Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
T H E R E has been considerable activity t h r o u g h o u t the benefit can be t a k e n o f the results. It is also i m p o r t a n t
world, evident in publications during the last five years, to understand the limitations o f these correlations, so
to take a d v a n t a g e o f the wealth of available information they can be applied realistically.
relating the c o m p o s i t i o n o f steel to microstructure and A review o f published data on hardenability and
properties. T h e advent o f computers has m a d e the task much o f the w o r k on application o f hardenability
considerably easier. Metallurgists and heat treaters concepts is contained in two recent b o o k s ~,2. It is the
should be a w a r e o f the data available and the methods purpose o f this p a p e r to direct the readers attention to
used to analyze a n d correlate the data, so that m a x i m u m i n f o r m a t i o n that should be o f particular interest to heat
treaters a n d those concerned with the p r o f o u n d effect o f
heat t r e a t m e n t on the properties o f steel. It will not be
DOUGLAS V. DOANE, Climax Molybdenum Co. of possible, o f course, to treat any subject in detail, so this
Michigan, a Subsidiary of AMAX Inc., Ann Arbor, MI paper is, in a sense, an overview.
ISSN 0190-9177/79/0806-0005500.75/0
J. H E A T T R E A T I N G 9 1979 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR METALS VOLUME 1, NUMBER 1--5
Table I. A Summary of the Observed Correlation of the End-Quench Bar with Center Positions of
Rounds Quenched in Oil and Water (Carney + SAE Handbook)
R o u n d size,
equal half- H - b a n d values, R o u n d size, equal microstructures, in.
temperature SAE H a n d b o o k ,
End- quench Ideal time, in. in. 95 pet martensite 80 pct m a r t e n s i t e 50 pct martensite
distance, diam,
1/16 in. in. Water Oil Water Oil Wa t e r Oil Water Oil Water Oil
1 0.60
2 1.00 0.70 0.40 0.7 0.2 0.40 0.25 0.40 0.25 0.55 0.25
4 1.75 1.25 0.80 1.2 0.6 0.75 0.45 0.75 0.50 1.0 0.50
8 2.75 2.05 1.50 2.0 1.4 1.45 0.80 1.60 0.95 1.65 1.0
12 3.65 2.80 2.15 3.2 2.0 1.95 1.15 2.05 1.35 2.10 1.45
16 4.50 3.50 2.80 3.9 2.8 2.30 1.50 2.40 1.75 2.60 1.85
24 5.75 4.60 3.45 . . . . . . 2.75 2.05 2.90 2.40 3.10 2.45
32 6.70 5.40 4.30 . . . . . . . . . 2.55 999 2.90 99. 2.95
R o u n d size,
equal half- H - b a n d values, R o u n d size, equal mi c ros t ruc t ure s , mm
temperature SAE H a n d b o o k ,
End-quench Ideal time, m m mm 95 pet martensite 80 pct m a r t e n s i t e 50 pct m ar ten s ite
distance, diam,
mm mm Water Oil Water Oil Wa t e r Oil Water Oil Wa t e r Oil
1.6 15 . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 25 18 10 18 5.1 10 6.4 10 6.4 14 6.4
6.4 45 32 20 31 15 19 11 19 13 25 13
13 70 52 38 51 36 37 20 41 24 42 25
19 93 71 55 81 51 50 29 52 34 53 37
25 ll4 89 71 99 71 58 38 61 45 66 47
38 146 117 88 . . . . . . 70 52 74 61 79 62
51 170 137 109 . . . . . . ... 65 ... 74 ... 75
6 - - V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1 J. H E A T T R E A T I N G
Fig. 1--Correlation between location in a
water-quenched round bar and position (dis-
tance from the quenched end) on the Jominy
bar (SAE).
M e d i u m - c a r b o n low-alloy steels D a t a for use with this equation are s h o w n in Figs. 3 and
Carburizing steels 4. T h e G r a n g e test can be applied to steels which are
High-hardenability steels n o r m a l l y water quenched in sizes up to those equivalent
These classifications reflect the fact that alloys affect to 23 m m rounds. These include section sizes for which
hardenability to differing degrees depending on the car- J o m i n y end-quench data are not applicable.
bon content o f the steel a n d the other alloys present. In T h e ideal critical diam, Dr, c o n c e p t has been so uni-
the following discussion it will be assumed that austeni- versally accepted as a m e a s u r e o f hardenability that
tizing temperatures are high enough so that all alloy ad- a l m o s t all studies o f alloy effects are expressed in terms
ditions are in solution, to maximize their hardenability o f Dr. T h e definition, for reference, is the diameter o f a
effect, but not high enough to coarsen the austenitic given steel bar which will exhibit 50 pct martensite at the
grain size to the point that it detracts f r o m toughness of center when subjected to a hypothetical quench which
the hardened steel. reduces the surface t e m p e r a t u r e o f the steel to the b a t h
G r a n g e 4 recently devised a new hardenabilty test t e m p e r a t u r e in zero time. It is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r
(called the " h o t - b r i n e " test) for shallow hardening that the definition is a m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l one, a n d m a k e s
steels and presented new d a t a on the effects of carbon no reference to hardness. T h e w o r k o f G r o s s m a n n 5
and alloys on hardenability, in terms of " h a r d e n a b l e established the fact that the effects o f alloying elements
d i a m e t e r " * expressed by the equation: on hardenability in m e d i u m c a r b o n steels are multiplica-
*Hardenable diameter is that diameter of water quenched round tive a n d the effects can be expressed as " m u l t i p l y i n g
that will exhibit 90 pct martensite at the center. f a c t o r s " related to a base/)1. Subsequent work by m a n y
investigators c o n f i r m e d the soundness o f this concept,
D n = D c + ADMn + A D p + ADsi + ADc~ +
but p r o v i d e d evidence that the application o f the prin-
zXDNi + ADcr + ADMo + AD v ciple was complex. S o m e o f the following p r o b l e m s
d
0.(:
0.5
16
14
06
0.5
0.4
d0.3
i!
ua 0 . 4
I--
ILl
~E
r'~
~o.3
/ t t
lO
8 "
ne"
N
W
W
-J
0.2
0.1
//
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
6 z ELEMENT, wt %
r,.
Fig. 4 - - C h a n g e in h a r d e n a b l e diameter (AD) with C, M n , Si, C u , Ni,
Cr, and M o (Grange).
0.1
were encountered:
8 - - V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1 J. H E A T T R E A T I N G
0.~
ASTM
0.8
0.7
t J 4 Grain
Size
5.0 -
OFrom Data of Kramer,
Siegel and Brooks
9 From Data of Crafts
and Lamont /
J
From deRetana and
Doane (for Low C
t~_ 0 . 6 Steels
>- -----From Jatczak (for
0.5 High C Steels)
4.0
0.4
,,<
.!
0.3
0.2
3.0 iII Df J
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 /
CARBON, Y~
Fig. 5--Multiplying factor for carbon plus grain size (empirical exten- r r
sion of Kramer factors by deRetana and Doane).
/
!
2.0
1.00
t I I i i I / I
0.90 ~STM Grain Size ~
~ ~ 5 c , I~ t ~ 1700 F
0.80
1.0 ~ ~ #
u. 0.70 , . 0 1.0 2.0 3.0
MANGANESE, g
~- ////~" 152s F (83o c ~ > ~ . ~ ' Fig. 7--Multiplying factors for manganese.
0.60 //,/I"/ i 147,5 F (800 C)" ~ TM
I--
-~ 0.50
/////," i
and c o m p a r i s o n with later studies by others than the
0.40 alloy studies by G r o s s m a n n . In fact G r o s s m a n n , in his
classic text, 7 states that the data o f K r a m e r are p r o b a b l y
m o r e generally useful. As a way o f s u m m a r i z i n g the
0.20 0.40
0.60 0.80 1.00
alloy effects, and the influence o f c a r b o n content on
CARBON, %-
Fig. 6--Multiplying factors for carbon at each austenitizing condi- these effects, the following diagrams are presented. In
tion. Data plotted on background of original Kramer data for these diagrams, the K r a m e r multiplying factors for use
medium-carbon steels with grain size variation from 4 to 8 ASTM
(Jatczak). in m e d i u m c a r b o n steels are c o m p a r e d with those o f
deRetana and D o a n e s for low c a r b o n steels and with
those o f J a t c z a k 9 for high c a r b o n steels. (It should be
pointed out that J a t c z a k used 90 pct martensite as his
m a y not be the same when added in conjunction with
hardenability criterion rather than 50 pct martensite, for
another element as when used alone in the steel.
the good reasons which he points out in his paper.) First,
3) The accuracy o f using hardness measurements to
the strong effect o f c a r b o n on hardenability is shown in
determine the 50 pct martensite position in the hardened
Figs. 5 and 6. The effect o f austenitizing t e m p e r a t u r e is
pattern o f the test piece is open to question. This is com-
i m p o r t a n t in considering steels o f high c a r b o n content.
plicated by the fact that the steel may exhibit either
For the sake o f simplicity in further c o m p a r i s o n s , the
pearlite or bainite as the nonmartensitic structure. The
data o f J a t c z a k for high c a r b o n steels will be limited to
use o f microstructure in place o f the hardness test ap-
those for steels quenched f r o m 925 ~ (1700 ~
pears to have s o m e merit in determining the 50 pct mar-
As shown in Fig. 7, the effect of m a n g a n e s e up to 1
tensite position.
pct is stronger in low and high c a r b o n steels than in
With these p r e c a u t i o n a r y statements, let us proceed to m e d i u m c a r b o n steels.
review some o f the alloy effects. The effect o f silicon on hardenability is m u c h less
The studies o f alloy effects by Kramer, Siegel and than that o f m a n g a n e s e and varies widely with c a r b o n
Brooks 6 a p p e a r to be m o r e adaptable to modification content and with other alloys present, as s h o w n in Fig.
1.o ~ /
0 2.0 =
J /I 'll
0.2 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8 Jatczak
/ / ~ ' l h i g h C ste s)
SILICON, % 2.0 /."/ I I I I
Fig. 8--Multiplying factors for effect of silicon on hardenability.
i / .p", I I
I I II I I
I I
~i
"
(-D I
datczak and Doane
(high C Steels)"-deRet
(low steels)
F--
N 2.o ~Kramer, Siegel ] ,,,J,/'~'~ deRetana & Doane
and Brooks " t ~ @ ~ / 2.0 " ~ (low C steels
1.0
1.0
2.0
-T 3.0
1.0 ~
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
! !
1.25
!
1.50
NICKEL, % MOLYBDENUM, %
Fig. 9--Multiplying factors for effect of nickel on hardenability. Fig. l 1--Multiplying factors ~ r molybdenum.
1.0
AUSTENITE CONDITIONING
J. H E A T T R E A T I N G V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1--11
IDEAL DIAMETER, mm
25 50 75 100 125 150 175
2.0
_._.
1.5
i/& " ~ ~
W I l f /,,,'/,/ i ..~ i I
i Fig. 14--Relationship between ideal d/am and
l.IJ
Z 1.0 i1~.." ~'. J ~..--. 4 - ' - - - manganese content with various nickel con-
tents (Glen).
I/16',//I i / - 'I ~ "7 2.o~' I
1_9
Z l//fAY , 9 /~ No Additions
l lllY / _1 I I ,, 1.0~ Ni
+ o
0.5
------/; ' p / ; T S T r ------ Add!,,O~ O " .o~,~ . ,
/1/~,~" 9 1.01~, Ni
9 i
///,F~/'- I 2.0% INi I
I 2 3 4 5 6 7
IDEAL DIAMETER, in,
2100
I ~ 1, I I - "Inhomogeneous " ~
I \ I I i Austenite" \
i i00 2000
& "Inhomogeneous~ r ~ l I - N
1900
r~
I Austenite'I\ I ~J
i000
o.- i i
I " "I.... I ,a _ 1800
t.iJ , , ' ,
~CllL~ Au~tenite + Carbide --.4_I ..7 _ Austenite + Carbide
1700 w
t,l I \I I I I
~- 900
I
I "%Ill
I---' ~lFerrite + " ' I - . ~
800 ~Ib_ ~ A u s t e n i t e + ~
I I
I
--
I
I
I
I
i
-
-
ACle
Ferrite +
Austenite +
1600
- 1500
iAClb ~ Carbide
~J-- I I - - 1400
I I gerrite + Carbicle i ~] Ac2 Ferlrite + Carbide
I I I I I I I I I 1300
70O -
1 2 - - V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1 J, H E A T T R E A T I N G
of hardenability i n f o r m a t i o n in which " a p p l i c a t i o n
tailoring" (AT) is c o m b i n e d with " c o m p u t e r h a r m o n i z -
i n g " ( C H ) to provide the designer and m a n u f a c t u r e r
with least-cost steels or a choice o f alternate standard
~E] A
steels which can meet the p r o p e r t y requirements in a
given part. The system is discussed in s o m e detail in
both Refs. 1 and 2. This p a p e r will indicate briefly how
hardenability requirements for a given part are estab-
lished in the A T p o r t i o n of the system. Rather than use
the established correlations between end-quench bar
positions and diameter of quenched bar using standard-
Heated Depth ized austenitizing and quenching conditions (see Figs. 1
and 2), the " J o m i n y equivalent c o n d i t i o n " (Jec) is
Surface ~,. ~- determined by experimental means but u n d e r produc-
DEPTH BELOW SURFACE tion conditions. Figure 17 graphically illustrates the
Fig. 16--Range o f gradient hardnesses produced by induction harden-
process.
ing.
The Jec is determined experimentally by c o m p a r i n g
hardness values, obtained on the cross section o f a part
Part Cross Section or parts subjected to the p r o d u c t i o n heat and quench cy-
Jominy Hardenability
cle, with hardness values obtained on J o m i n y bars o f
the exact same steel. Four critical items m u s t be consid-
~kTA~_7~7~art Thermal History) ered when determining the experimental curves:
I mended~7er'a'tur e) 1) The J o m i n y bar should be given the same thermal
Depth from Surface Jominy Distance
"\ -~ m I cycle as the part because hardenability can be influenced
-- ~-! I
\ ~=I , I. by thermal history.
\.. ~----4--u 2) For carburizing applications, the part or parts
"\ w ,/
\ ~._| I /
should be c o p p e r plated if processed with a p r o d u c t i o n
\\~___/Cross Section
Jec(c> load, to retain the same c a r b o n as the end-quench bar.
Jominy Distance Also, if extremely long heat cycles are e m p l o y e d , the
Fig. 1 7 - - D e t er m i nin g J o m i n y equivalent condition (Jec). depth o f flat g r o u n d on the end-quenched bar m a y have
to be deeper t h a n usual to assure that there is no effect
o f decarburization.
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED 3) E n o u g h parts should be examined to evaluate the
END, mm
effects o f load size, position in the load, a n d changes in
5 I0 15 20 25 quench severity o f the coolant with usage.
! I i I
50
\= 4) The steel used for Jec evaluation m u s t have an
end-quench curve which drops steeply t h r o u g h the criti-
cal cooling rate range so that hardness changes give a
o
t~"
-I-
.40
\!\ I
sensitive indication o f cooling rate.
J. H E A T T R E A T I N G V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1--13
c~
-r"
--'r- Gradient
I--- / Allowable Contact Stress
(Pitch Line)= StrenQthi~HardnesShLne)
F-
Sl Fig. 1 9 - - S t r e s s v s strength relationship (carbu-
rized gear r o o t a n d pitch line).
._.1
__J
_..I
when establishing the hardenability requirements for effect of carbon and various alloys, of the importance
carburized parts. Here the base hardenability and hard~ of austenite conditioning, and of the methods available
enability throughout all portions of the case must be to define hardenability requirements, leads to a review
considered so that the strength gradient can be matched of the methods to predict hardenability from composi-
to the stress gradient. The diagram in Fig. 19 shows tion. As part of the Symposium on Hardenability Con-
schematically the stress and strength gradients at the cepts with Applications to Steel 2 this author reviewed
pitch line of a gear and at the root of the gear tooth. several hardenability predictors available in the open lit-
With patience the necessary base and case hardenability erature as a prelude to detailed presentations and discus-
requirements can be established. Details are given in sions of computerized methods of predicting harden-
Refs. l and 2. ability. As part of that review, three methods were used
to predict D~ values and hardenability curves of nominal
PREDICTING HARDENABILITY compositions of several steels for which hardenability
" b a n d s " have been established by the American Iron
The foregoing discussion of methods and data avail- and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of Automotive
able to correlate hardenability test results with actual Engineers (SAE). The relationships established by
quenched parts, of the wealth of data on hardenability Hodge and Orehoski 14 for 50 and 99.9 pct martensite at
various carbon contents, Fig. 20, and those established
by Grossmann 7 for D r and distance from the quenched
M,-~rtensite 8
60 [ ~-
end of the hardenability bar, Fig. 21, were used with
modifications of AISI published tables relating D 1 to
hardness at various positions on the end-quench bar.
Examples of the comparison of predicted/91 values
. ..~.,.o~- L / " s "~'- .9" ~ 507~ Martensite
and predicted hardenability curves with actual harden-
ability bands are given in Figs. 22 to 24, which are taken
= 30 - - ~'~T-~ ~'" - ---~ ----- from the Appendix of this author's T M S / A I M E paper}
Note here that O~/I represents calculation by the method
20 developed by the Climax Molybdenum Company, /9~2
represents calculations using the US Steel slide rule
10 which is one of several using Grossmann's hardenability
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
CARBON, %
multiplying factors, and D~3 represents conversion of
Fig. 2 0 - - H a r d n e s s o f m a r t e n s i t e p r o d u c t s as a f u n c t i o n o f carbon hardenability curve data calculated using the following
c o n t e n t ( H o d g e a n d Orehoski). equation developed by Just: 15
1 4 - - V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1 J. H E A T T R E A T I N G
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END, mm
I0 20 30 40 50
7~ 1 7 5
i~4[ i!i!~iiiiin
m ~ l O 0
Fig. 21--Relationship between end-quenched
distance and hardenability (D/).
Fl-tC/rtC2
2 4 6 8 lO 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
DISTANCE FROMQUENCHEDEND, sixteenths of an inch
DI3= 3.2
,';, -~ 9
=2.7
min
J ac
=4.0
: ,._.~ i : _ _
max
o ,
~zo
2 4 6" 8 IO 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END --SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH
I 9 I /.3o
t1
O. 3 0 1.75 O. 2 3 0 0 0 7
DIAMETERS OF ROUNDS WITH SAME AS QUENCHED HARDNES~ LOCATION IN ROUND ~UENCH
3.8 SURFACE MILD
I. I 2.0 2.9 3.8 ~.8 5.8 6.7 3/)4 RADIUS FROM CENTER WATER
0.7 1,2 1.6 2.0 2.~ 2.8 3.2 3.6 3.9 CENTER QUENCH
1 1 I I I I I 1 I
0.8 I .8 2.5 3.0 3.tl 3.8 SURFAO,E MILD
0.5 I.O 1.6 2.0 2.LI 2;8 3.2 3 . 8 14.0 ~/U, RADIUS FROM CENTER OIL
0.2 0.6 1.0 I.tl 1.7 2.0 2.1,1 2.8 3. I CENTER QUENCH
(5; - ~ -
_;_ cl 2 5
Fig. 2 3 - - C o m p a r i s o n o f calculated DI = .
80 ,
hardenability with A I S I / S A E H-
band for 1330 H.
.., i
D =1.7
5C
U
D; 3 2 3
i" "
Z40~o [ 9
\ dL =2.0
,( ,) \
rain
-r
%
|
~30 i --3.8
max
U
i --
2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
DIS'TANCE F R O M Q U E N C H E D END -SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH
I
.2 7//-33 .3o ~ / .70 .,5//..3o 7//I, 20 25
\ :3= 2.7
" \
Z
a 4( _~_
\
n, :, =1.9
<
T 3: : \ \ rain
"J30
.J " iN =3.3
', max
~25 ;
020 I
2 4 6 8-- I0 12 14 16 18 20 22 7'4 7'6 7'8 30 37'
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END -SIXTEENTHS OF AN INCH
1 6 - - V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1 J. H E A T T R E A T I N G
7.0 --175
6.0 -- t50
2 EXA~IPLES 5 EXAIIPLES 5 EXAMPLES
High
Climax 2 Climax 2 US Steel 3
US Steel 4
5.0 -125 "~
E
qedi um US Steel 5
Climax 6 Climax 6
Just 4
3.0 US Steel 3 75
o I i
(. ] .
I--"
J. HEAT T R E A T I N G V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1--17
APPROXIMATE COOLING R A T E . "F PER SECOND AT 13OO F
=i M d
TO
e8 ~
z -
Ir 4 0
< ~ ---
Z 36 ~*--"---
were obtained using the U.S. Steel calculator, and hardenability calculated from actual composition and
points designated (e) were calculated using the Just grain size for 50 standard and nonstandard steels vary-
equation given above. ing in carbon content and hardenability. A summary of
The examples given above were part of a larger exer- the work is given in Fig. 25, in which regions of low,
cise in which actual hardenability was compared with medium and high hardenability (expressed in terms of
D1), and regions of low, medium and high carbon con-
tent are delineated. In each region, the systems that were
capable of predicting hardenability are indicated in
terms of the number of examples in which this author
considered the prediction of both Dt and hardness in the
50 to 90 pct martensite range to be adequate 9 These pre-
dictors are underlined. While the results certainly pro-
r 4(2
h-
4330 vide evidence that no one predictor can be used with all
steels, the comparison does provide encouragement that
I
there are useful methods of predicting hardenability--
3C ~...~.~~~.~ -4130
methods which can be used selectively to define the
probable hardenability of a given composition.
The newer computerized methods take advantage of
l selective application of available data. The Minitech
system described in Feldman's paper in the T M S / A I M E
0 ' 8 ' 1'6 ' ~;4 32
book z was developed originally by Kirkaldy to use ther-
DEPTH ( SIXTEENTHS ) modynamic principles in establishing critical cooling
Fig. 28--Comparisons of observed and predicted Jominy curves for
4427, 5130, 4130, and 4330 steels (Feldman). rates for formation of ferrite and pearlite, and, from
/ , , , , ,
m 500~
Fig. 29--The effect on the precisely determined
Jominy curve of successive additions of trace
,oo elements (Brown and James).
200 A ~ = I i
0'1 012 i 0=3 04 05
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END (,nches)
Compositions
Steel
Code C Mn Si S P Ni Cr Mo Cu Sn
B4 (base) 0.36 0.90 0.28 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.003 0.002 0.004
B18 0.38 0.86 0.27 0.21
B19 0.38 0.86 0.29 0.30 0.22 0.20
B24 0.39 0.89 0.30 0.32 0.19 0.09 0.21
06 ! ! !
o o
05
04
o
~03
Fig. 30--Calculation of Jominy ..d
distance to 450 VPN using Gross- Oo o
mann factors. High purity steels ~- /o
(Brown and James). <02
~o
o/
J
OI
!
O0 I I I 1 I !
Ol 03 05 07 09
PREDICTED (inches)
06 I I I l I
04
o -
o/
o,o "
(.l
t-
Fig. 3 1 - - C o r r e l a t i o n o f J o m i n y distance to 450 V P N us-
ing " s i m p l e " c o m p u t e r regression equation (Brown and
_I
James).
F- 0
~02
OC I 1 I I I
02 04 0.6
PREDICTED (inches)
2 0 - - V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1 J. H E A T T R E A T I N G
Dia = 3.8 in. (97 m m ) " E X " grades developed in recent years using any o f
Dic = 5.0 in. (127 m m ) several empirical methods. F o u r alternate steels have
C h r o m i u m content 0.90 pct max. been p r o p o s e d for the p o p u l a r N i - C r - M o carburizing
Manganese content 1.00 pct max. steel A I S I / S A E 8620H. The alternates are c o m p a r e d in
M o l y b d e n u m content 0.08 pct rain. m i d r a n g e c o m p o s i t i o n and m i d r a n g e base and case
Silicon content 0.30 pct m a x . hardenability in Table II. It is evident that the p r o p o s e d
With this i n f o r m a t i o n , the c o m p u t e r selected the follow- steels are nearly equivalent in DtB but differ considerably
ing least cost analysis: 0.26 pct C, 1.0 pct Mn, 0.15 pct in D1c. T o check the a d e q u a c y o f these steels to meet
Si, 0.90 pct Cr, 0.36 pct M o and no nickel. case hardenability requirements, H a l l o c k ~9 prepared
Other examples of " r e p l a c e m e n t steels" are the SAE experimental heats o f " l o w s i d e " and " h i g h side" com-
60
LAJ
55
r - " ~ " ~ . EX24
to 50 \ x16 . ==_. _._
ua 45
Z
EXIO - -- "-" -.~ Fig. 32--0.90 pct C case hardenability compar-
"~ 40
ison (low-side chemistry) (Hallock).
35
~ 3o -- 8600
I I
E X I O EX24 E X I 5 -
~ 25 - - D I c 5.2 4.0 5.8 5.1 -
%Hn 0.76 1.03 0.84 0.96
~ 20 --%Si 0.26 0.30 0.31 0.29-
%Ni 0.49 0.25 0.06 --
15 --%Cr 0.45 0.32 0.49 0.44-
%Mo 0.18 0.07 0.23 0.17
10 --G.S. 7.0 7.5 8.5 7.0 -
I I I I I I I
2 4 6 8 i0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END OF SPECIMEN IN SIXTEENTHS OF INCH
'"
z
45
Fig. 33--0.90 pct C case hardenability compar- ~ 4D
<
ison (high-side chemistry) (Hallock). -e-
35
~i , i 30 t
8600 E X I O E X 2 4 EX15
~
v
25
~DIc 7.9 6.2 8.2 6.7
%Mn 0.84 1.20 0.98 I.I0
~ 20 --%Si 0.32 0.35 0.32 0.32
%Ni 0.64 0.34 0.19 --
15 --%Cr 0.60 0.40 0.58 0.51
%Mo 0.23 0.II 0.29 0.19
10
--G.S. 7.5 7.5 8.5 7.5
I I I I I I I
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 4 0
DISTANCE FROM QUENCHED END OF SPECIMEN IN SIXTEENTHS OF INCH
J. H E A T T R E A T I N G V O L U M E 1, NUMBER 1--21
.8
~ C u ' ' ; ' '
Z ~
0 5
I f
,•1200 J
f
~- 1 0 0 0
_--- ~ ,---.- _~ Ni Mn
5
ALLOYING ELEMENT WT-%
positions o f the four steels,* and determined harden- Uhrenius resulted in new data on the influence of the
* " L o w s i d e " c o m p o s i t i o n is one-quarter o f the n o r m a l range o f alloying elements on the eutectoid temperature and car-
each element below the m i d r a n g e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d " h i g h s i d e " com- bon content. A comparison o f the Uhrenius results with
position is o n e - q u a r t e r o f the n o r m a l range o f each element above the those published by Bain and Paxton 2~are given in Fig. 34.
midrange c o m p o s i t i o n .
Among the several useful predictions available in the
ability o f carburized end-quench bars. The results, when Minitech system, Feldman 2 described the capability of
the bars were g r o u n d to depths corresponding to 0.9 pct using diffusion data to predict carbon distributions
C in the case, are given in Figs. 32 and 33. The results resulting from carburizing steels of various alloy con-
confirmed the calculations that the EX10 is not an ade- tents. Two examples are given here. In the first example,
quate " r e p l a c e m e n t " for 8620, on the basis o f case Fig. 35, a series o f carbon gradients were predicted for a
hardenability. Cr-Ni steel, and then checked against observed data
resulting from a standard carburizing operation. It is
possible to predict carbon gradients for a two-step car-
burization process as well. The results o f predictions o f
PREDICTING CRITICAL TEMPERATURES AND
both carbon distribution and hardness resulting from a
CARBON GRADIENTS
two-step carburizing process are shown in Fig. 36. The
Quite useful guidelines for heat treatment can be predicted carbon gradient curves follow the observed
found in the studies of phase equilibria in iron-base al- data quite well through the first portion o f the case, and
loys by Hillert, by Uhrenius, and by Kirkaldy et al in the fall only slightly below the actual data at intermediate
T M S / A I M E book. 2 The t h e r m o d y n a m i c studies of carbon levels.
2 2 - - V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1 J. H E A T T R E A T I N G
9 , , , -1 7 0 30 NC 11 AfterlRSID
I CO,o ~Mo%i s,ojoi s% l po;o i N,o,o i c,o,o ,Moo,,;ooo, o~ As~ I
O32 !o3o o ,o To 7 i 2.95 [ 0.69 0,3, ?,056 I
o~ ~ _ ~ ~~4,o Austenitized at 850~ Grain size :12
J
tlJ
900~
3O 9
~J 80O \ ~.'\ \, ~-\
CHROMIUM - N I C K E L STEEL 2o ~
o e % CARBON PGTENTIAL IN GAS Ac~ ( -
0 8 ~ PREDICTED I0
9 o OBSERVED
O 6oo \, ',,
\'\~'\,
13)
06
Z o
(1)
0
r
~r
CL 500400
o 4 IO MRS
E
O
u 04 F-
I-
3oOMso ..... ~\ ~ - - - ~ ~
,.-,02 200 M
M9o
C A S E D E P T H BY H A R R I S FORMUL&
I IB, ~5.bO AND 79 THOU, RESPECIIVELY
100
0 [ l 1 1 I
0 20 40 60 BO IO0 l i I I I
P f NET RAT ION ( T housondlh$ ) 1 10 100 103 104 105
Fig. 35--Comparison of observations and predictions for the surface
carbon dependence of diffusion penetration (Feldman). Seconds Time l m n 2mn 15ran l h h 4hBh 2 h
Fig. 37--I.R.S.I.D. CCT diagram of 30 NC 11 steel.
B•
sources of C C T diagrams and discusses the application
0
of C C T diagrams to commercial practice. Throughout
~oa the world there are now a very large number of C C T
2 HRS AT 1 3 % C
diagrams available. Many of these were generated in
J I H R AT 0.7 %C
response to a need for transformation data on a specific
composition or commercial grade of steel, but many
diagrams were generated to study the effect of varying
2H.S .T,3.C alloying elements. In several publications, the latest be-
~0 %C ing in the T M S / A I M E b o o k , 2 Maynier and coworkers
have developed a systematic analysis of C C T diagrams
and have generated regression equations from European
HRS.AT I3 ~C ~ ~ ' ~ - . . _ ~ diagrams which make it possible to predict transforma-
tion behavior, for a given composition, grain size and
CASE DEPTHS BY HARRIS FORMULA
3 5 , 4 3 AND 5 0 THOU , RESPECTIVELY austenitizing condition. A typical diagram, and charac-
I I I I teristic critical cooling programs, from the work of
0 20 40 60 80 IO0
PENETRATION (Thousondth$)
Maynier et a! are shown in Fig. 37. The critical cooling
Fig. 36--Comparison of observations and predictions for a two-step programs, designated by V, the rate of cooling at
carburization process (Feldman). 700 ~ are:
log Vl = 9.81 - (4.62C pct + 1.05Mn pct + 0.54Ni pct + In the T M S / A I M E book, 2 papers by Pickering and
by Krauss describe the relationship between microstruc-
0.50Cr pct + 0.66Mo pct + 0.00183 P,) ture and mechanical properties. Predicting mechanical
Coefficients for several such equations are summarized properties of steels as a function o f their chemical com-
in Table Ill. The influence of elements on various trans- position and heat treatment is seen by several workers as
formation reactions is indicated by the magnitude of the the next step in utilizing the fund o f knowledge that has
coefficients. These are revealing. Carbon, o f course, is been developed in metallurgy over the years. The results
most effective in inhibiting transformation and least in- of work by Maynier and coworkers in France, Kirkaldy
Table III. Constants and Coefficients in Critical Velocity Equations (Maynier et al)
Pa No.
Constant C Mn Ni Cr Mo ~ h Equations 2a
Log 1/1 9.81 4.62 1.10 0.54 0.50 0.66 0.0018 63 0.49
Log ~90) 8.76 4.04 0.96 0.49 0.58 0.97 0.0010 74 0.54
Log IAll5~ 8.50 4.13 0.86 0.57 0.41 0.94 0.0012 80 0.61
Log V2(9~ 10.55 3.65 1.08 0.77 0.61 1.49 0.0040 90 0.82
Log V2(~~ 8.74 2.23 0.86 0.56 0.59 1.60 0.0032 102 0.90
Log V3(9~ 7.51 1.38 0.35 0.93 0.11 2.31 0.0033 63 0.80
0.38Mo
Log V3 6.36 0.43 0.49 0.78 0.26 + 2x/M~ 0.0019 71 0.51
Log 1/700 or = (Kp.P pct) with P = C, M n , Ni, Cr, M o , V, P a . Valid for all low alloyed steels (except XN, the nickel steels)
2 4 - - V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1 J. H E A T T R E A T I N G
Table IV. Results of Multiple Linear Regression of Data for Microalloy Free and Boron Free Steels (Eldis)
Dependent Variable E q u a t i o n a n d S t a t i s t i c s ( A l l o y C o n t e n t s in w t p c t )
a M i n i m u m s i g n i f i c a n c e level = s i g n i f i c a n c e level o f l e a s t s i g n i f i c a n t c o e f f i c i e n t .
b B a i n i t e t i m e = p o s i t i o n o f b a i n i t e n o s e o n t i m e axis.
cpearlite time = position of the nose of high temperature transformation (ferrite/pearlite) on time axis.
J. H E A T T R E A T I N G VOLUME 1, N U M B E R 1--25
A s e c o n d f o r m u l a f o r t h e h a r d n e s s o f b a i n i t e (free f r o m
ferrite or m a r t e n s i t e ) w a s m o r e d i f f i c u l t to d e v e l o p , b u t
REFERENCES with c a r e f u l l y c h o s e n d a t a t a k e s t h e f o r m :
~RSKD
100000 ~NCO
GARCON HVba~.i, e = 323 + 185C + 330Si + 153Mn +
STEVEN & MAYER
C R E U S O ~ - LOIRE
0 65Ni + 144Cr + 1 9 1 M o + log Vr
O
v
(89 + 53C - 55Si - 2 2 M n - 10Ni - 2 0 C r - 3 3 M o )
9
O
10000
o (2o is 20 H V f o r this e q u a t i o n )
F o r t e m p e r e d steels M a y n i e r d e v e l o p e d o t h e r e q u a -
tions which t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e " s o f t e n i n g p o i n t "
10t - r"--
0 20 40 100 200 400 1000 2 0 0 0 which he d e s c r i b e s as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n d r e l a t i v e l y i n d e -
p e n d e n t o f the q u e n c h e d s t r u c t u r e . A s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n -
D i a m e t e r in m.m.
Fig. 39--Cooling rate at the center of bars cooled in air or quenched in d e n s a t i o n o f this w o r k is n o t p o s s i b l e in this review
water and oil as a function of diam in mm. paper.
M a y n i e r a n d c o w o r k e r s g o o n to d e v e l o p r e g r e s s i o n
e q u a t i o n s for tensile s t r e n g t h a n d yield s t r e n g t h . A n in-
d i c a t i o n o f the success w i t h t h e i r m e t h o d s is given in
Fig. 41 in w h i c h c a l c u l a t e d y i e l d s t r e n g t h is c o m p a r e d
10 5.
9 Bamdlc Steels
O Ba~mtlc C N D Steels
9 Balmtcc C M D Steels
O 80. A Bamthc M O V Steels
O
r-.- 104"
c~
70
%
E
CI2
~ 103. Air r 60 84
-6 O'3
>-
o
0
50 84
102
C)
N--95
X=1,3
40 2o-= 7,4 k g / m m ~
6 10 20 40 60 100 200 40 50 60 70
! 1
LOW
CAR8OR
M~ I
CARBON .
i
OUENCH Fig. 42--Chrysler computerized steel selector.
AND
1EMPER
I I
I THERMALLY
DEVELOPED
1 ~MECHANICALLY
[ o,vEto,~o [
( I
I RAW [ [ pR0ctss,,o ]
MATERIAL
with measured yield strength in quenched and tempered matic of the Chrysler system is shown in Fig. 42, and an
bainitic plates. example of mechanical properties print-out from the
Hernacki and Ward of Chrysler Corporation in the computer is shown in Fig. 43. This is a good example of
US have adopted the Minitech system and have ex- providing ready access to data in response to questions
panded it to provide mechanical property data. Their raised by designers and materials engineers.
system is described in the TMS/AIME book. 2 A sche- Hildenwall and Ericsson of Link6ping University,
C MN P S SI HI CR MO
.36e .65e .825 .928 . 159 .e86 . 915 .984
SPHEROIDIZED PROPERTIES
59.853 118.448 .917 11e.955 119.932 .247 53.~38 29.935
J. H E A T T R E A T I N G V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1--27
Sweden, in consultation with Volvo, have developed a
SUMMARY
program which incorporates mechanical and thermal
properties o f steels and which generates stress distribu- It is the author's opinion that there are several fairly
tions in carburized and heat treated parts. This is a pow- accurate procedures available for estimating heat treat-
erful method for new designs and may eventually lead to ment response in steel from hardenability data and from
a model for predicting distortion resulting from heat continuous cooling transformation data, and for esti-
treatment. Two figures help to illustrate the capability mating critical heat treatment temperatures from chemi-
o f the system. Diagrams of CCT behavior as a function cal composition. The methods available for predicting
o f carbon content have been developed for some steels hardenability and hardness from composition and grain
by Rose and Hougardy. n Knowledge of the effect of size are also very useful if developed for a limited class
alloys on transformation of the base steel and the effect of steels, and are quite accurate if used to predict the ef-
of carbon on the Ms temperature at various locations in fect of minor changes in composition for a given steel.
the case, as shown in Fig. 44, is the first step in estimat- The newer methods for predicting mechanical proper-
ing stresses. ties from composition and microstructure hold great
For quantitative prediction of residual stresses one promise, but require more development and testing be-
must consider temperature gradients developed by fore accurate predictions are possible.
quenching (influenced by quenching severity, thermal More studies of the interaction of alloys and the influ-
conductivity, heat capacity, heat of transformation and ence of minor elements on hardenability are required
density o f the steel), the phase transformations, and the before a comprehensive set of predictive equations for
mechanical properties at various temperatures. All such hardenability can be established. These studies will take
considerations, carefully integrated, result in calcula- two forms. One is the detailed statistical analysis o f ex-
tions of residual stress that take the form of Fig. 45, isting hardenability data, and the other involves gener-
which shows the calculated residual stresses in plates of ating new data using statistically designed grids o f
A IS I /S AE 1321 steel carburized to various surface car- alloys. This author is aware of plans for and progress in
bon contents. The technique also permits estimating re- both types of studies. It is hoped that others will see the
tained austenite in a carburized case. The calculated need for such data and that the work can be shared on a
stresses have been shown to be in good agreement with worldwide basis.
experimental experience, and confirm earlier experi- It is evident, from work to date, that the metallurgist
mental work and theoretical developments. involved in alloy design cannot consider hardenability
900
8O0 1500
700 1300
0 200
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Time, seconds
2 8 - - V O L U M E 1, N U M B E R 1 J. H E A T T R E A T I N G
400
"I=:
.5 ( ".." . I.f 2. 2.5
,d
ee-
l,.,-
//,,
,=C
== '!/ |
I!/ ,.
-101
t is I/
DEPI"H.mm
as an isolated p r o p e r t y o f steel. The effect of alloy mod- 2. Douglas V. Doane and J o h n S. Kirkaldy, editors: Hardenability
ifications to enhance hardenability or to provide the Concepts with Applications to Steel, The Metallurgical
Society/AIME, New York, 1978.
same hardenability at lower cost must be considered in 3. D. J. Carney: Trans. ASM, 1954, vol. 46, pp, 882-927.
the full knowledge o f the effects of alloys on the proper- 4. R. A. Grange: Met. Trans., 1973, vol. 4, p. 2231.
ties of the different microstructures generated in the 5. M. A. Grossmann: Trans. A1ME, 1942, vol. 150, pp. 227-55.
6. I. R. Kramer, S. Siegel, and J. G. Brooks: Trans. AIME, 1946,
steel. Such properties include machinability, fatigue, vol. 167, p. 670.
toughness, strength at elevated temperatures, as well as 7. M. A. Grossmann: Elements ofHardenability, ASM, Cleveland,
interactive properties such as distortion and thermal 1952.
8. A. F. deRetana and D.V. Doane: Met. Progr., 1971, vol. 100, p.
fatigue.
65.
9, C. F. Jatczak: Met. Trans., 1973, vol. 4, p. 2272.
10, D. T. Lewellyn and W. T. Cook: Met. Tech., 1974, p. 517.
REFERENCES 11, A. Moser and A. Legat: Berg Huettenmaenn. Monatsh., 1967,
vol. l l 2 , pp. 321-31.
I. C. A. Siebert, D. V. Doane, and D. H. Breen: The Hardenability 12. J. Glen: British Iron and Steel Institute Special Report 36, p.
of Steels--Concepts, Metallurgical Influences, and Industrial Ap- 356ff, 1945.
plications, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 13. J. Orlich: Harterei-Technische Mitteilungen, 1974, vol. 29, no. 4,
1977. p. 231.