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Definitions
Q1. Explain the term ‘food security’.
Food security refers to the ability with which a country can obtain enough food (quality & quantity) to meet
the needs of its population
Q3: Explain the terms “starvation” and “malnutrition” and describe the concerns associated
with these problems. [4]
• Starvation:
- Define: starvation is a condition where a person suffers greatly due to a lack of food.
- Effects: starvation leads to a body’s muscle tissues being burnt for energy.As a result, the
bodies become skeletally thin.
• Malnutrition:
- Define: Malnutrition occurs when a person consumes an imbalanced amount of nutrition over
time.
- Effects: Malnutrition can severely weaken a person’s body, making it less resistant to common
illnesses and diseases; unable to work productively slows down the economy and lowers
the development of the country
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Q2: Suggest reasons for the variations in food consumption between developed countries
and less developed countries. [5]
• Affordability depend on the income earned. In DCs, many people tend to have jobs and higher
income, so they have greater purchasing power to buy food. As more LDCs are developing, their
purchasing power have also increased, thus allowing people in LDCs to buy more food, especially
increase in consumption of non-staple food, increasing calorie intake. Thus can meet nutritional needs
• Accessibility to food supply refers to the availability of transport facilities. In LDCs, there may
not be available transport networks and easy availability of food outlets. Accessibility of food is affected
as food distribution is affected and the fewer shops sell only limited variety and quantity of food. These
will limit the calorie intake of these people. Stability of food supply can be disrupted by human and
natural factors. In DCs’ government more able to divert resources to import variety of food for its
people, invest in agricultural technology such as better seeds and mechanization, irrigation, chemical
aids hence calorie intake remains high and increases as wealth improves.
• Use of agricultural technology: In LDCs because they lack the technology, farming is largely
subsistence in nature and the use of machinery very limited as such crop yields are limited, thus
accounting for the lower calorie intake. On the other hand in DCs farming is commercialized and there
is extensive use of farm machines to exploit the fertility of the soil. Coupled with irrigation, new
agricultural methods, crop yields are huge in comparison so it provides for a larger range of food
provided and a higher calorie intake
Q3: Explain why ‘natural factors’ and ‘political unrest’ are partly the cause of food insecurity
in LDCs. [5]
• Natural factors include
o Physical limitations of the land
- insufficient rainfall land is less productive/crops cannot grow throughout the year less
food is produced/available food insecurity.
- poor soil [due to soil erosion /leaching /salinisation etc] land is less productive/crops
cannot grow throughout the year less food is produced/available food insecurity.
- natural disasters e.g. drought/ floods/earthquakes/hurricanes/locusts crop destroyed
e.g. 2007 drought in Australia less food is produced/available food insecurity.
o Diseases e.g. bird flu [2004] 20m poultry destroyed; mad cow disease [2002] 4m cow
slaughtered less food is available food insecurity.
• Political unrest include
o Wars e.g. civil wars
- farmers forced to leave their land e.g. 1.2.m farmers in Sudan [2004] less food is
produced/available food insecurity
- agricultural infrastructure is damaged less food is produced e.g. In Congo 3.9m died of
starvation/malnutrition [from 1998 to 2003]
Q4: Explain the reasons why some people in developing countries have barely enough food
for basic survival. [6]
• People in LDC generally earn less and have low purchasing power, thus many find it difficult to buy
enough food to meet basic needs.Many work in low income jobs e.g. primary industries like farming
and mining because of their low skills as a result of low education.
• Large number of rural people too poor to own land to produce food, pay a large part of harvest to
landlord they lease land from. Thus they do not have enough food.
• Shortage of food supply due to natural factors like droughts, floods, earthquakes or hurricanes can
wipe out an entire harvest. May be due to spread of diseases like bird flu when millions of poultry were
destroyed in 2003 and 2004.
• Food shortage can be caused by wars and conflicts eg Congo 1998-2003, Sudan 2004. People
starved to death cos not able to get food or tend their fields.
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• Lack of access to food through poor food distribution due to absence of transport facilities
especially in rural areas where mountains, landslides or heavy rains make certain areas
inaccessible.
• Few shops selling food in the rural areas of LDC also a reason. Globalisation and access to
different types of food around the world only found in urban areas, rural areas remain not affected.
• Trade barriers or govt policies or regulations that limit trade between countries and access to food
result in shortage of food supply eg 1991 Iraq war, UN ban countries from trading with Iraq.
Q5: Explain how land tenure and land fragmentation affect food production in the Less
Developed Countries. [6]
• Tenure
- many farmers in LDCs do not own land, they rent their farm land from landlords
- farmers who rent the land from somebody would not make investments on the land
- hence production remains low on these farms
• Land Fragmentation
- practice of land fragmentation results in small size of farm land
- farmer has little incentive to make investments on the land as it is uneconomical to invest on the land
as small land area does not allow for economies of scale to be reaped
- hence production remains low on these farms
Questions to try
Q1: a) Explain how the system of land tenure and land fragmentation can result in smaller
harvests. [5]
b) suggest what governments can do to solve the problems that may arise as a result of
land tenure and land fragmentation. [3]
Q2: Elaborate how ‘childhood malnutrition’ can ‘threaten’ Africa’s economic development. [3]
Malnutrition can lead to:
- infant mortality less labour in future hinder economic development
- poor health of future labour force low productivity hinder economic development
- poor health government has to spend a lot of money on providing health services less
funds for building of infrastructure & education less development
- poor mental development unskilled labour force hinder economic development e.g.
country is less attractive to TNCs
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• implement social strategies like improving availability of clean water, sanitation, housing standard,
access of healthcare services and educational opportunities, e.g. Singapore and South Korea
Q2: Using examples you have studied, evaluate the effectiveness of strategies used by LDCs
to alleviate food shortage. [8]
World Food Programme (WFP)
• Aid from international organizations such as the UN WFP implemented the ‘food-for-work’ project
e.g. in Somalia where peasants are made to work .e.g. to build farming facilities such as roads and
irrigation channels and payment is done in the form of food. WFP also provides malnourished
Cambodian children with nutritious breakfast of rive, fish and vegetables.
- In this way, people who were initially starving, now receive food, improve farming, learn skills and
have a livelihood.
- This strategy is effective if governments assist to ensure that the aid reaches the people who need
help as accessibility could be a problem to reach these people in need. Donor countries must also
not attach strings to these strategies to the countries.
- This helps to stall for time as governments can look for other ways to increase food production
while their people are nourished.
• However, the strategy is not so effective because it causes dependency on other countries.
- Also, other countries may not be able to sustain this provision in the long term as they also have
their own food issues.
Food Subsidies
• Food subsidies are given by the government to help the poor obtain sufficient food in the form of
money, free food [rations] or food sold at lower cost. For example, the UK government provides free
school lunches to children of low income families.
• However, food subsidies are only a short term solution as they create a heavy burden on
governments as a large amount of money has to be spent. This is esp so in LDCs where there are
many poor people.
• In addition, food subsidies cause the poor to rely on the govt for help and not enable them to break
out of the poverty cycle.
• Governments of LDCs must play an active role to alleviate the problem of malnutrition and child
mortality by putting in place education or low-income loans to help the poor break out of the poverty
cycle. The money could be used to provide free education thus the poor can learn skills and gain
employment or or give low income loans to the poor so that they can start their own business with the
loans. These are long term solutions.
Stockpiling
• To ensure a stable supply of food, govts may practice stockpiling. This involves
setting aside and storing food, to ensure food security during emergencies so that there will not be any
shortages during times of crisis
• FOA and World Bank recommend a country should stockpile enough food to last its
population for about 3 months, this will ensure enough time for additional food supply to be obtained.
To enable the food to last longer, expensive storage facilities are used. In times of crop failure the
stored food is released to make up for the shortage. Thus there is little disruption of food supply.
• e.g. the East Asian Emergency Rice Reserve (EAERR) Scheme was started by a few
Asian countries such as Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Singapore, Japan and China to improve food
security in the region by contributing a certain quantity of rice to a reserve.
- This food will be used during times of crisis in the region such as in times of droughts or floods
when there is food shortage.
- It ensures smooth flow in supply of especially staples in non food producing countries like
Singapore.
- It minimises starvation risk while awaiting arrival of aid
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• Without stockpiling, food supply is less stable and depends on the climate and
natural or human factors. When there is a shortage of food, the prices of food may rise and the poor
cannot afford to buy food.
• However, stockpiling is a more viable option taken by DCs to improve food security
than the LDCs because LDCs depend on the harvest for that year and hence, do not even have
sufficient food for stockpiling in the first place. Even if they do, they lack the financial resources to build
suitable infrastructure like storage facilities which are extremely expensive. Also, when DCs stockpile,
they control the prices of the food such that when LDCs need to buy food from the DCs to stabilize
their food supply, they will be unable to afford the high prices.
• Stockpiling also artificially boosts demand and drives up prices. It prompts
consumers to hoard. Demand again artificially inflated, causing prices to increase even more. It also
prompts unethical merchants to stockpile & sell at higher prices in future when shortage arises This is
seen in 2008 worldwide rice shortage that has caused prices to almost double compared to 2007
• Besides stockpiling may result in a greater shortage of food in the market.
Threats
Possibility of genes from GM crops being passed to wild plant species, creating ‘super weeds’ and
passed to animal species creating ‘super bugs’ which are resistant to pesticides. This may result in
various harmful effects on plants and animals in the environment and alter wildlife species.
Concern over potential health risks by GM food. GM food may contain food substances that may
harm people with food allergy. E.g. People who are allergic to nuts may have adverse reactions after
eating GM food that contain traces of nuts, as labels might not fully reveal the exact contents of the
food. Some countries like those in EU have banned the import and cultivation of GM food crops. Even
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countries facing food shortages such as Zambia have rejected GM food imports fearing potential
health impact.
As most GM food is not usually labeled, consumers are unable to make informed decisions. With
consumers’ resistance, there will be low sales for farmers and reducing their profits.
GM food crops may pollute natural crops or organic food crops. When the pollen from pest-
resistant crop is carried by the wind or by insect to compatible natural crops. The offspring of the
organic crops will also become pest resistant. This will result in loss of biodiversity and organic farmers
will loss their organic status and will be subjected to great loss.
It can also be expected that innovations resulting from a biotechnology focus will lead to an
increase in food production, causing prices to fall drastically. This may drive small-scale farmers out of
business, hence more gets trap in the poverty cycle which was already exacerbated by green
revolution.
Ethical view that it is wrong to interfere with nature Besides, there are also religious concerns
over GM food, as some may contain substances that are originally found in those foods and are not
permissible for people of a certain religion to eat
Q3: Genetically Modified (GM) foods have been hailed as the answer to solve the problems of
starvation and hunger in the world. Evaluate the effectiveness of GM foods to solve the
problems of starvation and hunger in the world. [8]
Genetically Modified Biotechnology involves taking desirable genetic traits from other
organisms and transplanting them into plants or animals.GM crops produce high yields, are more
resistant to disease and pests, withstand greater weather & climate variations and tolerant of saline
water & infertile soil.
- GM seeds give improved nutritional value, better taste and longer storage qualities.
- Genetically designed plants and animals may be grown and raised on land unsuitable for
farming.
- GM crops like cotton, maize, soybean and canola grown on commercial basis.
- However, effective to certain extent because of Controversy over Genetically Modified
Food
- Safety of GM food for human consumption debatable
- Widely believed GM products potentially harmful to humans.
- While Kenya & South Africa accepts GM food, Zambia is opposed to it
- Governments & farmers organisations fear multinational companies (MNCs) &
biotechnology companies will control Earth’s food production & distribution.
- MNCs in DCs hold monopoly of GM food sale
- Fear of MNCs being profit-driven controlling LDCs
- GM seeds sterile & farmers compelled to buy them from biotech industry like Monsanto
- Increases financial burden of farmers instead of helping them produce more food
- Fear of contamination & disruption of genetic authenticity of non-GM food crops by GM
food
- Fear of disruption of ecosystem structure by GM foods
No one option can help increase food production in LDCs. Each measure has its drawbacks. A few
measures have to be adopted to increase food production to reduce this unequal distribution between
the DCs & LDCs.
Increasing food demand can be met by better use of existing land; more productive farming
methods & applying technology in farming like irrigation & intensive application of fertilizers.
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- Danger of salinisation & water-logging when over-irrigation takes place & eutrophication
when too much fertilisers applied
- GR technology includes varied developments eg computerised sprinklers, drip irrigation
systems, mechanical innovations (combine harvesters), hybrid seeds (cross breeds) & productive
farming & fish farming methods.
- Using machinery to plough, transplant & harvest rice (tripper harvesting of rice in Malaysia)
has made rice growing more efficient & productive in Asia, but costly & needs maintenance.
- HYVs require large amounts of chemical fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides & fungicides.
- Expensive to cultivate.
- Only richer & more educated farmers can effectively grow these hybrids
- Many poor farmers unable to afford HYVs, fertilisers & chemicals
- Pests are developing resistance to pesticides rendering need to increase pesticide dosage,
thus increasing financial burden of farmers
- Mechanisation of farmland results in rural unemployment.
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Stepping up industrialisation to create better-paying jobs for locals. Higher income increases
affordability level to pay for food imports
Limiting population growth so that population growth rate does not outstrip rate of food production
growth
In conclusion, GM biotechnology cannot effectively save the LDCs from food shortage & reduce the
inequality in food distribution between DCs & LDCs. Other measures have to be practised to remedy the
problem.
Green Revolution
Q1: Evaluate the impacts of modern farming technologies associated with the Green Revolution
on the less developed countries (LDCs). [8]
Positive impact of Green Revolution :
• Green Revolution helped LDC to increase their production of food crops through the use of modern
technology
• The technologies introduced to farmers in LDCs include high-yielding varieties of food crops, chemical
fertilizers and pesticides as well as modern irrigation methods
• Development and success of selective bred, high-yielding varieties of rice, wheat and corn to increase
the yields of rice, wheat and corn. One example of a HYV is the IR58 which is known as the wonder
rice of the 1980s and is resistant to most pests and diseases. It has a shorter growing period than
other strains of HYV of 100days compared to 130 days. This will result in an even higher yield of crops
produced. Many countries eg. China were able to double their rice output hence meeting the rising
demand for rice
• Improvements in irrigation through the use of pump and canals to have a reliable water supply.
Irrigation enables farmers to control the amount of water supplied to crops. Hence, it is usually
practiced in countries where rainfall is insufficient such as Egypt or countries where rainfall is irregular
such as India. Owing to irrigation, farmers in India can grow two to three rice crops in a year instead of
one crop without irrigation
• An increase use of chemical fertilisers to produce better quality products. The application of chemicals
such as pesticides can help to get rid of insecticides which kills insects or poison which get rid of other
animals or pests that can eat the crops. This will ensure a good yield of crops with little damages.
• The use of modern farming technology such as the tractors and farm mechanisation so as to increase
arable land and reduced labour force.
• Development of transportation such as roads, rail and shipping to gain better access to distant
markets.
• Through land reforms and government aid, some farm consolidation allows farmers to jointly purchase
better seeds and machinery.
• More capital may be obtained through the banking and financial services which enable the farmers to
obtain better seeds and machinery.
• Joint ventures with food outlets also increased incentives and this leads to better profits.
Q2: Advancements in agricultural technology has greatly benefited the people in the LDCs.
Based on your studies, evaluate the effectiveness of such technology. [8]
Irrigation
- These include artificial dykes, dams and canals to divert water from water sources, such as rivers
and reservoirs, to farms. Improvements in irrigation investments in irrigation projects can ensure
cultivation throughout the year. For example, this is practiced in Egypt where water supply is
insufficient or India, where rainfall is seasonal or irregular. With irrigation, India can now grow two to
three rice crops in a year, instead of one a year, without irrigation.
- However, irrigation can lead to many environmental problems such as waterlogging and
salinisation.. For example in Ethiopia, Africa, new high-yield seedlings and irrigation schemes cannot
be used by farmers due to the heavy clayey soil. The heavy clayed soil will lead to waterlogging. It is
difficult to improve the drainage system because the sticky clay hardens and cracks easily when dry. In
Pakistan, both salinisation and waterlogging occur due to the pumping out of salinised groundwater to
be used in the farms. Hence not all modern farming technology such as irrigation and high-yielding
seedlings are suitable for all the usage of all LDCs.
Mechanisation of farms
- May improve productivity and efficiency, hence more crops can be grown and output can increase,
leading to economic development of the country. One example of agricultural development can be
seen in Ethiopia, Africa. More than 36% of the farmland is prone to waterlogging due the heavy clayey
soil. Researchers therefore developed a simple plough that can be used on the hardened clay with the
help of an ox. The farmers also resorted to growth wheat instead of tef grass, which is Ethiopia’s staple
food, as it is more suited to the local locations. Instead of harvesting just 700 kg of tef grass per ha, the
farmers are able to produce two tones of wheat per ha. Using fertilizers, some subsistence farmers
can produce enough wheat to put some up for sale.
- Mechanisation may increase unemployment among farmers and force them to migrate to urban
areas to seek employment. Also, it may not be feasible to use machinery on farms located in places
with high relief.
GM Crops
- GM crops are food from plants that have been genetically modified to create desired qualities, e.g.
improved resistance to diseases, pests or extreme weather. GM crops can improve the income
farmers by increasing yield or export of crops to countries further away due to the ability to stay fresh
for a longer time. Also, Super Rice, produces double the output of normal rice and this can reduce food
prices in the LDCs. Together with the fact that GM crops are designed to be more nutritious, this can
reduce cases of malnutrition and starvation. GM crops also reduce the need to use artificial fertilizers,
pesticides and herbicides since they are designed to be less reliant on these chemicals, thereby
causing less harm to the environment.
- However, GM crops have potential health risks, such as allergies in certain foods like inserting
lectin in potato, which may not be known to people in the LDCs. Also some US GM companies have
monopolized the GM market by holding on to patents of some GM crops. Therefore, instead of causing
these crops to be more affordable for the people in the LDCs, the monopoly increases the prices of the
GM food, which will not help to solve problems of malnutrition and starvation in LDCs.
Conclusion
- In conclusion, these new farming methods increase the yield of farm production, hence farmers
can sell or export their excess output leading to the increase in income. Increase farm outputs means
more jobs for the people, higher income so they can afford better and more nutritious food
- High productivity levels can also lead to oversupply of products which in turn leads to lower prices.
In such cases, higher productivity does not naturally mean more incomes for the farmers. Also,
farmers in LDCs are poor and may not be able to afford the technology in the first place. Even if they
do, social factors such as land fragmentation causes farmers to lose motivation in investing in these
technology.
Blue Revolution
Q1: Describe some ways that the Blue Revolution has helped to ensure a stable supply of fish
in the world.
• Encouraged fish farming where farmers rear fish in tanks, ponds and enclosed areas under special
conditions that promote growth, instead of catching fish from the oceans.
• Medicine and vaccines used to improve the health and nutrition of fish.
• International organizations spent about S$400 million a year on fish farming projects.
• FAO helped to start the CIFA to conduct research on carp, catfish and prawns.
• Scientists were able to increase fertility of fish, improve their growth rate and their resistance to
diseases. Eg. Tilapia been developed to grow faster than the normal breed
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• Ensure a significant amount of fish available will lead to stable supply of fish.
Irrigation
Q1: Irrigation is commonly used to intensify the production of food. Describe the benefits and
the problems of irrigation to a farming area. [6]
• Advantages:
- Irrigation provides water to areas that are further away for the water sources or countries
which are experiencing irregular amount of water in rural areas of Pakistan
- Provide an optimum condition to plant crops.
- As a result, the high yielding seeds could be used to increase the harvest/output
• Disadvantages:
- Excessive amount of irrigation may result in water-logging i.e. water is collected on the
surface if the soil is unable to be drained away or is being saturated
- High capital outlay that not all farmers could afford
- Excessive use of irrigation will draw from underground water and encourage salination
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