-129-
Si
iiiiI' AII
-, -r ,~~w ý_
The housing has two bore holes in which the 'cups and
supports of the drive and driven toothed wheels are inserted.
There are holes in the upper part of the housing for the
breather and the oil measuring gauge. A sensor for an
electric thermometer showing the temperature of the oil in the
h9using is installed in the lower part of the housing. A
drain hole closed with a plug is located in the extreme
bottom part of the housing. There is a hole in the side wall
for the purpoie of inspecting the toothed wheel's wh~ile the
reduction gear is being turned at the manufacturing plant
(this hole is closed' with a plug).
oil labyrinthine
To preventwith the shafts, their outputs
leaks along seal.-ings
are protected which are protected
from dust by felt seals which are impregnated with graphite
lubricant.
-130-
.....,i, . . . .. ,,...,,.
8-111
6 8,
80 R
-132-
VS
leaving the pump flows into the oil filter, and flows from
it along passages in the housing and cups to jets for lubri-
cating the corresponding patts. Heat extraction from the
housing is provided by a fan.
-. o
+•,133
- - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - --- - •- - -
powhich isserviced with lub.,icant
period. There are also spl-iiies on for its entire
the other end service
of the
shaft and the tail shaft fits on them.
Ou't of engineering 'considerations, the driven toothed'
wheel is made separately from its hub, to which it is fastened
with fitted bolts. The bolt holes in the toothed wheel and
in the hub are machined together.
The tail-deduction-gear driven shar t is fds,tened in a
two-roll ball bearing and connected to the hub of the
driven toothed wheel 'with splines. The tail rotor hub is
fastened to the flange on the outer end of the driven shaft.
-131--
ii"----
UJJI . Jli
I .ie 9Yje7 L2&.
-;7
.¾'. -- Lr i
"-I-.4 .. ! p
¶- S
Y3CJ7 N 'y1JL& 7V
P;.. -T
1-35-
two rubber rings 6. The grooved connection of the sleeve
compensates possible misalignment in separate sections ot the
tube and inaccuracy in lengths-of tubes and-Spans between the
supports in the tail boom. It- also compensates for differences-
in temperature expansion- of the tail shaft and tail boom .of
the helicopter.
- - -- 136-
Main Rotor Brake
The brake (Fig. 89) is intended to speed up stoppage
of the main and tail rotation. Besides this, the brake is
used to lock the transmission while parking and conducting
assembly and adjusting operations.
rhe basic parts of the brake are the mount, shoes and
drum.
. The brake mount 10 is cast out of aluminum alloy. It
is fastened to the main reduction gear body.
" i
'
f;o
.17
-138-
"When the cable is not being pulled, it is extended by
spring 18 and the shoes are withdrawn from the drum by
tension spring 11. When this occurs, the shoes are retracted:
until they rest in slots in the adjusting screws 4.
Section 7
Control of the Helicopter
General Information
PbIW'aHbe
-139-
------------- -- -
2. Directional control determines the position of the
helicopter in space relative to the vertical axis and a llois
the pilot to guide the helicopter in any desired direction
in a horizontal plane.
3.
forces.
Lateral includes
control brings
When the pilot
use ofcontrol
la'teral
both moments and
into effect,
a rolling moment relative to the center of gravity arises
and the helicopter tilts, as the result of which the thrust
vector begins to act in the direction of the roll. Therefore,
action of the lateral control causes both a roll and lateral
movement of the helicopter simultaneously. For a lateral-
layout helicopter, the initial action of the lateral control
creates. only a rolling moment, while in a single rotor heli-
copter, the sideways force arises simultaneously.
-140-
on the servoblades creates the necessary force to rotate
the main rotor blades. These types of control are used only
by certain firms and are not widely used.
We will look at the most widely used kinematic diagram
for control: the cyclic pitch lever, acting through a
system of rods and rockers. (or the autopilot) m6ves the
slide valve of the hydraulic booster and the slave rod of
the hydraulic booster, also acting through rods and rockers,
turns the blade relative to its axial hinge..
•"-1 I{1-
k
z CL
1:3 hpnon 7e4'i~oe -__-
;H
!• • •~!npaIneHuu • ,•
-1 112-
Hinged (axial) moments arise when the blade bends in
the process
space, of working,,
from forces from distortion
of friction of the
in the axial airfoilbearings
hinge in
-144-
"mean the possibility of moving the lever and pedals without
deflecting the control organs as the result of clearances in
connections, flexible deformation of the control parts or
"slackness" in the cable linkage);
-145-
Cyclic Pitch Control
Ii
* I,.*
-46-
Spring loading mechanisms which create a gradient
force on the control handlt are inc'luded in the longitudinal
and. lateral control. Control of these mechanism! is
"accdmpnished by a switch which is installed on the upper
part of the contrql handle. This switching installation
allows tile forces to be remov*ed from the. control handle
without releasing it.
it1d
C.,
. . 1,
.Ij
-.-- .•. • •
me-
ain gear-wiheels, 11) weight, 5) trigger stop, 6) pivot,
!•7) bracketss, 8) rod Porki, 9) shaft, 10) rod, 11), 12)
fIro- t f
P'The- shaft is mounted in°brackets on ball bearifi&,s. To
limit handle deflection in the longitudinal directiori,, there
is a stop which is installed on the, pivot. Adjustable bolts'
11 which are screwed- into pivot 6 serve as the llmite}rs.
Bolts 12 which are screwed into both pivots serve as limiters
for handle- deflection in the lateral direction;
-148-
I;
Directional Control
------------ -
The control linkage for the main rotor 'is of a mixed
construction.
* I °
C "
-150-
/
? IA change in the tail rotor pitch is accomplished by
means of deflecting the pedals. When the pedals are deflected
the hydraulic actuator is engaged and the multiplier lever
is turned by rod 9. When this happens, the outputshaft of
the multiplier, which is connected with drum 11-, rotates
at an angle several times greater than the angle of multiplier
lever rotation. When the drums turn, the cables, together
with the chain, move and the tail reduction gear star wheel
rotates. Rotation of the star wheel is converted into the
progressive movement of the tail reduction gear rod by a
spiral coupling. Movement of the rod is transmitted to the
hub linkage, which rotates the bodies of the axial hinges,
and a change in the rotor blade setting angle occurs.
The most widely used pedal construction is that of the
b
.. __ -' .__l ,:
a " I+ •;ll! a
++ - --- ,,.t.rI.)_
S7 6 105
S,.J-......
-152-
8A
- , i
F-9
16i I li
X ,
Fig. 98 Multiplier:
-153
= I ~- •53.
-- -
rnn 21A°
-1 54-
rockers, which are inturn connected with the rod of the
"electrcmechanisms.
Construction
longitudinal of the spring
and lateral control mechanisms for loading
are identical (Fig. 99)the
2 J 56
Main spring 3 and the two small spring 8, which are more
rigid than the main spring, are installeO' with a preliminary
compression so that the main spring is under relatively
greater pressure than the small ones.
-155-
of friction in the control handle is removed and the centering
capability of the lever is improved. Characteristics of'
work of the longitudinal control loading mechanism are shown
in Fig. 100.
04K
* I - Kn'owrnneo
cpt~it:o fo.
I-..
-156-
the progressive motion of the nut-rod.
!7
1< lateral
2)
directions.
I -157-
The switch is designed for installation on the control
handle in such a way that it can be engaged without removing
the hand from the control handle.
-158-
6 .. 6
, jocD84iiu1
pa\edwfo
14
-159-
When the "pitch-gas" lever is moved upward, main rotor
collective pitch is increased and the engine power setting
is simultaneously increased to a greater rate.
I
to be tested separately without changing the collective pitch
of the main rotor are provided in the helicopter along with
the common control.
-160-
'The "pitch-gas" levers are installed- on the cockpit
floor on the left side of each-,pilotts seat.
I;
pressing on friction device disengaging button 31, the
"pitch-gas" lever ccn be moved with a force of 20 - 25 kg.
If necessary, the friction device tonsioncan be adjusted
with handwheel 21. When the handwheel is turned, pressure
bushing 20 moves and increases or decreases the preliminary
force of compression on the spring, us well as pressure on
the friction device itself. Friction is disengaged by pressing
on button 31, which triggers an electromagnetic valve of
the hydraulic system and liquid is forced through nozzle 14
into the cylinder for piston 17. Under pressure of the
liquid, the piston moves, pressing-away plate Ic. and the
S~friction disc is freed. When the fi'nger" is removed from
the button, the slide of the electromagnetic valve moves,
connecting the hollow in front of the piston with the drain,
pressure in the hollow increasos the and the plate again
presses the friction disc under the action of the -ompeession
spring force.
-161-
I
SV
J. - ' / 17 4 -R
~-28
-162-
"Eye 7 on the body of the ball bearing is for connecting
the handle. Rotating correction handle 9 with its tail is
installed on two ball bearings in the handle body. Linkage
1 is fastened on splines on the end of the tail with a
hinged eye, to which link 13 of the engine control system is
4 connected.
Stabilizer Control
Changing the angle of stabilizer setting on a helicopter
-- 63-
I
Construction of the stabilizer control linkage is mixed
(Fig. 104). Motion from the slide of the rotor control
assemb1ly is transmitted by rigid rods to a sector, and from
the sector by cables to the drum of a screw mechanism.
A..
-164-
The sector is installed on a bvacket which is fastened
on the body of the main reduction gear. 'The ends of the cables
formed into connecting tips, are fastened on to the sector
by bolts. Cables from the sector to the screw mechanism
are laid along the tail portion of the fuselage and tail boom.
The cable goes to the brake lever from lever 7" which
is fastened on the shaft.
-165-
2- b/70
-166-
Direction of the resultant force is changed by means of
inclining the plane of rotation of the rotor control assembly
plate, which causes a cyclic change in the angles of setting
of the blades (Vwhen the plane of rotation of the rotor control
assembly plate is inclined, the angle of setting of each
blade changes according to the sine law depending on its
azimuthal position).
-167-
lubricated through slide lubrication fittings together with
lubrication of the bronze bushing. To protect the sliding
surfaces from dirt and to hold lubrication in the slide
hollow and in the ball; bearings 66, two rubber cups 40 and 71
are installed in a special groove in the slide.
-168-
"a -6
at9 cated at an-angle of 720 Prom each other. Reinforced
•ubb~r-cups 29 and 33 which seal the hollow of bearing 30
Sare Xocated in flange 32 and in the body. The working surface
of upper cup 33- slides along the cylindrical surface of
ring '4, and the working surface of the lower cup slides
along the cylindrical surface of universal joint outer race
'37. The upper cup is protected from the entry of water and
dirt by screen 35 which is screwed onto nut 36. Lubrication
•; or bearing 30 takes place through lubrication fitting 27.
Excess lubricant during lubrication is extracted through a
limiting valve.
-169-
i• fork 61 to shaft 65 through needle bearing 64, Body 60
-170-
Scale 74 is fastened on bushing 4 with two screws and
scale 2 is mounted on shaft 3 on splines and held together
with rocker fork 1 by nut 75. There is a tooth on the scale
disc, which, resting in projection of bushing 4, limits
rotation of the rocker and subsequent deflection of the
plate in the longitudinal control plane.
-171-
Hydraulic Actuators
-172-
S•] I•
/ j
8 "7
-173-
disengaging the autopilot.
-174-
1*A
Tn this way, the rod can deflect relative to the rockers
.ane perpendicular to the hinge. As the result of
this aeflection, a force acts on the rocker which is per-
pendicular tu the plane of its rocking. The transfers
force creates a flexion moment at the place where the
rocker is fastened to the bracket. To absorb this moment,
the rockers are installed in the brackets on two ball bearings
at a definite distance from each other. One of vhe ball
bearings is installed with its support in the rocker collar
and is rolled in, and the other is "floating". A spacing
bushing is installed between the bearings. Due to this
ball bearing installation, axial loads of the rockers in
the brackets are avoided.
-175-
47)
1 2 .J
Iq IJI
I
C)
-176-
[1
An overall view of a rod with a spring installation
and limiting switch is shown in Fig. 108b.
•I
I---8
6• / I-f .----- .
( 80
'V Vi
-178Z--
cable tension. The cable is riveted to the connecting tips.
When the bushing is turned, the connecting tips are screwed
inward or screwed outward, changing the length of the cable
Slinkage.
-179-
LL
~ In t~ l a ~110~
Fig.~ i n o o k r n o sC n e t d t h m
Keyfolowin
o pag
-1 0
Key for Fig. 110: a) differential unit, b) rocker instal-
lation, c) manual control rocker installation in reduction
gear compartment, d) typical installation of rockers in
tail boom, 1 and 2) rockers, 3) rod from separate engine
control levers, 4) bracket, 5) rod running to engine,
6) rod from "pitch-gas" lever, 7 and 13) directional
control rockers, 8 and 10)
11)
lateral control rockers, 9 and
longitudinal control rockers, 12)
rocker, 14) direction of flight
stabilizer control I
_1C
Section 8
I.
the main legs of the gear, and the third supporting point
located along the helicopter fuselage center line -- this
is the tail or front (nose) leg of the gear. The main legs
of the gear are located near the center of gravity of the
helicopter, and its third support is located at a considerable
distance from the center of gravitv.
Out of the many types of' shock absorbers, the most widely
used are air-oil shock absorbers.
-I3
p
Slanding
2) Absorption of the energy of shocks both during
of the helicopter and while it is moving on the
ground. Besides this, gear shock absorption must have
desirable characteristics of dampening "ground" resonance;
W' 5) Gear height must be such that with the tires and
shock absorbers fully compressed, the remaining distance
from the very lowest point of the fuselage and other com-
ponents and parts to the ground surface is no less than
160 mm.
helicopter;
d) Aerodynamic requirements.
-1 84-
3) Wheelbase -- c;
4) Track -- B;
5) Tipping angle -- 0 ;
6) Gear height -- h;
7) Antinose-over angle --
ii
• center of gravity
-185-
If tbe wheelbase c is long (due to a) a very small
load will be born by the nose leg of the gear and the
rollout after landing will be unstable.
-186-
I.
fl
*1
4
I
it
<\ \A .,4* I
I -
- .. N p
t ,'- -
4
..,.t.m. c *a..n,4jSn 4
I
1'
/ 600'O
& . .
1* .4I
.4 4 .' ..
4 - I
'4, . .4
a'
- .. .-. .4
I&7
For landing a helicopter on water and on dry ground,
the lower portion of the helicopter fuselage is made in the
form of a boat. Such a helicopter is called an amphibious
f helicopter (see Fig. 112 b). The form and section of the
boat are selected out of considerations for minimum shock
during landing on water, minimum splashing during movement
on water and minimum resistance during takeof'f run and
breaking free from the surface of the water. To provide lateral
stability, floats are installed along the sides of the
fuselage. The boat and floats iuuist be tight and have sealed
* % compartments which are isolated from each other to provide
flotability and stability if the bottom of the boat or
floats is damaged.
48
.- -
,ft ýII..
IPýT 8 6 '
F...................'- '
0 J
I, -189-
a oo.
• " ' " I ,
The process of compressing the nitrogen is close to
adiabatic, which is to say that it takes place without giving
off heat.
-190--
C
H. .f1 , t-D
/ •
57 8 9 II j
II
-193-
j
-- . -. S- '5 '' ... . . . .'¶ - +- .
2/
""-• , A
l~~ V
ZII~ 'Z
-U': .... ,U
JO "Iij
liti
+,+3 +:q /- -" '~ -, : .+.+- 2$••,
-195r-
than that ;for the rebound oneq, greater resistance -to the,
flowing liquid is created durihg', the rebound, stroke. The
liquid flows from the hollow of strut 6 into. the chambe3r of
strut-cylinder 14 through the central calibrated hole.
-196-
A lever type oleo strut (Fig. 119) is used on the front.
gear, and consists of the following basic parts-: cylinder 6,
strut 11, plunger 7, turning bracket 15, connecting rod 21
and lever 22.
I A
--197--
IT3
Key 'for -Fig. 119 constinued from previous pagp.
i ~-19~8-
I
'4
-C.
. -- )
4%
I To
-200-
-'17
mis
2 2
4 - S - 2*
2: ) o t s e , 2t
I 2S
27~. 27
-201-
-
- - - - ~ 7"-'-r, wI -'
Section 9
-202-
- - -----
- ' - Z•.... . ... •.. ' . t . ". .. .. . . . . . . . ' '. .. . .. . . . . .. . .. . - .. ..- . . . . .•
j~ *.:.
r; __ _
-203-
•Due to- the piiesence- of''special baces,, the covers can
,be set in 'the 'horýizanta-1- stionl and u16ed as steps. The
containers with the, st6oage batt•e•res are set on the step
when they are-dbeing reioved&or, Th-i staled.-
iz
-:!04 -
q --
a) 5,.
The .parts for fastening the frame for the main reduction
gear are located on the upper cross members of the frames
in the corners of the reduction gear compartment. In con-
nection with the fact that these parts absorb vibrational
loads, they're stamped of high-strength and vibration-resistant
• steel.
-206-
I.
of the fuel lines, there are removable panels in the floor
above the containers. The panels are fastened to the floor
by screws along their perimeters.
Tho cover.r: foi' the cenrtr al .:it;cih cons i..t or two 'appol?
I.
ald v;o,• 1 o weo' r lIt,) s whi.,-:h aI , k i.n"la t%.oi 1..) connected together
-1 in pairs. The doors are huting on hinges. In the closed
position, the} tmappei doors close onto special locks and
1A make up a common subface which comprises a single unit for
placing various equipment and cargoes on them.
'The doors are made in the formi of' two framied shells
and form the rear outline of' the fuselage in the closed
position. 'rli.. doors are hung on hinges. Each door consists
of a frame and a skin. The transverse sot is made up of
i
frames. The longitud nal sot consists of stringers. llori-
zontal upper and lower beams and a vertical beam lend
additional rigidity to the door.
I -20'7 -
/11
, 7i- I, - -,~
'• " • PW , ,. .. t.: F.
Fig~•.
128.,.
Carg Dor.ndRms
The cargo ramps consist of two main and two end ramps.
-208-
- Lie, iath! fheir- lo
The- e'nd. ram-psi whkdh, 54,
Pat6
imed'ia~tely oný thd g&6iind in th49 p-W~r6
osit-Zion, a-re hutng-
on~~~~ rap
th Pyhne,
-66_gslotsbe6tween the, edges &if, theý T-Afrae ýand the. minfI
ramp~re oered -by-''sc eens, 'The censa-re hined d-to
,!baj'cke-tý; whidh- a-re .riyLýbt~d- to th'e fra6me". Ro'er q reý installed
o-ný the mniddle scrdeen and-p're.vn 'thwicl.abefmrbin
whileb drawing ,cargo-Into-the optet
The- -slots formed, betWeen the, two. m-in~ and- the, two lower
-kamps .whdn' tthbV ia re' lo'were6d' a~e.covered& by remfovable ramps.
-209-
the end of its s.troke,. the piston in cylinder 10, opens a
hole through which the fluid flowi into cylinder 13.
IV
S'I,
., I-
-210-
'I
To ensure the proper sequence in -lowering main- carpgo
ramp 7 and end, ramps 17, ;braking of the fluid mvfig
_ -out
of cylinders 1 is provided: with a check va~lve which, ha,4ann
apperature on the working surface of. the v y`ve-. The va livt
performs braking only When the ramps are being, iowererd• anido
when they are being raised, it does not participa~te. ,Dui6
to braking in cylinders 1, the liquidf £•irst moves into-
cylinders 8 of end ramps 17, unfolds themT. and then ýthey
are lowered to the ground together wilth ramp 7.
-211-
9-~ ~
iga ~ 13
l of Cargoes:
21 -
-213-
""•,7•. -,, *1
-2I•1-
The tail boom -is fastened to the end boom in the 's'ame
way as it is fastened -to the center part of the fuselage.
Ca bins
(it
•'•,/. ... . ? , . "-. .
-215-
Foll
r -, . .. ,::-% ,
" .-...-
' - ,. .. ,-' .•"% X'
S- S"-- • -,
117
.• .. . ..
. _ . _+ . .+ . .. - + = - +. . +. . . = • - -, . . . . , . . . . - =- . . . +/. . ... .. . . . -- . . . . •. . . . .. & --- : . . . . .+
Key for Fig. 133 continued:.
18) right heater box, 19) heater box flaps, 20) re-
circulation feed pipe, 21) intake pipe, 22) connector
pipes, 23) windshield and blister defrosting boxes,
24) connecting main line, 25.) flap handle controlling
air feed to pilot's legs, 26) flap of air feed to pilot's
legs, 27) front pipe, 28) differential mechanism,
29) diagram of flap control, 30) open, 31) closed,
32) to crew cabin, 33) to passenger cabin, 34) heater,
"35) air movement during ventilation
right side.
-217-
I"
- -
along main line 24.
-219-
•5
0.1
Izo it 10 3 i l-•-r
LD7
-221-
Chapter III
-222-
During, planning, the-designer must strive so thAt
the new helicopter fully',satisfies the requirements outlined
for it.
h
•I
The helicopter must have required flying proi~;ibes --
a given static ceiling with consideration for possible
deviations in air temperature and humidity, and a given
horizontal airspeed at a definite altitude. The helicopter
must be able to be engineered into series production,
allowing maximum usage of modern mechanization of production
process for parts, components and assembly. The following
essential problem in helicopter design must be considered:
-223-
which have been proven in operation.
The design for a new helicopter must always be a
step forward in the area of helicopter development.
-224-
4,
'Sect~ion
Plannini -Stages,
The entire process of planning a helicopter can be
brok6n down- into three basic stageq. I') sketch plan;
2) preliminary plan width construction of a mockup aid,
3) e-.ecption, -plan for manufacture of working drawings-..
Thesde stL•es do not have clearly defined limits and often
overlap each other;
-225-
NII
The execution plan contains design developments of
alt parts and components, as well as working drawings
pp6duced in a definite sequence with consideration for the
technical process of assembling the helicopter.
Section 3
-226-
3) Developmiit bf the overall appearance, configuration
of the helicopte-r and overall, views of the construction of
the most important parts of the helicopter;
4)Approximate calculations on strength of the most
important parts of the helicopter;'
-227-
Selection of the Helicopter's Layout
-228-
"The•weight of the equipment G includes the weight
eq
of aerial navigation equipment, electric and radio equip-
timent, radio location and oxygen equipment.
The weight of the auxiliary equipment G includes
Gt =G + G + +G
+G Gf + G + G.
t mr p r i cr f p
"-229-
-,,
We obtain the rela:tive weights from statistics and,.
knowing the, takeoff weight of the planned helicopter, we
determine the weight of the remaining components.
-230-
where A -- value depending on the flight alti ude.
Tmr = rerD),
-- air density;
".4
-231-
It is evident from this equation that it is necessary
to strive for the largest possible relative coefficient of
efficiency of the rotor while working in the hovering regime
and for the minimum power loss in the train from the engine
to the main rotor hub (which is to say to have the largest
value for the coefficient
-1232-
KIM
1' D=y
-234-
p Selection of Main and Tail Rotor Location
-235 -
So that the fuselage does not roll while hovering
and in a vertical takeoff, the axis of rotation of the tail
rotor must be in a plane which passes through the center
of the main rotor bushing and perpend-icular to the axis of
the latter. Moving the tail rotor upward eliminates the
danger of its blades striking on the ground, but at the same
time requires that the spans of the tail boom be bent upward
and an additional reduction gear be installed at the place
1) Operational requirements;
4) Aerodynamic requirements.
-237-
When designing the helicopter, needed statistical data
on certain assemblies may not be available. In this case,
sketch plans of the assemblies are developed and their
weight is determined after that.
-238-
N3 0
ICY,
4"4
VT
14,9
E bD
IL m
ILIi
-239 -. i ~-
Key for Fig. 135:
-2110-
;- -- -------
(Fig- Centering is determined according to axes ox and oy
136).
I 8
-2111-
3I
1
from the origin of the coordinates is located according to
the expression
rXCg =
>. G
-242--
of azranging and balancing, and also as the. result P'
*. aerodynamic computations ind computations on stabi2>i'ty,
•!overa, ' l ýri-changes
necessary w .of the which 'the into
aRfterintroduced
additions are,
andhelicopter, the of
drawing,
"the overall view becomes one of' the most important', .ccmposike
2) Arrangement drawing-;
6) Computation on strength;
-2113-
N
An approximate cal'culation on -strength is given for
preiiminary deterifiination of the dimensions and weight of
the basic l6ad-bearing assemblies (.the blades, hub and
fuselage).
22
i ,
-24t!, -
t,: Chapter 4
-245-
a) Unit construction on compartments and panels,
allowing labor consuming operations to be mechanized,
labor productivity to be increased and pr6duct quality to
be improved;
Selection of Material
-2117-
S..
(without the loss of total or localized loss in strength),.
'2
-246-
Ii
Parts Sectioned Form in a Construction
1 2 3
-249-
0111
-250-
IC
I)nd)
S 'kOnpulinol .
q.
e)
surplace of' th stringer beyond the rib (see F;. 138 e).
J7
. .Z" 1
a) b)
Fi:Lg. 13 9 D.i.agram of' Butt Location:
-251-
When butt-joining long constructions of the wing spar
type, it is expedient to displace the butt joints of the
several parts making up the spar (Fig. 139 a). It is
expedient to place the butt joints in the least stressed
positions (see Fig. 139 b).
Section 2
Basic Concepts
-252-
sample fails, even under a very high number of loading
cycles The value of the amplitude of changing stresses
under which the construction can sustain a given number of
loading cycles N before destruction depends on the value
of the constant portion of the cyclic stress dr (static
loading). The larger Cr , the smaller the amplitude of
stress under which the construction can sustain a given
number of cycles (see Fig. 140b).
* 4-, l -
"--- i. . ' :
,- to ]-- II --.-
* 120
",J-
7~--4
-
I-
t o~~amL~
a)
-254-
When evaluating, fatigue strength of spars, special
attention should be paid to the possibility -of tile appearance
of' friction corrosion. Friction corrosi~on is an almost
unavoidable byproduct of cycL:i.c load~ing in b~lades and will
l~ead to an essential. decrease in fatigue strength. It
usually ar~ises in points of contact between the spar and
p~arts rastened to it if' t~here are relative micromtovemlents
b)etween Lthe pa rts and tile spar.
Fatigue strength in axles an(1 shafts is decreased if'
bushiings, bea ring races and hubs are pressed on to them.
Tile presence of' a fit decreases the fat~igpie streng-thi of'
a shiaft with a part p~ressedl on it by compari.son withl the
ratij.guo sitrength of a free shaft. This is explained w~ithi
three reasons: stress concentration as the result of' the
frit, contact fri~ction, aris~ing under chianging stresses
between parts which are assembled with an interference,
and theo ef'ect of' corrosion.
-2 v66 -
, These defects can also decrease the fatigue strergth o:f
the spar. Consequently, the internal surface oq h.rade
,UN ~pr
spars S• be subjected, to mach~inifig after
essing. must necessarily '
Design Measures
3) Changing rigidity.
-257-
{/
A helicopter blade works under trying conditions.
Over the course of its entire life, it experiences constant
arJ changing loads which are very high in value. This pe-
cu'iiarity in the working conditions of a blade necessitates
extremely rigid requirements for its construction and, first
of all, for fatigue strength of its main load-bearing
element -- the spar. Therdfore,. a blade spar must be manu-
factured only of materials possOes4ing very high characteris-
tics of fatigue strength..
-258-
Ow
Fig. 141 Strengthening a Shai't at the Point of' Hole Location
\S.
-259-
Destruction of a shaft journal (Fig. 14 4
a) began in
a r-lace where the control linkage connecting the rod with
the rotor control assembly was seated. Spreading of the
crack (see Fig. 144b) took place along a spiral line (along
the smo"oth surface) on which significant hammering and
frictioh, corrosion took place in the form of powdered metal
oxide. Besides this, destruction of the material (see Fig.
j! 4 4 c) occurred in the section of maximum corrosion. The
for ination of friction corrosion is the major reason for
.a decrease in fatigue strengthk of the shaft journal.
,) b)
o spred
¶i.14Cn;o Jora
.hf afIrDyai Tsig
~ ,4)
Joint Yok afe Dynami
1115 Unvesa.,
ig. ":
Testing
.
-261 -
.N
Destruction of a rod occurred along its tip connector
(Fig. 146). The fatigue crack appeared simultaneously in
two places and carried its beginning along the inner threads
of 'the connecting tip.
The outer ring of a rotor control assembly made of AK 6
material fails under dynamic testing (Fig. 147). Destruction
occurred along the radius of the transfer from a flat to
the cylindrical portion of the ring. A tiny porous place
discovered in the break served as the origin of destruc'tion.
II
- 0
-262-
rF
The amount of local stress depends on the geometry
of the concentrator.
R /K R
3) e)5)
-264-
Fig. 149 Method of Decreasing Stress Concentration in Places
where Construction Elements Undergo Sharp Changes
in Rigidity:
-265-
rR
a) hC d)
Tests for fatigue showed that the shaft (see Fig. 151, b)
in which the diameter of the spline grooves is less than
the diameter of the shaft is weaker than a shaft in which
the diameter of the spline grooves is equal to or greater
than the diameter of the shaft. This is explained by the
fact that in the second case, stress concentration at the
point of' transfer from the splines to the shaft is almost
absent. Underconditions of the proper selection of
dimension d and d1 , equal strength of the shaft is provided
in sections both close to the splines and removed from them.
N '
b)
-266-
teThe failure of a splined connection can occur due. to
the hammering. The presence of hammering in splines testifies
to the poor splined connection, which leads to an uneven
distribution of loads on the splines.
-267-
-•
V¢
eadfre
I, , /
-268-
4Ai
Small radii of curvature provide high stress concentration.
Fillets composed of two arcs,elliptical fillets of fillets
with conic sections affect bolt strength favorably.
i
Concentration of stress essentially depends on the
radius of curvature in the thread grooves. An increase in
the radius of curvature from r = 0.1s to r = 0.2s (where
s -- thread pitch) provides an increase in fatigue strength
by 100%.
a) b)
-269-
Breakage in gear teeth and splines often occurs due
to cracks which get started at the base of the teeth where
stress concentration occurs (Fig. 154, a). The stress
peaks near the roots of the teeth can be decreased by means
of decreasing the rigidity of the gear by turning grooves
(see Fig. 154, b). The groove (see Fig. 154, c) simu].tan-
eously eases concentration of stresses at the transf•-r points
from the shaft to the gear and near the teeth roots.
*C)
-270-
It
,; ?
fI
-271-
The service life of the main assemblioa pf a helicopter .
largely depends on the longevity of their part-s bearings. $
"The longevity of general purpose rolling bearings cana
fructuate within wide- limits because of various factors of
a metallurgical and engineering character. In connection
with this, the necessary junction bearing reliability in
general machine construction is achieved through introducing
corresponding coefficients of safety, which is to say by
determining an increase/ in tne design load. For parts of
aviation equipment, W1here increased reliability must be
achieved through per,,ecting the construction without in-
creasing the dimensibns and weight of the junction bearings,
this way is unusable, all the more so because aviation
bearings are manufactured of improved materials, have high
precisions ard are subjected to especially careful control
during production.
-272-
and large Volumes of air, the longevity of these bearings-
•will
Y_ decrease noticeably.
-273-
n
-274t-
n4 too •• iI"Z-•
If-7
ugaK
Key: * crack
-275-
As is evident from a review of this diagram,, the
of parts Sstrengtheniing
can be achieved by means i'f conducting
special technological operations providing the r'&quired
surface layer condition of the pd'it.
' £s'
VU g ,"." 17r.0Cx
u O.'.3OJi,:-- H'bXt':.,
t 27i7*z-J,'
B•"•:'' [ - :. :r
Fig. 15 9d Sh'g'-
Has..11P.7..•.- -
!• Kay: I)
methods of' strengthening technology; 2) hydra-
S~honing; j) cutting or abrasion treatment; k) engineering
operations providing high quality surface; 5) sand blasting;
•' 6) engineering treatment; 7) surface alloying, 8) casting,
I' providing high quality surface; 9) rolling threads;.
Sio) shot blasting; 11) forging-pressing, providing smooth
Ssurface; 12) cementation -- carbonation of' surface layers;
13) nitriting -- saturating surface layers wi,th nitrogen;
• 14) cyaniding sur'face layers with carbon and nitrogen;
is) gas cementation; 161 calorizing -- saturating surface
• ~layers with aluminum; 17) surface heat treatment; 18) chrom-
Sing,-- saturating surface layers with chroz~e; 19) diffusion
I chroining; 20) rolling with rollers; 21) mechanical surface
strengthening; 22) pressing places near stress concentrators
i with balls or Punches; 23) high frequency current annealing;
2/4) flame surface annealing; 25) contact electro-annealin~g;
26) rolling or broaching holes
7-276-
The most essential two basic methods of improving the
quality of surface layers:
-277-
Therefore, the temperature while bonding must be
carefully controlled.
-278-
1"0
-279-
~16
1;ig. 160
20 4•0 60 80 101 d i:
£S = . 1 2 n'
-280-
These coe'fficients, in turn, are relationships between
the fatigue limit of a sample whose surface was machined
in a corresponding manner to, the fatigue limit of a sample
with a ground surface.
PatsSection 3
Parts Connections
Transmittal of Loads
-281 -
a) the width of the loaded plane is constant along the
contact line. A sharp change in stress takes place at
points A and E;
b) the loaded plane is severely tapered. At point A,
the width or the loaded plane is equal to zero. Further,
the width increases linearly, reaching its full value at
the end of the contact line. The concentration of stress
in the loaded plane sharply decreases. However,: the effect
of stress concentration on the loaded plane is observed at
point E;
g.
,7
•
C 91
-282-
Fig. 1'62 shows the distribution of force on a skin.
Normal stresses in loaded band, 1 must decrease from point
A to point E as the result of shear deformation and be
"transmitted to loaded skin 2.
-9-, _1
C) __- _..
Since the band must fully transmit its load to the skin
sections connected with it, the cross section on its end must
decrease to practically zero (c).
0, .
il Clo
IolU1.II2
!'iV i,'9
R-
-284-
Types (T Parts Connections
a) riveted;
b) bolted;
c) bonded;
d) welded;
e) soldered;
f) special.
a) stationary;
b) slightly movable;
c) movable.
-285-
°
Z
bs = b
-286-
-- 1
and the upper limit indicates stationary permanent connections,
f or which
~%
bs b.
b= (0.2 - 0.4) a b
Aabs = 0. 3 ab
Obs = 0. 4 5 b.
-287-
collapse, since it is known to be strong under stress. If
the hinge part is made of a light alloy or nonmetallic
material, then it is necessary to provide installation of
an intermediate steel bushing in which to install the
bearing outer race.
Riveted Connections
t The rivet material and its diameter is selected on the
basis of calculating a connection for strength, and the type
of rivet and the shape of its head is alected depending on
aerodynamic, design and engineering requirements.
L = S + 1.5d,
2 is' ri
P ,/ • ..,3_ / ,P
Pp ' 2 3,
-289-
p1 I.
Bolted Connections
L =S + S + H + Ah,
s w n
where L -- bolt length, mm;
S~s S -- sheath thickness,, mm;
Sw- washer thickness, mm;
equal to 1.2
h- 2reserve the bolt
l times of thread pitch portion,
threaded in mm.
-291-
Ii 1) it is necessai to set the fit and precision for
the manufacture of the bolt and the butt joint 4iole in such
"amanner that there is no clearance between the bolt and the
hole not only after assembly of the joint but also during
the process while this joint is in operation. In this,
it is necessary to consider the operational requirements for
a butted joint, for instance, the convenience of assembly
and disassembly of the joint under field conditions and so
forth;
2) it is necessary to use anti-seizing paste when
inserting the bolt in the hole;
3) in especially vital butt joints, it is expedient
to use tapered bolts. When assembling a butt with tapered
bolts, the possibility exists not only of eliminating
clearance between the bolt and the hole but also of creating
a preliminary axial tension in the joint. Tightness of the
tapered bolt must be such that under the action of the forces
and moments arising in the butt joint, this clearance does
not appear due to flexible deformation of the butting elements.
-292-
-- measuring the torque moment with calibrated wrenches
limiting the amount of tightening moment;
'A
r, A • •,• ,•.- • • • ,- - . ,• -_
Bonded Connections
-294-
or by some similar method. In the case of thick skins and
the ,iecessity for riveting the ends of the bonded se,4is with
flu--, rivets, it is expedient to bon, a metal band of the
necessary thickness in these points a.i the construction before
hand.
-295-
i1
flelnflacm AoCOp COMnat
az)
f-lcn~epewtoe iftlnpa~dnelue _
i'u
liM•8re'Y1'q
1.w17e.e,ac/nP
17,:tl- 6 30.0tO cAneinJ
12
/0 10
-296-
* Fig. 171 Honeycomb Obtained by Milling on a Copier
-- water (frozen);
-297-
creates the necessary force on the inner' surface of the
panel skin. Elentric heating e]ements which create the
required temperatLre for polymerization of the glue film
are mounted in the rubber sack.
-298-
Fig. 173 shows examples of connecting parts with a
three-layer panel.
I ra • ,Ii 'l
d)
-299-
TrT _____IT-' !_______ -l__rl#r__
a) b) c)
-300-
b)
Fig. 175 Design of Joints for Transmitting a Lateral Force
to a Three-Layer Panel
sA ere
"-7 77-.7-
-.
AO",
I
In this, it is necessary to consider that an increase in
spline length will not always lead to desirable results, since
local values of stress can be significantly larger than average
' design values as the result of production errors.
-303-
1
IA for convenience in disassembling the joint, it is desirable
-304-
-s S ,••L - -.-•, ,-. ,t• -,- -;f- _ • ,rt,- •- . ,--.,
-' ---• - • • • .• -•IA • -•
--305-
~
----------------------------------------
---
S pi
a)
-306-
Y
Holes for fitted bolts are manufactured according to
a system of holes using reamers which, as a rule, have
second class precision and sixth to seventh class fineness.-
Compensators
a)
b)
0) d)
-308-
V, mill
It is necessary to provide the possibility for eliminat-
ing slack which can appear during the process of wear in
movable connections. The Dxecution of this is possible with
springs or other flexible elements (for instance, compensation
of ball support wear in the slit hinge of the rotor control
assembly) and also by tightening a seal set with the cor-
[ responding nut. Dimensions of chamfers on assembled parts
are selected with consideration so that with a tight fit,
pinching of the parts will not occur (see' Fig. 179,d).
-309-
The diagramatic structure of the system used is explained
by the following table:
B 00 00 00
.Number Group, Subgroup Part
Example: The assembly drawing for the main rotor hub has
the designation B2200-00; the assembly drawing of the axial
hinge which goes into assembly of the hub in the form of
a unit has the designation B2220-.00; the assembly drawing
of the linkage body which goes into assembly of the axial
hinge in the form of a unit has the designation B2221-00;
the subassembly of this unit is a simple unit and has the
designation B2221-10; the detailed drawing of the linkage
which goes into assembly of the body in the form of a part
has the de-signation B2221-11.
.4
r[i
Bibliography
-311-
7. Nikitin, Yu. M., Construction of Parts and Unit
Elements for Aviation Engines, Oborongiz, 1961.
-312-