The University of Hong Kong

Department of Mechanical Engineering

MECH1014 THERMALFLUID:

FLUID MECHANICS

LABORATORY REPORT

Experiment Title: Flow Meter Demonstration

Group Number: TF-6

Name of Student: Cheung Pik Sin

University Number: 3035012741

Performed Date: 25th February, 2012

Performed Venue: HW 202

Submit Date:

1
 Contents Page No.

1. Objectives 3

2. Introduction 3

3. Theory 4

4. Apparatus 5-6

5. Procedure 7

6. Results & Calculations 8-13

7. Discussion 14-19

8. Conclusion 19

9. Reference 20

2
Objectives
To investigate the operation and characteristics of three different basic types of
flow-meter, Variable Area Flow-meter, Venturi meter and Orifice Plate meter,
including accuracy and energy losses.

Introduction
There are three basic types of flow-meter, Variable Area Flow-meter, Venturi
meter and Orifice Plate meter, which are most commonly used in fluid
mechanics area. In order to study the operation and characteristics of three
meters, an experiment were conducted and their accuracies were compared.

To collect data for analysis, timed volume collection was used to give a
reference measurement of flow rate. Measurement of volume flow rates and
associated pressure losses with three flow meters, which were installed in a
series configuration to permit direct comparison, were taken.

In this report, theories of three flow meters are first explained. Then the
apparatuses used in the experiment are illustrated, which is followed by the
conducting procedures of the operation. Next, results and calculations are
recorded. Some characteristics of three meters are discussed and a conclusion
is made.

3
Theory
I. The volume flow rate of Variable Area flow-meter can
be read directly from the apparatus.

II. The Venturi meter and Orifice Plate meter are all
dependent upon Bernoulli’s equation for their principle
of operation:
P1 v1 2 P2 v2 2
+ + z1 = + + z2 + losses
ρg 2g ρg 2g

Combined with the applicable discharge coefficients and the continuity

equation, the volume flow rate can be expressed as:
A1 A2
𝒬 = Cd √2g∆h
2 2
√A1 − A2

where h is the head difference determined from the manometer readings.

The inclusion of a discharge coefficient, Cd, in the equation is necessary, so as to

compensate the simplifying assumptions made when applying the Bernoulli’s
equation. For example, there is no energy loss and the flow is steady. The
following data were used for this experiment:

A1(×10-4 m2) A2(×10-4 m2) Cd

Venturi meter 7.92 1.77 0.98
Orifice Plate meter 7.92 3.14 0.63

4
Apparatus:

I. Hydraulics Bench

The Hydraulics Bench served as a volumetric

measuring tank to give an instantaneous indication
of water level by its remote sight gauge.

The amount of water accumulated within a certain

period of time was
measured and shown on the
scale of sight gauge.

After recording the data, the

volumetric tank was
emptied by lifting the dump
valve to allow water to
return to the sump.

II. Flow Meter Test Rig

The Variable Area flow-meter, Venturi meter and the

Orifice Plate meter were installed in series for direct
comparison.

A flow control valve was responsible for regulating the

system static pressure, when worked together with the
bench control, and the flow.

Pressure tappings in the circuit were connected with eight

bank manometers in a specified way such that the
following useful pressure differences could be obtained:

5
 h1 – h2 Venturi meter reading
h1 – h3 Venturi loss
h4 – h5 Variable Area flow-meter loss
h6 – h7 Orifice plate meter reading
h6 – h8 Orifice loss

Before operation, the levels of all manometers had to be adjusted to a

convenient level to suit the system static pressure, so that the height of water
inside manometers would not exceed the upper and lower limit of the scale at
any potential flow rate.

If the level in any manometer tube is allowed to drop too low, air will enter the
bottom manifold. If the level in any manometer tube is too high, water will enter
the top manifold and flow into adjacent tubes.

6
Procedure:

A. Equipment Set Up
1. The flow-meter test rig was placed on the bench and was level for
accurate manometer readings.
2. The inlet pipe of the rig was connected to the bench supply while the
outlet pipe was attached to the volumetric tank.
3. Pump was switched on, and the bench valve and the test rig flow
control valve were opened, to flush the system.
4. Both the bench and test rig valves were closed. Then the air bleed
screw was opened with the cap from the adjacent air valve removed.
A length of small bore tubing was connected from the air valve to the
volumetric tank. Then the bench valve was opened to let water flow
bleed air from the pressure tapping points and manometers.
5. Air bleed screw was tightened. The test rig flow control valve was
partly opened while the bench valve was partly closed, which was
followed by slight opening of the air bleed screw to allow air to be
drawn into the top of the manometer tubes.
6. The screw was retightened when the manometer levels reached
140mm.
7. The flow rate was set to maximum so as to check that all manometer
levels are on scale.

B. Taking a Set of Results

1. All manometer heights and Variable Area flow meter readings were
recorded.
2. A timed volume collection was carried out using the volumetric tank,
by closing the ball valve and measuring (with a stopwatch) the time
taken to accumulate a known volume of fluid in the tank.
3. The measurement was repeated twice to check for consistency, and
the readings were averaged.
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for another flow rate.

7
Results & Calculations

a) Table of results

Variable
Volume of
Time to collect, t (sec) (*)
Area
Number Water h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 h8
Meter
of run Collected, (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Reading
V (litre)
(l/min)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Average
1 25 72.5 75.06 73.78 20 335 137 276 245 165 176 33 79
2 20 65.15 68.58 66.87 18 300 140 245 223 148 156 45 80
3 20 72.35 73.28 72.82 16 270 145 225 205 137 143 57 85
4 16 66.66 67.31 66.99 14 245 149 208 194 128 134 67 88
5 14 67 67.25 67.13 12 225 150 193 181 120 125 74 90
6 12 65.63 67.31 66.47 10 205 150 180 170 112 115 80 93
7 10 69.81 69.31 69.56 8 185 149 167 162 106 108 85 94
8 8 69.88 69.57 69.73 6 170 146 158 155 103 104 88 94
9 7 69.6 69.72 69.66 5 165 147 155 153 101 102 90 94
10 6 70.78 72.35 71.57 4 160 146 152 150 99 99 90 94

(*) fluid was collected for at least 60 seconds to minimize timing errors.

8
b) Volume flow rates in 10-4 m3/sec

 Sample Calculation: take Run 1 as sample. (1000L = 1 m³)

 Flow Rate of Timed volume collection

= Volume of water collected (L) ÷1000 ÷ Time to collect (average) (sec)
= 25 ÷1000 ÷73.78 = 3.39 ×10-4 m3/sec

 Flow rate of Variable Area flow-mete

= Variable Area Meter Reading(L/min) ÷ 1000 ÷ 60
= 20 ÷1000 ÷60 = 3.33 ×10-4 m3/sec

 Flow rate of Venturi meter

= Cd * A1 * A2 * [2g (h1-h2)]1/2 ÷ (A12-A22)1/2
= 0.98* (7.92 *10-4) *(1.77 *10-4) *[2* 9.81 *(335-137) *10-3]1/2 ÷
[(7.92 *10-4)2-(1.77 *10-4)2]1/2
= 3.51 ×10-4 m3/sec

 Flow Rate of Orifice Plate Meter

= Cd * A1 * A2 * [2g (h6-h7)]1/2 ÷ (A12-A22)1/2
= 0.63* (7.92 *10-4) *(3.14 *10-4) *[2* 9.81 *(176-33) *10-3]1/2 ÷
[(7.92 *10-4)2-(3.14 *10-4)2]1/2
= 3.61 ×10-4 m3/sec

Number Venturi
Timed volume Variable Area Orifice Plate
meter
collection flow-meter meter
of run (10-4
(10-4 m3/sec) (10-4 m3/sec) (10-4 m3/sec)
m3/sec)
1 3.39 3.33 3.51 3.61
2 2.99 3.00 3.15 3.18
3 2.75 2.67 2.79 2.80
4 2.39 2.33 2.44 2.47
5 2.09 2.00 2.16 2.16
6 1.81 1.67 1.85 1.79
7 1.44 1.33 1.50 1.48
8 1.15 1.00 1.22 1.21
9 1.00 0.83 1.06 1.05
10 0.83 0.67 0.93 0.91
9
 Meter flow-rates versus the timed flow-
rate
4
3.5
3
Meter flow-rates
(10-4m3/sec)

2.5
2 Variable area flow-meter
1.5 Venturi meter
1 Orifice plate meter

0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
Timed flow-rates(10-4m3/sec)

Variable area flow-meter flow rate versus

the timed flow-rate
4
Variable area flow-meter flow rate

3.5
y = 1.0554x - 0.2109
3
(10-4m3/sec)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Timed flow-rate (10-4m3/sec)

10
 Venturi meter flow rate versus the timed
flow-rate
4
Venturi meter flow rate

3.5 y = 1.0163x + 0.0446

3
(10-4m3/sec)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Timed flow-rate (10-4m3/sec)

Orifice plate meter flow rate versus the

timed flow-rate
4
Orifice plate meter flow rate

3.5 y = 1.0521x - 0.0214

3
(10-4m3/sec)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Timed flow-rate (10-4m3/sec)

11
c) Percentage errors of the measurement (%)
Considering the timed volume collection as a standard for flow rate
measurement, the percentage errors of the measurements by the three meters
in each run were calculated.
The meter measured flow rate –The timedflow rate
Percentage Error (%)= | | × 100%
The timed flow rate

Number
Variable area flow-meter (%) Venturi meter (%) Orifice Plate meter (%)
of run
1 1.77 3.54 6.49
2 0.33 5.35 6.35
3 2.91 1.45 1.82
4 2.51 2.09 3.35
5 4.31 3.35 3.35
6 7.73 2.21 1.11
7 7.64 4.17 2.78
8 13.04 6.09 5.22
9 17.00 6.00 5.00
10 19.28 12.05 9.64

Percentage errors of the three meters

18
versus timed flow-rates
16
Percentage error (%)

14
12
Variable area flow-
10
meter
8
Venturi meter
6
4 Orifice Plate meter
2
0
0 1 2 3 4
Timed flow-rates(10-4m3/sec)

12
d) Head losses (m)
I. heat loss in Variable area flow-meter = h4 -h5
II. head loss in Venturi meter = h1 -h3
III. head loss in Orifice Plate meter = h6 -h8

Number Variable area Venturi Orifice Plate Square of the

of run flow-meter (m) meter (m) meter (m) timed flow-rate
1 0.080 0.059 0.143 11.49
2 0.075 0.055 0.111 8.94
3 0.068 0.045 0.086 7.56
4 0.066 0.037 0.067 5.71
5 0.061 0.032 0.051 4.37
6 0.058 0.025 0.035 3.28
7 0.056 0.018 0.023 2.07
8 0.052 0.012 0.016 1.32
9 0.052 0.01 0.012 1.00
10 0.051 0.008 0.009 0.69

Head losses of the three meters versus

the square of the timed flow-rates
0.16
0.14
Head losses (m)

0.12
0.1
0.08 Variable area flow-meter (m)
0.06 Venturi meter (m)
0.04 Orifice Plate meter (m)
0.02
0
0 5 10 15
Square of timed flow-rate (10-8m6/sec2)

13
Discussion
 Accuracy of the meters

- From the graph of meter flow-rates versus the timed flow-rate:

The flow rates of the three meters, Variable Area flow-meter, Venturi meter
and Orifice Plate meter were directly proportional to the timed flow rate.
The slopes of all three meters were very close to 1.00, which implies that
three meters had very high accuracy in measuring flow rates.
- From the graph of percentage errors versus the timed flow-rate:
The percentage errors of the meters with respect to the timed flow rate were
fluctuated. Among these three meters, the percentage error deviation of Venturi
meter was the smallest, while that of Variable Area flow-meter was the greatest.
It could be seen that Variable Area flow-meter had the highest percentage error
when measuring low flow rates, whereas it had the most accurate measurement
for high flow rates. Venturi meter showed the steadiest percentage error
throughout the experiment.
- From the graph of head losses versus the square of the timed flow-rate
All three meters had a linear relationship with the square of timed flow rate,
which means that the head loss of the meters increased with increasing flow-rate.
The slope of Orifice plate meter was the greatest, while the slope of Variable
Area flow-meter was the smallest. Therefore, the Variable Area flow-meter
showed the least variation in head loss with flow-rate, but the Orifice plate meter
varied a lot at different flow-rate. The Venturi meter had the lowest head losses at
any flow rates than the other two.

The variation of percentage errors of three meters may due to differential head losses
of these meters at various flow rates.
The difference in accuracy of the meters may due to experimental errors, namely
leakage of the set-up, bubbles inside tappings and manometers, more energy losses
than expected (which was not considered in the equation for the volume flow rate),
reaction time of observers when counting time, and parallax error when recording
manometers height. These all led to inaccurate measurements, and hence were
responsible for the differences in accuracy of the meters.

14
 Variable area meter showed less variation in head loss with
flow-rate than the other two meters

 Structure:

Variable area flow meters, consist essentially

of a tapered tube and a float. The float is
selected so as to have a density higher than
that of the fluid and the position of the float
varies directly with the flow rate. When there
is no liquid flow, the float rests freely at the
bottom of the tube.

A Variable area flow meter's cross-section

area available to the flow varies with the flow
rate. Under a constant pressure drop, the
Variable Area flow-meter higher the volume flow rate, the higher the
flow path area.

Fluid moving through the tube from bottom to top causes a pressure drop
across the float, which produces an upward force that causes the float to move
up the tube. As this happens, the cross-sectional area between the tube walls
and the float increases. The final position of the float is at the point where the
differential pressures between the upper and lower surfaces balance the weight
of the float. The flow rate is linearly proportional to the height of the float in the
tube, and is determined simply by reading the level of the upper edge of the
float.

Because the variable area flow meter relies on gravity, it must be installed
vertically.

15
A Venturi meter consists of
a rapidly converging section,
which increases the velocity
of flow and hence reduces
the pressure. It then returns
to the original dimensions
of the pipe by a gently
diverging ‘diffuser’ section.
Venturi meter
By measuring the pressure
difference between the upstream side of the cone and the throat, the discharge
can be calculated.

The purpose of the diffuser in a Venturi meter is to assure gradual and steady
deceleration after the throat. This is designed to ensure that the pressure rises
again to a level near to the original value before the flow entering the Venturi
meter.

The Orifice Plate meter consists of a

flat orifice plate, which is installed in
the pipe between two flanges, with a
circular hole drilled in it. The orifice
constricts the flow of liquid to
produce a differential pressure
across the plate, then the differential
pressure can be related to the flow
rate.
Orifice Plate meter
Pressure taps on either side of the
plate are used to detect the difference. The coefficient of the meter depends
upon the position of taps.

16
Owing to the different structures of three flow meters, the quantity and the
variation of head losses with respect to flow rate were different for each of
them.

During cross-sectional area change, flow was separated from the walls, and it
resulted in increased friction and energy and pressure loss. The higher the rate
of change of cross-sectional area, the more energy was lost.

The Variation Area flow-meter had the lowest deviation in head loss with flow
rate. This was due to the smallest rate of change of cross-sectional area of it
when compared with the other two meters. The Variable Area flow-meter had
very slight change in cross-section area, thus the measured head loss is
relatively constant.

However, Venturi meter had a gradual change in the cross-sectional area. The
variation of head losses measured with flow-rates of Venturi meter was greater
than that of Variable Area flow-meter.

For Orifice Plate meter, it had a sudden change in cross-sectional area. Besides,
eddy was generated around the end walls of the meter and a great friction was
produced between the walls of pipes and the flow. The sharp edges of Orifice
Plate meter were sensitive to erosion as well. Therefore, the variation of head
losses with flow-rates of Orifice Plate meter was the highest among three.

Moreover, the weight of the float of Variable Area flow-meter was balanced by
the pressure difference above and below the float and upward drag forces
resulted from the flow field surrounding the float (can be neglected). As the
weight of float was constant, thus the variation of head loss with flow rate was
very small.

17
 Corrected values of discharge coefficient for the Venturi meter
and the Orifice Plate meter
- Method I:
Using the real experimental data, the corrected discharge coefficient can
be calculated by taking the percentage errors into consideration.
For Venturi meter,
Average percentage error = (3.54 +5.35 +1.45 +2.09 +3.35 +2.21
+4.17 +6.09 +6.00 +12.05) / 10
= 4.63%
New discharge coefficient = old Cd × (1-4.63%)
= 0.98 *0.9537
= 0.935
For Orifice Plate meter,
Average percentage error = (6.49 +6.35 +1.82 +3.35 +3.35 +1.11
+2.78 +5.22 +5.00 +9.64) / 10
= 4.51%
New discharge coefficient = old Cd × (1-4.51%)
= 0.63 *0.9549
= 0.60
However, the accuracy of this method is not high.

- Method II
Using the graph of meter flow-rates versus the timed flow-rate, if the slope of the
meter is equal to 1, then the meter has 100% accuracy in measuring flow-rate; if
the slope of a meter is not equal to 1, then the meter has deviation in accuracy.

Actual Discharge
Since Discharge coefficient = Theoretical ,
Discharge

Timed flow−rate
Cnew = Meter fow−rate

1
Cnew = slope

For Venturi meter, Cnew = 1 / 1.0163 = 0.984

Therefore, the new discharge coefficient = 0.98 *0.984 = 0.964

18
For Orifice Plate meter Cnew =1 / 1.0521 = 0.950
Therefore, the new discharge coefficient = 0.63* 0.95 = 0.60

Conclusion
The operation and characteristics of the three different basic types of
flow-meter, Variable Area flow-meter, Venturi meter and Orifice Plate meter,
were demonstrated.

Among three meters, the Venturi meter had a slope closest to 1 in the graph of
meter flow-rate against timed flow-rate, therefore the Venturi meter had the
highest accuracy in general; the Variable Area flow-meter had a most deviated
slope from 1. So the Variable Area flow-meter had the lowest accuracy in
general. However, all three meters had a slope not larger than 1.1, which means
that all three meters had a very high and similar accuracy.

In order to select the most appropriate flow meter, other factors have to be
taken into account.

When measuring a flow with rate larger than 2.5*10-4 m3 per sec, Variable Area
flow-meter should be chosen, because it had the lowest percentage error
against timed flow-rates among three meters in this flow range. When
measuring a flow with various flow-rates, a Venturi meter should be used, since
it had the smallest variation in percentage errors.

When the flow meter is used over the widest range of pipe sizes, which causes
various head loss, a Variable Area flow-meter should be used, as it had the
smallest variation in head losses due to low rate of change of cross-sectional
area with time. If the magnitude of head losses is important, then a Venturi
meter should be considered, seeing that it had the lowest head loss than the
other two meters at any flow-rates. Orifice Plate meter had the highest
deviation in head loss at different flow-rates, owing to the sudden change in its
cross-sectional area.

19
Reference
1. Lab manual of “Flow Meter Demonstration”, 2012

2. Lecture note of ENGG1010 “Mechanics of Fluids”, Dr. C.O. Ng, 2011-2012

3. eFunda: Introduction to Variable Area Flowmeters

http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/flowmeters/flowmeter_va.cfm

4. "Flow.", Richard Thorn, 2000, CRC Press LLC.

http://dsp-book.narod.ru/MISH/CH28.PDF

5. “FLOWMETER TYPES AND THEIR PRINCIPLES”, 2006, MAXIFLOTM,

Seil Enterprise Co.,

http://www.maxiflo.co.kr/English/Technology/flowmetertypes.htm#Variable-area

6. “Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi Flow Rate Meters”

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/orifice-nozzle-venturi-d_590.html

7. “Discharge coefficient”, Wikipedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discharge_coefficient

20