LoadFlowStudy Student PDF

Load Flow Analysis
Load Flow Analysis © 2017, ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc., All Rights Reserved
Load Flow Overview
Basic Loading & Run Advanced
Overview Concepts Methodology Panels Summary
Generation Studies Topics
Topics 3Ph & 1Ph Power Goals Load & Gen Study Case Main & Subs
Convergence
Steps Categories & Toolbars Connections
Non-Linear
Objectives Generation Global Panel
PF Iterative OPF
Operation Modes Adjustments Schedule
Methods
3-Phase
Per Unit Data Lumped
Capabilities Alerts 2-Phase
Requirements Load
1-Phase
Load Invertor, Charger,

Example Reports
Types UPS
Decoupled OLV Display Generator

Create Wizard
Systems DataBlock, … Limits
Result
Exercise 1&2 IEEE Example
Analyzer
Exercise 3
Blue – PowerPoint Orange - ETAP
Overview
Mother of all Studies
• Load Flow Analysis is an Engineering Art
• The Art of duplicating and understanding
the steady-sate behavior of Power Systems
• First studies to be done to validate the project model
• Last studies to be done to validate other studies
• Has contradictory objectives with SC & TS studies
• Need to consider past, present & future conditions
• Need to consider all possible operating conditions
• Compare limits & duties for the correct operation of
the power systems apparatus
Overview
Objectives
• To Protect the System Against:
– Electrical Limits
• Over/Under Voltage conditions
• Over Load conditions
• Voltage and Current Limits
– Mechanical
• Tension & Stress Levels
• Life Time
– Thermal
• Steady-State Temperature Limits
• Emergency Temperature Limits
Overview
Objectives
• Steady-State Operating Conditions
 Voltage Profile
 Power Flows
 Current Flows
 Power Factors
 Voltage Drops
 Generator’s Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
 Generator’s MW Demand
 Total Generation & Demand
 MW & Mvar Losses
Overview
Capabilities
Handel any kind of Integrated Network
No Limitations for the followings
 Connectivity / Subsystems
 DC, AC (1P-1W, 1P-2W, 2P-2W, 2P-3W, 3P-3W, 3P-4W
 Nominal Voltage
 Frequency
 Phase Connection
 Bus Number – 1,000,000+ tested
Basic Concept
• Power in Balanced 3-Phase Systems
*
S 1  V LN I
S 3  3  S 1
 3  V LL I *
 P  jQ
 Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

 Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor Leading Power Factor Current and Voltage
Load Flow Concept
• Leading & Lagging Power Factors
 Leading PF: P+jQ , -P-jQ
 Lagging PF: P-jQ, -P+jQ
Gen1
4997.8
-j270.9
Bus3
Cable1 6 %
99.5
Bus1
796.9 -697.8 796.9 796.9 848.5 848.5 793 793 j892.1
j330.5 j289.4 j330.5 -j330.5 j525.9 -j525.9 j594.8 -j594.8
Mtr1 Mtr3 Syn1 Syn2 LUMP1 LUMP2 Load1 Load2 CAP1
Load Flow Concept
• Leading & Lagging Power Factors
 Current (amp) direction is based on the value of P (kW).
 Leading Power Factor are displayed as a negative value.
Gen1
209.4
-99.9%
Bus3
Cable1 6 %
209.4 99.5
Bus1 -99.9%
36.3 -31.7 36.3 36.3 41.9 41.9 41.7 41.7 37.5
92.4% -92.4% 92.4% -92.4% 85% -85% 80% -80% 0%
Mtr1 Mtr3 Syn1 Syn2 LUMP1 LUMP2 Load1 Load2 CAP1
Load Flow Concept
• 3-Phase Per Unit System
 Three phase power equation

S  3VI 
 

V  3 ZI 

 Base calculations
kVA B
IB 
3kVB
(kVB ) 2
ZB 
MVA B
 Per Unit calculations

I actual Vactual
I pu  Vpu  2
IB VB V o
  S Bn 
Z n
pu  Z 
o
pu
B
n
  o 
Zpu 
Zactual
Spu 
Sactual V B   SB 
ZB SB
Load Flow Concept
• Elimination of Transformer Turn Ratio:

 To determine base voltage:
kVB1 Bus 1 Bus 2

N1
kVB1  kVB2
N2
kVB2
Cabl
 Impedance of transformer in per unit:
X
Z pu   
R  x pu
X pu  R pu 
X
2
X
1    R 
R 
Load Flow Concept
Base for per unit or % values in ETAP

 Machines Z Rated kVA and kV
 ANSI Transformers Z Rated Output kVA and kV
 IEC Transformers Z Rated Input kVA and kV
 Base Voltage Bus Nominal kV
% Loading Reports
 Loads Rated kVA
 Transformers Max kVA
 Lines & Cables Allowable (Derated/U-D) Amp
Load Flow Concept
• Example:
 Base voltage calculation across a transformer in ETAP:
 Branch impedances in LF report are in percentage
 Turn ratio: N1/N2 = 3.31
 X/R = 12.14
Load Flow Concept
• Example (cont’d):
0.065 (12 .14 ) 0.06478
X pu   0.06478 R pu   0.005336
1  (12 .14 ) 2 12 .14
 Impedance conversion to 100 MVA base
 “n” stands for new & “O” stands for old values
2
o  VB   S Bn 
2
 13.8   100 
o
Z n
pu  Z pu  n   o   (5.33 10 3  j 0.06478)     (0.1115  j1.3538)
 VB   B
S  13 . 5   5 
%Z  100  Zpu  11 .15  j135 .38
 The base voltage of the branch impedance (Z1) determined by

transformer turn ratio
kVutility 13 .5 VB2 (4.0695 ) 2
VB    4.0695 ZB    0.165608
  3.31
N 1 MVA 100
 N 2 
Load Flow Concept
• Example (cont’d) :
Zactual (0.1  j1)
Z pu    (0.6038  j6.0382 )
ZB 0.1656
%Z  100  Zpu  60 .38  j603 .8
 Load flow report generated by ETAP for branches:
Load Flow Concept
Decoupled Systems:
V 1  V1 1
V 2  V2  2
S  V  I   P  jQ
V  V2 V1  V2 V2 
2
 1 Sin(1   2 )  j  Cos (1   2 )  
X  X X 
V1  V2
P Sin(1   2 )
X
V1  V2
2
V2
Q Cos(1   2 ) 
X X
Load Flow Concept
Decoupled Systems: Gen1
U1
% %
1.7 100 1.7 100
Bus1 j1.054 Bus2 j1.054
1.7 0 de 1.7 0 de
g g
j1.054 j1.054
LUMP1 T1 LUMP2
U2 Gen2
%
101 %
Bus3
3.26 0.162 100
j78.735 Bus4 -j75.854
0 de
1.707 1.554 g 1.7 0 de
j1.058 j77.677 j1.054 g
LUMP3 LUMP4
T2
U3 Gen3
% %
1339.5 100 1331.5 100
Bus5 j91.184 Bus6 -j144.6
1.7 1337.8 10 d 1.7 0 de
eg j1.054 g
j1.054 j90.13
LUMP6
LUMP5 T3
Load Flow Concept
• Power transfer between two buses in per unit
Power Flow
1 1
( V E)
sin   0

X
2
( V E)
cos   V

X X
2
2
0   
Real Power Flow
Reactive Power Flow
Methodology
 Goals
 Steps
 Non-Linear Solution
 Solution Methods
 Requirements
 Load Types
 PV, PQ Elements
Methodology
Goal
A healthy operation under different conditions
*** Size Equipments & Determine Parameters ***
 Cable
 Lines
 Capacitor
 Transformer MVA Rating
 Transformer Tap Setting & Limits
 Current Limiting Reactor Ratings
 MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
 Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
 Generator’s Mvar Demand
 Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV
Methodology
• Verify operation conditions within limits
 Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
 Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits of Equipment
 Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the Maximum Ratings
 Acceptable System MW & Mvar Losses
 Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
 Steady State Stability Limits
• Validation of data in steady state condition

 Comparison of real time metered data with load flow results
Methodology
• Load Flow Problem
 Given:
 Power consumption at all buses
 Branch impedances in the network
 Network Topology (Configuration)
 Generation and load VAriation
 Output:
 Voltage magnitude and angle at all buses
 Power flows on all the branches including power factors
 Losses on all branches
Methodology
Steps in a Project
1. Understand the Scope of the Project and its Objectives
2. Obtain existing equipment data, one-lines, study
reports, plots, recorded data, etc.
3. Convert project files to ETAP via DataX
4. LF Data collection: NPs, settings, positions, etc.
5. Model Validation using network & operating info
6. Verifying all allowable limits, V, A, kVA, kW, time, etc.
7. Run 100s of studies
8. Verify acceptance using the LF Analyzer
9. Create Wizard for top most 10-50 studies that show
verification of the worst operating requirements.
10. Create the study report, using CR, OLV, PDF, Excel, …
Methodology
Non-Linear System
• Calculation Process
 Iterative Calculation
 Assume Load Voltage “VR”
(Initial Conditions)
Assume VR
 Calculate the Current “I” Calc: I = Sload / VR
 Based on Current Calc: Vd = I * Z
Calculate Voltage Drop “Vd” Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
 Re-Calculate Load Voltage “VR”
 Re-use “VR” until results are within the specified precision
Methodology
• Load Flow Calculation Methods
 Newton-Raphson
 Fast in speed, but high requirement on initial values
 First order derivative is used to speed up calculation
Methodology
 Adaptive Newton-Raphson
 Fast in speed, but high requirement on initial values
 First order derivative is used to speed up calculation
Methodology
 Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method
 Low Requirements on initial values
 Slow in speed
Methodology
 Fast-Decoupled Method
 Two sets of iteration equations: real power – voltage angle,
reactive power – voltage magnitude in speed, but high
requirement on initial values
 Fast in speed, but low in solution precision
 Better for radial systems and systems with long lines
Methodology
• Possible Convergence Issues
 Negative Impedance
 Zero or Very Small Impedance
 Widely Different Branch Impedance Values
 Long Radial System Configurations
 Improper Initial Bus Voltage Values
 Imbalance of demand/supply in the system
Load Flow Requirements
• ETAP load flow required data
 General Equipment Data
 Element ID
 Nominal / Rated kV
 Bus:
 %V and Angle
 Load Diversity Factor
 Branch in general:
 Branch Z, R, X, or X/R values and units, tolerance, and
temperature, if applicable
 Cable and transmission line, length, and unit
 Transformer rated kV and kVA/MVA, tap, and LTC settings
 Impedance element base kV and base kVA/MVA
Exercise
Example-B1
Exercise
Purpose & Description

• The purpose of this exercise is to introduce the
equipment editor fields for the load flow calculation.
• The Load Flow required data for different elements
are introduced.
Methodology
Load Type Summary
Load Types in Power System
Load Types in Power System
Load Modeling in ETAP
• Constant Power (kVA) Loads
• Motor loads,
 Constant Power output regardless of voltage
variations - P = T * Rotor Speed
 Induction Motor
 Synchronous Motors
 Lumped Load – Option
• Combination of constant power, current, &
impedance loads with frequency dependencies
• Example:
 Motor Nameplate Calculation
kWRated HP  0.7457
kVARated  
PF  Eff PF  Eff
kVARated
FLA3 
3  kV
kVARated
FLA1 
kV
Mtr 2 : PF  90 %, EFF  85 %
200  0.7457
k VARated   194 .95
0.9  0.85
194 .95
FLA3   234 .48
3  0.48
194 .95
FLA1   406 .14
0.48
• Constant Impedance Loads
 Static Load
 Motor Operated Valve
 Lumped Load
 Capacitor
 Harmonic Filter
• Power & Voltage relation: P  V 2
• In Load Flow Harmonic Filters may be used as capacitive
loads for Power Factor Correction.
• MOVs are modeled as constant impedance loads
because of their operating characteristics.
Load Flow Analysis

© 1996-2008 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 44
© 2017, ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc., All Rights Reserved
• Example (Cont’d):
 Load Calculation
k VA  ( k W ) 2  ( k Var) 2
kW
PF 
k VA
k VA
I 3 
( 3  kV)
k VA
I1 
kV
Load1 : PF  90 %, kVA  280
kW  59 .6  0.9  252
kVar  (59 .6) 2  (53 .64 ) 2  122
59 .6
I 3   336 .8
3  0.48
59 .6
I1   194 .68
0.48
• Constant Current Loads
 Current remains constant regardless of
voltage variations
 DC Constant current loads are used to test
Battery discharge capacity
 AC constant current loads may be used to
test UPS systems performance
 DC Constant Current Loads may be
specified in ETAP by defining Load Duty
Cycles
• Constant Current Loads (Cont’d):
Exercise
Example-B2
Exercise

• The purpose of this exercise is to introduce features
such as alert views, load flow reports and load flow
analyzer.
• Check voltage and loading conditions.
• Voltage regulation
• Element sizing
Loading & Generation
Overview
 Generator Operation Modes
 Renewable Energy
 Motor Operation
 Generic Loads
 Invertors & Chargers
 UPS
 Equipment Limits
Generator Operation Modes
• Synchronous Generator & Control System
• Governor Operating Modes

 Isochronous:
 This governor setting allows the generator’s power output to be
adjusted based on the system demand
 Frequency (speed) is constant per system’s nominal frequency
 Droop:
 This governor setting allows the generator to be Base Loaded, meaning
that the MW output is fixed at
• Generator Excitation System
 AVR: automatic voltage regulation
 Feedback voltage from generator terminal
 Comparison of feedback to reference
voltage in AVR unit
 Fixed: fixed excitation (no AVR)
• Isochronous Mode
• Droop Mode
Loading Governor
@60Hz Set Point
0% A
25% B
50% C
75% D
100% E
• Droop Mode – Equal Settings

 60Hz and constant loading of
400MW
 Equal load sharing
G1 = G2 = 200MW
• Droop Mode – Unequal Settings
 Increase G1 governor setting by
0.3Hz
 G2 governor setting must
decrease by 0.3Hz
 Unequal load sharing
G1 = 150 MW; G2 = 250MW
• Unequal Speed Droops

 Initial operating frequency at
60Hz
 Initial loading G1 = G2 = 350MW
• Effect of load variations
 Total increase of load by
350MW
 Frequency drop by 0.5Hz
 Unequal load sharing
G1 = 600MW; G2 = 450MW
Generator Modes in ETAP
• Generator/Power Grid operating modes used in LF calculation
 Swing Mode
 Governor in Isochronous mode
 Automatic Voltage Regulator
 Voltage Control
 Governor in Droop Mode
 Automatic Voltage Regulator
 Mvar Control
 Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR action)
 PF Control
 AVR Adjusts to Power Factor Setting
• If in Voltage Control Mode, the limits of P & Q are
reached, the model is changed to a constant P & Q
load
Generator Characteristics
Operating
Exciter Governor
Modes
P Q V δ°
Swing X X √ √ AVR Isoch
Voltage
Control √ X √ X AVR Droop
Mvar (PF)
Control √ √ X X Fixed Droop
Load Modeling
• Generic Loads
 Exponential Load
 Polynomial Load
 Comprehensive Load
Ppoly  p1V 2
 p2 V  p3
a1
Pexp 1  p4 (V ) (1  K pf 1f )
a2
Pexp 2  p5 (V ) (1  K pf 2 f )
P  P0 [ Ppoly  Pexp 1  Pexp 2 ]
Load Modeling
• Lumped Load Negative Loading
Generator Limits
• Generator Capability Curve
 Based on generator MVA rating
 Q>0 in lagging mode
 Q<0 in leading mode
 P>0 in generator mode
 P<0 in motoring mode
 Curve AB; Field Heating limit
 Curve BC; Stator Heating
 Curve CD; Stator Core End
Heating
 Point B; Rated Power Factor
 More limitation with no AVR
• Generator Capability Curve (Cont’d):
Example
IEEE Example
Load Flow Toolbar
• Load Flow Toolbar buttons:
 Run Load Flow
 Auto Run on/off
 Halt Current Calculation
 Alert View
 Report Manager
 Load Flow Result Analyzer
 Load Flow Comparator
 Display Options
 Unit Show
 Result Options
 Voltage Unit Option
 Load Terminal Voltages
Load Flow Study Case
• Study Case - Info Page:
 ID
 Method
 Select the mathematical
calculation method
 Report
 Select the display unit for
reporting
 Options
 Select the method for specifying
initial voltages
 Update
 Select certain fields to updated
as the result of load flow
• Study Case - Loading Page:
 Loading Category
 Select specific category to be
considered for the calculation
 Generation Category
 Select specific category to be
considered for the calculation
 Load Diversity Factor
 Charger Loading
 Apply charger loading per
operating load or selected
loading category
• Study Case - Adjustment
Page:
 Impedance Tolerance
 Apply positive tolerance for
transformer, reactor and/or
overload heater
 Length Tolerance
 Apply positive tolerance for
cable and/or transmission line
lengths
 Resistance temperature
Correction
 Apply Max. temperature for
cable and/or transmission line
• Study Case – Alert Page:
 Loading
 Specify critical/marginal loading
% for alerting
 Bus Voltage
 Specify critical/marginal
over/under voltage limits
 Generator/Power Grid Excitation
 Specify critical/marginal
over/under excitation limits
 Auto Display
 Display alerts automatically
right after load flow run
• Allowable Voltage Drop NEC and ANSI C84.1
• Protective Device Alerts
Protective Devices Monitored parameters % Condition reported
Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad

High Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad
Fuses Rated Current OverLoad
Contactors Continuous rated Current OverLoad
SPDT / SPST switches Continuous rated Current OverLoad
Load Flow Alerts
Load Flow Analysis

© 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis Slide 72
© 2017, ETAP/Operation Technology, Inc., All Rights Reserved
Exercise
Example-B3
Exercise

• The purpose of this exercise is to check the operating
limits of the elements
• Propose solutions for under-voltage conditions
Reports
• ETAP Report Types:
One Line Diagram Report Types Remarks
Display (Annotation) Power Flows kW, kvar, Amp, PF, etc.
Flow Results Branch, Source, Load, etc.
Branch Losses kW + jkvar
Bus Voltage Magnitude/Angle (kV, V, %)
Load Terminal Load rated kV or Bus Nom. kV
Voltage Drop Line, Cable, Load Feeder
UPS/Panel Average values or per phase
Meters Ammeter, Voltmeter, Multi-Meter
Text Box Input Data All input properties for all equipments
Datablock Input/output All the input and output results (future
release)
Reports
• Example (Bus Voltage Display):
Bus4 voltage in Percent:

kVCalculated  13 .5 kVNo min al  13.8
kVCalculated
V%  100  97 .83 %
kVNo min al
Bus5 voltage in percent:

kVCalculated  4.03 kVNo min al  4.16
kVCalculated
V%  100  96 .85 %
kVNo min al
Reports
• ETAP Report Types:
Report Manager Report Types Remarks

Crystal Report Complete Including all input/output data
MS Excel Input Only input data
Ms Word Result Only output results
PDF Summary Including alerts, losses, loading, etc.
Text
Report Analyzer Report Types Remarks
Table (Grid) of multiple General Comparison of multiple reports in a table
reports displaying input/output data based on
Bus Results
different equipment types, ratings, flow
Branch Results results and specified alerts
(loading/voltage drop)
Loads
Sources
Reports
• Report Manager:
Reports
• Load Flow Analyzer:
Reports
• Power Flow Convention:
Element Type Active Power (P) Reactive Power (Q) Power Flow Convention
Source + + Supply P & Q
+ - Supply P, Absorb Q
- + Absorb P, Supply Q
- - Absorb P & Q
Load + + Absorb P & Q
+ - Absorb P, Supply Q
- + Supply P, Absorb Q
- - Supply P & Q
Wizards
• Scenario:
 Create new scenarios / copy
existing scenarios
 Run scenario based on selected
parameters
• Scenario Parameters:
 System (Network, CSD, UGS)
 Presentation
 Revision
 Configuration
 Study Mode
 Study Type
 Study Case
 Output Report
Wizards
• Study:
 Create new study macro / copy
existing study macros
 Run study macro based on the
order of selected scenarios
• Study Parameters:
 Add an existing scenario to end of
the list
 Insert an existing scenario in
between the list
 Reorder the scenario list
 Activate/deactivate certain
scenarios
 Create selective pause between
the scenario runs
Wizards
• Project:
 Create new project macro / copy
existing project macros
 Run project macro based on the
order of selected study macros
• Project Parameters:
 Add an existing project macro to
end of the list
 Insert an existing project macro in
between the list
 Reorder the study macro list
 Activate/deactivate certain studies
 Create selective pause between
the study macro runs
Panel Systems
Panel System
Panel Boards:
• They are a collection of branch circuits feeding system
loads
• Panel System is used for representing power and
lighting panels in electrical systems
Click to drop once on OLV

Double-Click to drop multiple panels
Panel System
• Representation:
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as an internal or
external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation
Panel System
• Pin Assignment:
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections
Panel System
Assumptions:
• Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
• Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3-Phase
panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel circuit is
(1/√3) times the rated panel voltage
• The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire panel
is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
• There are no losses in the feeders connecting a load to
the panel
• Static loads are calculated based on their rated voltage
Panel System
• Line to Line Connections

Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A A
B B
C C
IBC IB = IBC IC = -IBC
Load LoadB
Angle by which load current IBC lags the load voltage = θ
Therefore, for load connected between phases B and C: For load connected to phase B
SBC = VBC.IBC SB = VB.IB

PBC = VBC.IBC.cos θ PB = VB.IB.cos (θ - 30)
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin θ QB = VB.IB.sin (θ - 30)
And, for load connected to phase C
SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos (θ + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin (θ + 30)
Panel System
• Info Page:
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of the
panel
Phase B shall be the highest

voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4-
wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)
3-Phase 4-Wire Panel

Panel System
• Rating Page:
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
For IEC, Enclosure Type

is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel
Select ANSI or IEC

Breakers or Fuses from
Main Device Library
Panel System
• Schedule Page:
Circuit Numbers with

Standard Layout
Circuit Numbers with

Column Layout
Panel System
• Pin Assignment:
₋ First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
₋ Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
₋ Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total panel
load
₋ External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the element
type
₋ For External links the load status is determined from the connected load’s demand
factor status
Panel System
• Rating Tab:
Enter per phase VA, W, or

Amperes for this load.
For example, if total Watts

for a 3-phase load are 1200,
enter W as 400 (=1200/3)
Panel System
• Loading Tab:
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are

calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV
Panel System
• Protective Device Tab:
Library Quick Pick -
LV Circuit Breaker
(Molded Case, with
Thermal Magnetic Trip
Device) or
Library Quick Pick –

Fuse will appear
depending on the
Type of protective
device selected.
Panel System
• Feeder Tab:
Panel System
• Action Bottons:
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
Paste the entire content (of the

copied row) in the selected row.
This will work when the Link
Type is other than space or
unusable, and only for fields
which are not blocked.
Blank out the contents of the entire

selected row.
Panel System
• Summary Page:
Continuous Load – Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load – Per Phase and Total
Connected Load – Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)
Code Demand – Per Phase and Total
Panel System
• Output Report
Panel System
• Panel Code Factors
The first fourteen have fixed formats per NEC 1999
Code demand load depends on Panel Code Factors
Code demand load calculation for internal loads are done

for each types of load separately and then summed up
Advanced LF Topics
Load Flow Convergence
Load Flow vs. Optimal Power Flow
Advanced Topics
• Review of Load Flow Study

– Given generation, loading and control settings (Mwgen, Vgen, LTC,
Capacitor Bank, …)
– Solve bus voltages and branch flows
– Check over/under voltage, device overloading conditions
– Reset controls and run Load Flow again
– Iterative process
Advanced Topics
• Optimal Load Flow Approach

– Given control setting ranges
– Specify bus voltage and branch loading constraints
– Select optimization objectives (Min. P Losses, Min. Q Losses, …)
– Solve bus voltages, branch flows and control settings
– Direct solution
Advanced Topics
• Control Variables
– Load Tap Changer (LTC) Settings
– Generator AVR Settings
– Generator MW Generation
– Series or Shunt VAR Compensator Settings
– Phase Shift Transformer Tap Positions
– Switched Capacitor Settings
– Load Shedding
– DC Line Flow
Advanced Topics
Objective Function:
• Minimize Real Power Losses

- To minimize real power losses in the system
• Minimize Reactive Power Losses

- To minimize reactive power losses in the system
• Minimize Swing Bus Power

- To minimize real power generation at the swing bus(s)
Advanced Topics
• Minimize Shunt var Devices

- To minimize var generation from available shunt var control devices
• Minimize Fuel Cost

- To minimize total generation fuel cost
• Minimize Series Compensation

- To minimize var generation from available series var control devices
Advanced Topics
• Minimize Load Shedding

- To minimize load to be shed from the available bus load shed schedule
• Minimize Control Movement

- To minimize total number of controls
• Minimize Control Adjustment

- To minimize overall adjustment from all controls
Advanced Topics
• Maximize Voltage Security Index
2n
 Vi  Vi ,avg 
AllBuses
Voltage Security Index    
i  dVi 
Where ,
Vi ,max  Vi ,min Vi ,max  Vi ,min

Vi ,avg  dVi 
2 2
Advanced Topics
• Maximize Line Flow Security Index
2n
AllBranche
s
 Si 
Line Flow Security Index  i
 
 Si 
Where , dSi is the line rating
• Flat Voltage Profile

- Voltage Magnitude difference between all buses is minimum
Advanced Topics
Constraints:
• Bus Voltage Constraints
• Branch Flow Constraints
• Interface Flow Constraints
Exercise
• Open LF-Example-A3
• Follow instructions in LF-Example-A3.PDF
Exercise
• Comparison of LF and OPF:

LoadFlowStudy Student PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

LoadFlowStudy Student PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Load Flow Analysis

Load Invertor, Charger,

Decoupled OLV Display Generator

 Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

Mtr1 Mtr3 Syn1 Syn2 LUMP1 LUMP2 Load1 Load2 CAP1

Mtr1 Mtr3 Syn1 Syn2 LUMP1 LUMP2 Load1 Load2 CAP1

 Per Unit calculations

• Elimination of Transformer Turn Ratio:

kVB1 Bus 1 Bus 2

Base for per unit or % values in ETAP

 ANSI Transformers Z Rated Output kVA and kV

 IEC Transformers Z Rated Input kVA and kV

 Base Voltage Bus Nominal kV

 Transformers Max kVA

 Lines & Cables Allowable (Derated/U-D) Amp

 Branch impedances in LF report are in percentage

 Turn ratio: N1/N2 = 3.31

 Impedance conversion to 100 MVA base

 The base voltage of the branch impedance (Z1) determined by

 Load flow report generated by ETAP for branches:

• Validation of data in steady state condition

 Cable and transmission line, length, and unit

 Transformer rated kV and kVA/MVA, tap, and LTC settings

 Impedance element base kV and base kVA/MVA

Purpose & Description

Load Flow Analysis

Purpose & Description

• Synchronous Generator & Control System

• Governor Operating Modes

• Droop Mode – Equal Settings

• Unequal Speed Droops

Swing X X √ √ AVR Isoch

Protective Devices Monitored parameters % Condition reported

Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad

Load Flow Analysis

Purpose & Description

Bus4 voltage in Percent:

Bus5 voltage in percent:

Report Manager Report Types Remarks

Source + + Supply P & Q

Load + + Absorb P & Q

Click to drop once on OLV

• Line to Line Connections

IBC IB = IBC IC = -IBC

Angle by which load current IBC lags the load voltage = θ

SBC = VBC.IBC SB = VB.IB

And, for load connected to phase C

Phase B shall be the highest

3-Phase 4-Wire Panel

For IEC, Enclosure Type

Select ANSI or IEC

Circuit Numbers with

Circuit Numbers with

Enter per phase VA, W, or

For example, if total Watts

For both internal and external loads, Amp values are

Library Quick Pick –

Paste the entire content (of the

Blank out the contents of the entire

Non-Continuous Load – Per Phase and Total

Connected Load – Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)

Code Demand – Per Phase and Total

The first fourteen have fixed formats per NEC 1999