Unit Operations Past-Papers PDF

1
2013/14 Answers Distillation

Examination Question
Heriot-Watt University, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences,
Chemical Engineering.
Subject : Lecturer/Author: Module Code:
UNIT OPERATIONS A GW B40EA
Question Number: Exam Diet: Checked by: Co-ordinator:
1 Section A S2 Robin Westacott
Page 1 Of 1 Diagram Required: Other Data/ Special Stationery Required:
Di Preistler chart and No
equation sheet
(attached)
A valve tray distillation column has a total condenser and a total reboiler. The column
operates at 200 kPa pressure and there is an estimated pressure drop of 10 kPa.
Using the information below:

a) Determine the temperature in the condenser [6]
b) Estimate the temperature of the utility fluid for the rebolier, [6]
c) Using an appropriate method, determine the minimum number of stages for
this column. [5]
d) The estimated minimum reflux ratio is 0.8. Estimate the actual number of
stages in this column [4]
The column is fitted with valve trays. Comment on what would be the impact of
changing these to sieve type trays?
[4]
Component Feed Flowrate Recovery in Distillate

kmol/hr
(Sat liquid)
n-Pentane 40 100%
n-Hexane 50 98%
n-Heptane 35 1%
n-Octane 35 0.1%
Chart for K value data, Gilliland correlation graph and a sheet of preliminary design
equations are supplied separately. Note that not all the equations are needed for the
present calculations.
©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B40EA March 2016 v1

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K Value Chart

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Shortcut Distillation Column Design Equations
Fenske Equation:
 x   x    d  w 
ln A   B   ln A  B 
 x B D  x A  W   w A  dB 
= 
Or
Nmin =  Nmin
ln α Ave, A,B ln α Ave,A,B
1st Underwood Equation 2nd Underwood Equation
i =n i=n
α i,r x Fi α i,r x Di
∑ (α
i=1 i,r − q)
= (1 − q) R min + 1 = ∑ (α
i=1 i,r − θ)
Kirkbride’s Correlation
m W  x   ( x LK ) W  
2
 
ln  = 0.206 ln  HK    
p   LK
 D x F  ( x HK )D  
Gilliland Chart
Distribution of Non-key components

d 
ln i  = A ln(α Ave,i,r ) + C
 wi 

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Examination Solution
Unit Operations A GW B40EA
1 Solution S2 GBT
Gililand chart, No
equation sheet
a) Temperature in condenser
Molar compositions for distillate and bottoms product
Feed Recovery Distillate Bottoms Mole Fraction Composition

(kmol/hr) (kmol/hr) kmol/hr xf xd xb
N-PENTANE 40 100 40 0 0.2500 0.4475 0.0000
N-HEXANE 50 98 49 1 0.3125 0.5482 0.0142
N-HEPTANE 35 1 0.35 34.65 0.2188 0.0039 0.4907
N-OCTANE 35 0.1 0.035 34.965 0.2188 0.0004 0.4951
160 89.385 70.615 1 1 1
Total condenser
Ki=y/x y=Kx Ki=y/x y=Kx
Distillate P (atm) T deg C P (atm) T deg C

Composition 2 50 2 74
mol frac Ki yi/Ki yi/Ki
N-PENTANE 0.448 0.7893 0.3532 1.5510 0.6941 Comment [RW1]: Did you get this
from the de Priester chart? I agree
N-HEXANE 0.548 0.2756 0.1511 0.5871 0.3218 with the number, but you can’t get
N-HEPTANE 0.004 0.1027 0.0004 0.2377 0.0009 it to 4dp from the chart!
N-OCTANE 0.000 0.0411 0.0000 0.1024 0.0000 ANS 4dps are for a correlation –
1.00 0.5047 1.0169 close to the numbers here.
Pressure drop across the column is 10 kPa so the bottom pressure is

200+10=210 kPa

5
Bottoms Conditions
P (atm) T deg C P (atm) T deg C
Composition 2.10 100 2.10 138
Ki y=Kx Ki
N-PENTANE 0.000 2.7855 0.0000 6.0886 0.0000
N-HEXANE 0.014 1.1372 0.0161 2.7290 0.0386
N-HEPTANE 0.491 0.4978 0.2443 1.3151 0.6453
N-OCTANE 0.495 0.2294 0.1136 0.6592 0.3264
0.3740 1.0104
Average Volatilities Avg Alpha

N-PENTANE 5.50
N-HEXANE 2.26
N-HEPTANE 1.00
N-OCTANE 0.46
Key components d b
LK N-HEXANE 0.548 0.014
HK N-HEPTANE 0.004 0.491
Average volatility of LK/HK 2.26

Nmin 10.39
Minimum reflux is said to be 0.8. Use the standard multiplier (1.2x Rmin but
anything reasonable will be acceptable) R=0.96.
Actual number of stages –

(R-Rmin)/(R+1) = 0.081
From the Gilliland chart, (N-Nmin)/(N+1) = 0.55
Actual number of stages is then 24

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Unit Operations GW B40EA
2 S2
Page 1 of 2 Diagrams Required: Other Data/Special Stationery Required:
A 100 kmol/hr mixture, composition given below, is distilled in a column

operating at 1 bara. A short cut calculation predicts this column will have 41
minimum stages and a minimum reflux ratio of 8.5. The feed is saturated
liquid.
a) Using this information determine the:

i) Composition and temperature of the liquid streams leaving the first and
second trays as numbered from the top of the column. [12]
ii) Estimate the vapour flow to the second tray [3]
iii) The actual number of stages, assuming a suitable reflux multiplier [3]
iv) Vapour and liquid flows internally in the column. [2]
b) Outline what you consider is the reason that this column appears to have a
large number of stages, and a proportionally large reflux ratio. List in the
order of priority, recommendations you would to adjust these numbers.
Explain the background to your selection. [5]
Feed Distillate Bottoms

(kmol/hr) (kmol/hr) kmol/hr
N-PENTANE 20 19 1
BENZENE 20 18 2
CYCLOHEXANE 30 3 27
TOLUENE 30 1 29
100 41 59
Equilibrium constants are given in the accompanying table. Molkanov’s

expression for actual number of stages is:
where

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K Value Table
Pressure 1 atm
Temp N-PENTANE BENZENE CYCLOHEXANE TOLUENE

deg C
5 0.32483 0.06242 0.06335 0.01998
10 0.39694 0.07876 0.07966 0.02575
15 0.48170 0.09858 0.09938 0.03290
20 0.58071 0.12244 0.12305 0.04168
25 0.69569 0.15098 0.15126 0.05240
30 0.82848 0.18488 0.18467 0.06537
35 0.98104 0.22492 0.22402 0.08096
40 1.15543 0.27191 0.27007 0.09960
45 1.35385 0.32677 0.32368 0.12173
50 1.57857 0.39046 0.38577 0.14785
55 1.83199 0.46405 0.45731 0.17852
60 2.11662 0.54865 0.53936 0.21433
65 2.43503 0.64547 0.63303 0.25594
70 2.78993 0.75578 0.73950 0.30406
75 3.18408 0.88095 0.86004 0.35943
80 3.62034 1.02240 0.99595 0.42288
85 4.10163 1.18163 1.14862 0.49527
90 4.63095 1.36023 1.31951 0.57754
95 5.21136 1.55984 1.51011 0.67067
100 5.84599 1.78219 1.72200 0.77570
105 6.53799 2.02908 1.95682 0.89373
110 7.29057 2.30235 2.21625 1.02592
115 8.10699 2.60393 2.50203 1.17348
120 8.99052 2.93580 2.81596 1.33768
125 9.94446 3.30001 3.15988 1.51985
130 10.97213 3.69866 3.53568 1.72137

8

9
2 Solution Robin Westacott
Page 1 of 1 Diagrams Other Data/Special Stationery
Required: Required:
Solution
Part a)
Feed Recovery Distillate Bottoms Composition

N-PENTANE 20 95 19 1 0.200 0.463 0.017
BENZENE 20 90 18 2 0.200 0.439 0.034
CYCLOHEXANE 30 10 3 27 0.300 0.073 0.458
TOLUENE 30 3 1 29 0.300 0.024 0.492
100 41 59 1 1 1
Need to find the condenser temperature

Composition 1 50 1 53
N-PENTANE 0.463 1.5786 0.7315 1.7270 0.8003
BENZENE 0.439 0.3905 0.1714 0.4334 0.1903
CYCLOHEXANE 0.073 0.3858 0.0282 0.4275 0.0313
TOLUENE 0.024 0.1479 0.0036 0.1657 0.0040
1.00 0.9348 1.0259
Now work out the top tray temperature

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TOP TRAY
Temp 67
Vapour Liquid
mf Ki x=y/Ki
N-PENTANE 0.4634 2.5725 0.180144403
BENZENE 0.4390 0.6879 0.638209199
CYCLOHEXANE 0.0732 0.6740 0.108559911
TOLUENE 0.0244 0.2744 0.088895993
1.015809506
Min reflux ratio 8.5

Actual Reflux ratio (use 1.2xRmin) 10.2
Distillate rate 41
Liquid rate back to column 418.2 kmols/hr
Vapour rate from top plate 459.2 kmols/hr
Using the liquid rate back to the column and the composition of that liquid we
get a mass balance round the 1st tray is then
Distillate Liquid from tray Vapour to top tray

N-PENTANE 19 0.18x418=75 19+75=94
BENZENE 18 0.64x418=267 18+267=285
CYCLOHEXANE 3 45 48
TOLUENE 1 37 38
41 425 466
Constant molar overflow would suggest internal liquid rate is 418, vapour rate
460.

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SECOND TRAY
Temp 76
Rate mf Ki x=y/Ki
N-PENTANE 94 0.2025 3.2679 0.0620
BENZENE 285 0.6116 0.9079 0.6737
CYCLOHEXANE 48 0.1039 0.8859 0.1173
TOLUENE 38 0.0820 0.3714 0.2206
466 1.0736
Answer: 67 deg for the 1st tray, 76 deg C 2nd tray.
Material balance
Vapour to
Distillate Liquid from 2nd tray next tray
N-PENTANE 19 26 45
BENZENE 18 282 300
CYCLOHEXANE 3 49 52
TOLUENE 1 92 93
490
Answer to Part i)
Compositions on each tray

Tray 1 Tray 2
Liquid Vapour Liquid Vapour
N-PENTANE 0.1801 0.4634 0.0620 0.2025
BENZENE 0.6382 0.4390 0.6737 0.6116
CYCLOHEXANE 0.1086 0.0732 0.1173 0.1039
TOLUENE 0.0889 0.0244 0.2206 0.0820
Temperature 67 76
ii) Vapour flow to 2nd tray is 490 kmol/hr

iii) Number of stages
Reflux multiplier 1.2

Rmin 8.5

12
R actual 10.2
X 0.151785714
(N-Nmin)/(N+1) 0.473589348
Nmin 41
Nactual 79
iv) Internal flowrates

Based on an assumption that below tray 2 that the liquid and vapour rates are
constant, the internal flows will be:
c) The large number of trays is due to the close volatility of benzene and
cyclohexane – there is not much of a difference across all temperature
ranges at this pressure. The difference in relative volatility should
become higher if the pressure were reduced. So in order to reduce the
number of stages, the 1st recommendation is to run the column under
vacuum conditions.
The second recommendation is to separate the benzene and

cyclohexane in their own column. This may allow an extractive type
distillation to be used that would preferentially be attractive to benzene
for example. Although the overall size of the column may be reduced,
there could be more than one column to separate this mixture out.

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3 Robin Westacott
HYSYS output
The product stream from the drier and quench tower following an ethylene
cracker is to be separated into essentially pure components. Composition of
this mixture is given below.
a) Two options for separating the hydrogen are proposed; i) to distil the
mixture, ii) to use a series of 4 flash separation stages. Discuss the
relative merits of both process stages, mentioning the impact on
refrigeration duty needed. [4]
b) The company selects option 2 which removes hydrogen first. The

decision then is to find out the sequence of columns to separate the
remaining mixture.
i) Using the technique of heuristics, outline the sequence of
columns you would recommend [4]
ii) Using the principles of marginal vapour flow, validate your chosen
sequence against the direct sequence for all columns. Assume all
columns will operate at 5 atm pressure, at the mid range
temperature of -100 deg C. [10]
c) A de-methaniser used to separate methane from the other components

has been run as a rigorous column in HYSYS, the key output of which
is shown separately. By analysing the output, answer the following:
i) What condition is the feed to this column? [2]
ii) Comment on the number of stages in this column and what
adjustments you would recommend to optimise the design. [5]
K values for this question are found in the accompanying graphs.

Name Mole %
Hydrogen 0.0083
Methane 0.0826
Ethylene 0.3306
Ethane 0.1653
Propene 0.2066
Propane 0.0826
1-Butene 0.0496
n-Butane 0.0744
Table of Feed Composition

14

15

16
3 Solution 2S2 2011-2012
a) The principle issue of distillation with the hydrogen feed is to reduce the temperature
of the column sufficiently low as to condense the methane and potentially the
hydrogen. But given that the hydrogen is the most volatile of all components, it will
not be possible to pull the temperature sufficiently low enough for any condenser. In
any case, to cool the mixture sufficiently low, a special refrigeration loop would be
needed.
The best option will be to use a series of flash separation stages to drive of the
majority of the hydrogen before it reaches the column. Even with this column, you
would need a refrigerant that can be pulled down low enough to condense methane.
(in practice you can expand high pressure hydrogen or high pressure methane to
drop its temperature which may provide the right level of temperature).
rd
Note: Students have encountered this type of distillation before in 3 year HYSYS
modelling class.
b) I) Heuristics would say that you separate the mixture based on
a. Flow rate – sepatate the components with the largest flow first – in this case
you would separate the ethylene methane from the rest of the mixture.
b. Components which are difficult to separate should be left in their own column
– in this case, separating the C2’s and C3’s and C4’s in their own columns
would be preferable
c. Separate those that are fouling – we have a relatively clean system here
operating at low temperatures. This is unlikely to cause issues due to fouling.
iii) Marginal vapour flowrates
Compare the direct sequence with the one recommended by heuristics
Assume the sequence will be done at the mid range temperature of -100 deg
Step 1: Collect the flowrates and K values. Work out the relative volatility wrt the least
volatile component
HYDROGEN METHANE ETHYLENE ETHANE PROPYLENE PROPANE 1-BUTENE N-BUTANE

Feed 5 10 200 50 60 30 10 30
K values 75.37333 5.14541 0.24281 0.10262 0.00938 0.00708 0.00086 0.00063
Rel Vol 119668.0473 8169.223 385.504 162.920 14.894 11.249 1.365 1.000
Now work out the marginal flows for all possible key components

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HYDROGEN METHANE ETHYLENE ETHANE PROPYLENE PROPANE 1-BUTENE N-BUTANE

Feed 5 10 200 50 60 30 10 30
K values 75.37333 5.14541 0.24281 0.10262 0.00938 0.00708 0.00086 0.00063
Rel Vol 119668.0473 8169.223 385.504 162.920 14.894 11.249 1.365 1.000
A B C D E F G H theta term
lk/hk
A/B 1.2136 0.1278 0.0140 0.0053 0.0002 0.0005 63918.6350

B/C 5.1853 1.9799 0.2097 0.0791 0.0032 0.0070 4277.3631
C/D 5.0115 10.3473 3.4462 1.2833 0.0500 0.1098 274.2119
D/E 5.0037 10.1100 259.9517 4.3454 0.1559 0.3413 88.9073
E/F 5.0005 10.0160 207.0195 54.3616 1.1660 2.4852 13.0715
F/G 5.0003 10.0077 203.3264 52.0135 104.0651 5.6531 6.3068
G/H 5.0000 10.0014 200.6154 50.3656 65.1743 33.5242 1.1825
Now work out the marginal flow for the direct sequence
A B C D E F G H Marginal Flow
A/BCDEFGH 1.2136 0.1278 0.0140 0.0053 0.0002 0.0005 1.3613
B/CDEFGH 1.9799 0.2097 0.0791 0.0032 0.0070 2.2788
C/DEFGH 3.4462 1.2833 0.0500 0.1098 4.8893
D/EFGH 4.3454 0.1559 0.3413 4.8426
E/FGH 1.1660 2.4852 3.6512
F/GH 5.6531 5.6531
G/H 0.0000 0.0000
Total 22.6763
Now for the heuristic sequence
A B C D E F G H Marginal Flow
ABC/DEFGH 5.0115 10.3473 3.4462 1.2833 0.0500 0.1098 20.2481
AB/C 5.1853 5.1853
A/B 0.0000
E/FGH 1.1660 2.4852 3.6512
F/GH 5.6531 5.6531
G/H 0 0.0000
Total 34.7378
This shows that the direct sequence is the preferred option –

18
c)
i) There is no information on the HYSYS printout which says the state of the feed.
This is deliberate. Students have to read through the column profile pages to
work out the details. The “Column Profile Flows” – which is in several places to
work out that show that the feed is 2055 kmols/hr, but the liquid flow to the next
tray is 2447, liquid from the top section is 518.7. This means that 2447-
518.7=1928 must come from the feed and must be liquid. Vapour from the bottom
section is 591.9 and through the top section is 718.7 which means 718.7-591.9 =
127 comes from the feed. So the feed is a two phase mixture. Feed enters on
plate 7 as indicated in the column profile summary
ii) The printout contains tables but no profile pots so the task here is to see if the
students realise that they can visualise the column profile from the given data set.
Analysing the tables however will give them sufficient information:
a. The overall liquid and gas rates don’t change very much from plate 9-15. This
is not surprising due to constant molar overflow. The temperatures however
remain very similar over the same range -57 on plate 9 and -57 on plate 14.
b. The composition profile (mapping the liquid/gas composition for each
component) shows that over this range there is little activity in the column
and hence no separation taking place, To further optimise this column, the
recommendation is to reduce the number of trays in this section.

1
2013/2014 Exam Answers Control II
Model answers control II
Model answer Question 1
a) Process interface unit: computer unit in distributed control system that does
most of the basic /regulatory control in a typical plant
b) Throughput manipulator: control system that sets that flow that control the
production rate of a plant
c) Derivative kick: sudden change in controller output when setpoint changes,

causing de/dt to suddenly increase- and hence the derivative part of a PID
controller.
d) Integral windup: saturation of controller output by integral part of PID

integrating to above 100%.
e) Selective control: control system in which the control system takes in and
compares data from various places but bases the controller output on a
selection.
Level 4
Business planning/logistics
Level 3
Advanced control
Supervisory control Level 2
Basic/ Regulatory control Level 1
Critical safety systems
Model answer Question 2

a)
Time (seconds) Value of controlled e i (%TO) ∆m (%CO) m i (%TO)

variable (oC)
-2 100.00 10 - 50
-1 100.00 10 - 50
0 100.00 10 0.5 50.5
1 100.20 9.8 0.29 50.79
2 100.29 9.71 0.4 51.19

2
3 100.35 9.65 0.42 51.61

4 100.39 9.61 0.44 52.05
5 100.42 9.58 0.45 52.50
PI controller so use
 ∆t 
∆m = K c  en − en −1 + en 
 τI 
t = 0:
e n-1 = 10
e n = 10
 ∆t 
so ∆m = K c  en − en −1 + en  = 1(10 − 10 + 1 / 20 * 10) = 0.5
 τI 
m n = m n-1 +∆m= 50+1=50.5
t=1
e n-1 = 10oC=10%TO
e n = 9.8
 ∆t 
so ∆m = K c  en − en −1 + en  = 1(9.8 − 10 + 1 / 20 * 9.8) = −0.2 + 0.49 = 0.29
 τI 
m n = m n-1 +∆m= 50.5+0.29=50.79
t=2
 ∆t 
so ∆m = K c  en − en −1 + en  = 1(10 − 10 + 1 / 20 * 10) = 0.5
 τI 
m n = m n-1 +∆m= 50+1=50.5
t=1
e n-1 = 10oC=10%TO
e n = 9.8
 ∆t 
so ∆m = K c  en − en −1 + en  = 1(9.8 − 10 + 1 / 20 * 9.8) = −0.2 + 0.49 = 0.29
 τI 
m n = m n-1 +∆m= 50.5+0.29=50.79
t=2
e n-1 = 9.8oC=9.8%TO
e n = 9.71
 ∆t 
so ∆m = K c  en − en −1 + en  = 1(9.71 − 9.8 + 1 / 20 * 9.71) = −0.09 + 0.49 = 0.40
 τI 
m n = m n-1 +∆m=50.79 + 0.40=51.19
t=3
e n-1 = 9.71
e n = 9.65

3
 ∆t 
so ∆m = K c  en − en −1 + en  = 1(9.65 − 9.71 + 1 / 20 * 9.71) = −0.06 + 0.48 = 0.42
 τI 
m n = m n-1 +∆m=51.19 + 0.42=51.61
t=4
e n-1 = 9.65
e n = 9.61
 ∆t 
so ∆m = K c  en − en −1 + en  = 1(9.61 − 9.65 + 1 / 20 * 9.61) = −0.04 + 0.48 = 0.44
 τI 
m n = m n-1 +∆m= 51.61+0.44=52.05
t=5
e n-1 = 9.61
e n = 9.58
 ∆t 
so ∆m = K c  en − en −1 + en  = 1(9.58 − 9.61 + 1 / 20 * 9.58) = −0.03 + 0.48 = 0.45
 τI 
m n = m n-1 +∆m= 52.05+0.45=52.50
Model answer question 4

60
50
40
%CO/%TO
Controller output
30
Humidity
20
10
0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Time (seconds)
a) K=(50-25)/(20-15)=25/5=5%TO/%CO
b) ok is 250 sec-50sec=200 sec. 150-200 from Fit 3 is also ok (see part c))
c) Fit3: 0.283*25+25 = 32.1; t1= 350sec
0.632*25+25 = 40.8; t2=550 sec
Tau=3/2(550-350)= 300 sec
to=550-300=150.
d) Kc = 0.9/5*300/150=0.36; tauI=3.33*to=500.
Model answer question 5:

A and B: local consistent
C: consistent but not local consistent
D: not consistent (nor control over flow rate in recycle)

4
Model answers question 6
RC
FA
FC
FB FC
V2
LC
PC
V1
FC
LC
V3
LC
AC
V1 V2
LC FC
FC
V1 V2
LC LC
AC

1
2014/15 Exam Answers, Distillation
UNIT OPERATIONS A GW B40EA
1 Section A S2
equation sheet No
(attached)
A saturated liquid mixture containing 40 mol% n-hexane, 40 mol% cyclohexane, 20

mol% n-heptane is distilled, into a distillate containing 95% n-hexane and 5 mol%
cyclohexane. The column operates at 2 bara pressure and has a total condenser
fitted operating at 94ºC with the rebolier at 134ºC . Short cut calculation suggests
there are 18.1 minimum stages and a minimum reflux ratio of 6.
a) Determine the actual reflux ratio and actual number of stages in this column.
[5]
b) What would you expect to happen to the condenser and reboiler temperature
if the column pressure were to increase? As a consequence, what would you
expect to happen to the distribution of the heptane and the size of the
column? [5]
c) Determine the composition of the light and heavy key components in the
bottoms product. [15]
K values for the three components are shown graphically. Gilliland correlation graph
and a sheet of preliminary design equations are supplied separately. Note that not
all the equations are needed for the present calculations.

2
K Value Chart

3
Shortcut Distillation Column Design Equations
Fenske Equation:
 x   x    d  w 
ln A   B   ln A  B 
 x B D  x A  W   w A  dB 
= 
Or
Nmin =  Nmin
ln α Ave, A,B ln α Ave,A,B
1st Underwood Equation 2nd Underwood Equation
i =n i=n
α i,r x Fi α i,r x Di
∑ (α
i=1 i,r − q)
= (1 − q) R min + 1 = ∑ (α
i=1 i,r − θ)
Kirkbride’s Correlation
m W  x   ( x LK ) W  
2
 
ln  = 0.206 ln  HK    
 
p
  LK
 D x F  HK D  
( x )

Gilliland Chart
Distribution of Non-key components

d 
ln i  = A ln(α Ave,i,r ) + C
 wi 

4
Unit Operations A GW B40EA
1 Solution S2 GBT
equation sheet No
a) Actual reflux ratio from iterative procedure

Average volatilities are
Volatilities wrt HK.
Component Distillate Bottoms Alpha Dist Alpha Bottom Alpha Avg
Hexane 1.01 1.56 1.38 1.38 1.38
Cyclohexane 0.73 1.13 1 1 1
heptane 0.44 0.7 0.6 0.62 0.61
st
1 Underwood equation says
i =n
α i,r x Fi
∑ (α
i=1 i,r − q)
= (1 − q)
For saturated liquid, q=1
Trial and error- guess theta which should lie between average alpha for LK and HK
Component Avg AlphaFeed CompGuess thetaGuess thetaGuess thetaGuess theta
1.15 1.3 1.164 1.170
N-HEXANE 1.38 0.400 2.361 6.551 2.515 2.576
CYCLOHEXANE 1.00 0.400 -2.667 -1.333 -2.435 -2.359
N-HEPTANE 0.61 0.200 -0.226 -0.177 -0.220 -0.218
-0.531 5.041 -0.140 0.000
The minimum reflux is therefore

Minimum reflux ratio is therefore
Component Avg AlphaDist. CompTheta

1.170
N-HEXANE 1.38 0.950 6.119
CYCLOHEXANE 1.00 0.050 -0.295
N-HEPTANE 0.61 0.000 0.000
Rmin+1= 5.824
Rmin 4.824
b) If the column pressure were increased, then the condenser and reboiler temperatures
would also have to increase to keep the same distribution of light and heavy keys. From the K
value graph, the relative volatility of the heptane would reduce and therefore there would be
no change in the distribution. The column may have to be larger though to accommodate the
cyclohexane that would be in the distillate.

5
c) Basis of 100 kmols of feed
Component Feed Dist Comp Dist Rates Bottom Bottom Rate

kmols Comp
Hexane 40 0.95 xlkB
Cyclohexand 40 0.05 xhkB
heptane 20 0 x 20
100 1 D B
 x   x  
ln A   B  
 x B D  x A  W 
The fenske equation is Nmin = 
ln α Ave, A,B
Since we know the minimum number of stages and the top and bottom temperatures. We
have
Volatilities wrt HK.

Component Distillate Bottoms Alpha Dist Alpha Bottom Alpha Avg
Hexane 1.01 1.56 1.38 1.38 1.38
Cyclohexand 0.73 1.13 1 1 1
heptane 0.44 0.7 0.6 0.62 0.61
(Note - the answers will depend on the value for this exponential term)
eq1
Balance for each component
Replace the x hkB term using eq 1

, and

6
from , multiply 19 to give
and we have
Therefore
Hence
Hence
Therefore the key composition of the bottoms products are
Therefore the heptane in the bottoms is

7
2 S2
The HYSYS output, attached separately, shows details of a first attempt at a rigorous
column separating a mixture of propane, butane, pentane and hexane. Use this
information to answer the following:
a)
i) Determine the average liquid and vapour rates inside the column and hence
provide a sketch diagram of the column showing all the key flowrates. [4]
ii) Sketch a diagram of stages 9,10 and 11 and include the internal liquid and
vapour flowrates. [4]
iii) Verify the thermal state of each feed stream by calculating the q value. [4]
b) Assuming a combined feed that is saturated liquid, calculate what the minimum
reflux ratio should be for this column.
[5]
c) Calculate the minimum number of stages needed for this column [4]
d) Construct a temperature and key component ratio plot for this column and hence
outline what further changes could be done with the column [4]

8
Selected HYSYS Output
Temperature Pressure Net Liq Net Vap Net Feed Net Draws
Stage
(C) (kPa) (kgmole/h) (kgmole/h) (kgmole/h) (kgmole/h)
Condenser 6.176 150 6.983 --- --- 40.2
1 7.842 150 6.87 47.18 --- ---
2 8.385 150 6.807 47.07 --- ---
3 8.648 150 6.776 47.01 --- ---
4 8.777 150 40.47 46.98 35 ---
5 13.85 150 40.54 45.67 --- ---
6 16.51 150 39.83 45.74 --- ---
7 20.11 150 38.66 45.03 --- ---
8 25.43 150 37.41 43.87 --- ---
9 31.87 150 36.05 42.61 --- ---
10 39.65 150 111.2 41.25 65 ---
11 42.23 150 111.5 51.38 --- ---
12 45.06 150 112 51.7 --- ---
13 47.72 150 112.7 52.23 --- ---
14 49.97 150 113.1 52.87 --- ---
15 52.07 150 113 53.35 --- ---
Reboiler 55.47 150 --- 53.2 --- 59.8
Table 1: Column Flow Profiles
Stage Propane n-Butane n-Pentane n-Hexane
Condenser 0.0653 0.8417 0.093 0

1 0.0554 0.8108 0.1337 0
2 0.0543 0.7904 0.1553 0
3 0.0539 0.7799 0.1662 0
4 0.0537 0.7747 0.1716 0
5 0.0101 0.7861 0.2038 0
6 0.0018 0.7272 0.2709 0.0002
7 0.0003 0.6105 0.3876 0.0017
8 0 0.456 0.5329 0.011
9 0 0.3098 0.6344 0.0558
10 0 0.1991 0.5958 0.2052
11 0 0.1557 0.6363 0.208
12 0 0.1116 0.6776 0.2108
13 0 0.0731 0.7131 0.2138
14 0 0.0437 0.7359 0.2204
15 0 0.0233 0.7324 0.2443
Reboiler 0 0.01 0.6555 0.3344
Table 2 Column Composition Profiles (Liquid)

9
Tray Number Propane n-Butane n-Pentane n-Hexane
Condenser 3.81 0.8689 0.2139 0.05292

1 3.998 0.9221 0.2297 0.05761
2 4.061 0.94 0.235 0.05921
3 4.091 0.9488 0.2377 0.06
4 4.107 0.9531 0.239 0.06039
5 4.734 1.135 0.2947 0.07749
6 5.09 1.241 0.3279 0.08796
7 5.603 1.396 0.3776 0.104
8 6.428 1.65 0.4614 0.1319
9 7.543 2.004 0.5822 0.1737
10 9.071 2.505 0.7596 0.2378
11 9.626 2.691 0.8271 0.2629
12 10.26 2.905 0.9061 0.2928
13 10.88 3.119 0.9858 0.3234
14 11.44 3.308 1.057 0.3512
15 11.97 3.493 1.128 0.3789
Reboiler 12.87 3.808 1.249 0.4273
Table 3 Column K-Values Profile
Feed Compositions
Propane n-Butane n-Pentane n-Hexane
Feed 1 0.2857 0.5714 0.1429 0.0000
Feed 2 0.0000 0.1538 0.5385 0.3077
Table 4 Feed Specifications (mol fraction)

10
2 Solution
Page 1 of 1 Diagrams Other Data/Special Stationery
Required: Required:
The HYSYS output, attached separately, shows details of a first attempt at a rigorous
column separating a mixture of propane, butane, pentane and hexane. Use this
information to answer the following:
a)
i) Determine the average liquid and vapour rates inside the column and hence
provide a sketch diagram of the column showing all the key flowrates. [4]
ii) Sketch a diagram of stages 9,10 and 11 and include the internal liquid and
vapour flowrates. [4]

11
iii) Verify the thermal state of each feed stream by calculating the q value. [4]
Feed stream at tray 10.

Feed stream flowrate : 65 kmols/hr
Liquid from tray 9 : 36.05 kmols/hr
65+35.05=100.05 which means that vapour has to have been condensed from tray
11. Therefore the feed at tray 10 is subcooled.
Molar flowrate of vapour condensed is 51.38 – 41.25 = 10.13
Feed stream at tray 4

Feed stream flowrate: 35 kmols/hr
Liquid from tray 3: 6.776 kmols/hr
35+6.776 = 41.776 kmols/hr
Actual liquid from tray 4 is 40.47 kmols/hr
This means that some of the liquid in the feed is vapourised
b) The rigorous column shows a reflux ratio of 0.174. Using appropriate methods,
calculate what the minimum reflux ratio should be for this column.
[5]
Short cut calculations deal with 1 feed to the column so work out the feed
composition from the HYSYS data provided
Composition Molar Rates Combined Feed

Feed 1 Feed 2 Feed 1 Feed 2 Rate Comp
Propane 0.2857 0.0000 10.0 0.0 10.0 0.1
Butane 0.5714 0.1538 20.0 10.0 30.0 0.3
Pentane 0.1429 0.5385 5.0 35.0 40.0 0.4
Hexane 0.0000 0.3077 0.0 20.0 20.0 0.2
35 65 35 65 100

12
Now use the 1st Underwood equation. From the K-value table, extract the K values at
the condenser and re-boiler. Table 2 shows that propane and hexane are cleanly
split so that the LK and HK must be butane and pentane.
Condenser Reboiler Average Rel Vol

Propane 3.81 12.87 7.00 13.55
Butane 0.87 3.81 1.82 3.52 LK
Pentane 0.21 1.25 0.52 1.00 HK
Hexane 0.05 0.43 0.15 0.29
1st Underwood Equation Guess Theta 1.65

Feed Comp Rel Vol Sum Terms
Propane 0.10 13.55 0.114
Butane 0.30 3.52 0.565
Pentane 0.40 1.00 -0.615
Hexane 0.20 0.29 -0.043
Sum 0.020
2nd Underwood equation Rel Vol

Dist Comp Sum term
Propane 0.0653 13.55 0.074
Butane 0.8417 3.52 1.585
Pentane 0.093 1.00 -0.143
Hexane 0 0.29 0.000
Rmin+1= 1.516
Rmin 0.516
c) Calculate the minimum number of stages in this column
Minimum number of stages
Distillate Bottoms
Propane 0.0653 0
Butane 0.8417 0.01 LK
Pentane 0.093 0.6555 HK
Hexane 0 0.3344
Avg Vol 3.52

Nmin 5.08
d) Construct a temperature and key component ratio plot for this column and
hence outline what further changes could be done with the column [4]

13
KLK/HK Component Plot

10
7
LK/HK Ratio
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Stage
Temperature Plot
60
50
40
Temperature
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Stage
The key component ratio plot for the top of the column looks as if that section is ok – the key
plot flattens out around the feed stage and steppes either side. The fact that key component
ratios are changing on either side of the feed tray indicates the column is working ok. Below
nd
the 2 feed stage however, the column is not really doing much.
The temperature profile shows 3 distinct sections which you would expect. The issue is that
the end points at the reboiler and condenser are not probably as steep as normal.
Since the split is around the inner two components – then its likely this column needs more
stages. Looking at the compositions of each feed stream, from that view point it seems that

14
the feed stages could be adjusted – The next iteration should try the feeds closer together –
the molar composition of the butane and pentane match with stage 7 & 8 of the column rather
than being too far apart.

15
3
HYSYS output
As part of a liquidfied natural gas process, methane is to be recovered by a

distillation column operating at 30 bar pressure. The feed stream and expected
recoveries are given in the table below. The column will be fitted with a partial
condenser Assume there is a 0.5 bar pressure drop across the column.
a) Determine the temperature of the condenser [5]

b) Show that the reboiler utility temperature will be close to 50ºC [5]
c) Determine the minimum number of stages for this separation [6]
d) If the minimum reflux ratio is 0.142, determine the actual number of stages in
this column [4]
e) Natural gas from a gas reservoir usually contains CO 2 . Explain why CO 2
would need to be removed before this column is used to strip out the
methane. [2]
f) LNG feed would contain more than 4 components. Outline one method that
could be used to determine the sequence of columns to be used to separate a
typical LNG feed mixture. [3]
Recovery in
Feed Distillate
(kmol/hr)
Methane 40 99
Ethane 50 0.1
Propane 35 0
N-Butane 35 0

16
Temp METHANE ETHANE PROPANE N-BUTANE
-100 0.87252 0.01763 0.00123 0.00011

-95 1.03164 0.02361 0.00178 0.00017
-90 1.20866 0.03113 0.00253 0.00026
-85 1.40418 0.04044 0.00352 0.00039
-80 1.61870 0.05183 0.00483 0.00056
-75 1.85265 0.06560 0.00652 0.00080
-70 2.10635 0.08208 0.00866 0.00113
-65 2.38007 0.10158 0.01136 0.00155
-60 2.67397 0.12447 0.01470 0.00211
-55 2.98816 0.15111 0.01881 0.00283
-50 3.32268 0.18185 0.02379 0.00375
-45 3.67749 0.21709 0.02980 0.00490
-40 4.05250 0.25718 0.03696 0.00634
-35 4.44757 0.30252 0.04542 0.00810
-30 4.86251 0.35348 0.05536 0.01025
-25 5.29707 0.41044 0.06693 0.01285
-20 5.75097 0.47377 0.08031 0.01597
-15 6.22391 0.54384 0.09569 0.01967
-10 6.71553 0.62101 0.11326 0.02404
-5 7.22545 0.70562 0.13322 0.02917
0 7.75328 0.79803 0.15576 0.03514
5 8.29860 0.89854 0.18110 0.04204
10 8.86097 1.00749 0.20944 0.04999
15 9.43992 1.12516 0.24100 0.05908
20 10.03501 1.25186 0.27598 0.06943
25 10.64574 1.38783 0.31461 0.08115
30 11.27165 1.53336 0.35710 0.09437
35 11.91224 1.68866 0.40366 0.10919
40 12.56702 1.85397 0.45451 0.12577
45 13.23551 2.02950 0.50987 0.14421
50 13.91720 2.21542 0.56993 0.16466
55 14.61162 2.41193 0.63490 0.18724
60 15.31827 2.61918 0.70500 0.21211
65 16.03667 2.83730 0.78041 0.23940
Table of K values

17
3 Solution 2S2 2011-2012
a) Determine the temperature of the condenser [5]
Feed Recovery Distillate Bottoms Mole Fraction Composition

METHANE 40 99 39.6 0.4 0.2500 0.9987 0.0033
ETHANE 50 0.1 0.05 49.95 0.3125 0.0013 0.4150
PROPANE 35 0 0 35 0.2188 0.0000 0.2908
N-BUTANE 35 0 0 35 0.2188 0.0000 0.2908
160 39.65 120.35 1 1 1

Composition 30 -96 30 -95
METHANE 0.999 0.9984 0.9971 1.0316 1.0303
ETHANE 0.001 0.0223 0.0000 0.0236 0.0000
PROPANE 0.000 0.0017 0.0000 0.0018 0.0000
N-BUTANE 0.000 0.0002 0.0000 0.0002 0.0000
1.00 0.9972 1.0304
So the condenser temperature is -95 deg C
b) Show that the reboiler utility temperature will be close to 40ºC [5]

Bottoms Conditions
P (atm) T deg C P (atm) T deg C
Composition 30.00 40 30.00 45
Ki y=Kx Ki
METHANE 0.003 12.6996 0.0418 12.8328 0.0440
ETHANE 0.415 1.8883 0.7695 1.9229 0.8423
PROPANE 0.291 0.4652 0.1322 0.4761 0.1483
N-BUTANE 0.291 0.1293 0.0366 0.1329 0.0419
0.9800 1.0765
Since the summation is close to 1, then the reboiler temperature is close to 40

deg C.

18
c) Determine the minimum number of stages for this separation [6]
Composition Distillate
xd Ki alpha
METHANE 0.999 1.0316 43.69 LK
ETHANE 0.001 0.0236 1.00 HK
PROPANE 0.000 0.0018 0.08
N-BUTANE 0.000 0.0002 0.01
Heavy key K value 0.024
Composition Bottoms
xb Ki alpha
METHANE 0.003 13.2355 6.52 LK
ETHANE 0.415 2.0295 1.00 HK
PROPANE 0.291 0.5099 0.25
N-BUTANE 0.291 0.1442 0.07
Heavy key K value 2.029
Average Volatilities Avg Alpha

METHANE 16.88
ETHANE 1.00
PROPANE 0.14
N-BUTANE 0.02
Key components d b
LK METHANE 0.999 0.003
HK ETHANE 0.001 0.415
Average volatility of LK/HK 16.88

Nmin 4.07
d) If the minimum reflux ratio is 0.142, determine the actual number of stages in
this column. [4]
Set actual reflux = 1.2xRmin
Actual reflux ratio 0.173
(R-Rmin)/(R+1) 0.0246
(N-Nmin)/(N+1) 0.6
Check by correlation 0.673
Actual number of stages 14.5

19
e) Natural gas from a gas reservoir usually contains CO 2 . Explain why CO 2

would need to be removed before this column is used to strip out the
methane. [2]
CO2 would freeze in the methane column and therefore block internals. Its
normally removed to avoid this.
f) LNG feed would contain more than 4 components. Outline one method that
could be used to determine the sequence of columns to be used to separate
a typical LNG feed mixture. [3]
There are 2 potential methods to separate out a mixture of more than 2 components:
• Heuristics
• Minimum vapour flowrate
These would be used to select possible sequences for further investigation by rigorous
column simulation tools.

20

1
2014/2015 Exam Answer, Control II
a) PID:
Steam
FT1 TC1 AC1
FC1 AT1
TT1
Reactor feed
Reactor
Products
Heat exchanger

2
Block diagram:
Pfeed
G2
Tfeed
G2
F1
Aset1 T1
A1
Km GAc1 GTC1 GFC1 Gv GHeat exchanger Greactor
HFT1
HTT1
HAT1

3
b)
Design a control system to control:
- The shell-side pressure in the vertical heat exchanger.

- The level in the gas-liquid separator
- The composition of the concentrated product stream.
- [6 marks]
Condensor
Cooling water
Separator
Condensate
LC
Steam PC
Evaporator
Feed Pump
AC
Product
Figure 1b. Forced circulation evaporator system.

4
c)
All feeds have to be controlled. Design a control system to control:
• The product flow from the mill into the sump

• The torque/speed of the ball mill
• The density of the feed to the cyclone separator
• The level of the liquid in the sump
[8 marks]
Cyclone
Feedwater
Solid feed
to sump
FC
Mill
AC
Water feed LC
Motor SC
Pump
Figure 1c. A wet grinding circuit.
d)
Steam doesn’t affect level so Y2 is level, X1 is flow. Steam and flow affect temperature. Y1 must be
temperature. X2 must be steam.

5
Model answer Question 2.
a)
Gv ( s ) = 12kg / s / 100%CO = 0.12kg / s %CO
2 o
GJ ( s ) = C / (kg/s)
2.5s + 1
0.6 o
GR (s) = C / oC
13s + 1
100%TO / 50 o C 2
H R (s) = = %TO / o C
s +1 s +1
H J ( s ) = 100%TO / 100o C = 1%TO / oC
b)
R(s) E(s) M(s)

TRsp(s) TR(s)
Km Gc(s) Gv(s) GJ(s) GR(s)
C(s)
HR(s)
R(s) E(s) M(s)

TRsp(s) TR(s)
Km Gc(s) 0.12
C(s)
c) fail open to make sure reactor stays cold.
d) 1+OLTF=0
2 0.6 2
OLTF= G c G v G J G R H R so 1 + OLTF = 0 = 1 + Gc * 0.12 * * *
2.5s + 1 13s + 1 s + 1
e) i.

6
Sketch of cascade control system
Reactants TT1 TC1
TT2 TC2
∞ Coolant
Product
ii
TRsp(s) TR(s)
Km Gc1 Gc2 0.12
Block diagram of cascade control system
f. Gc2=2
Slave control system can be replaced by block with function

7
2 0.48
* 0.12 * 2
G= 2. 5 s + 1 = 2. 5 s + 1 =
0.48
=
0.48
2 0.48 2.5s + 1 + 0.48 2.5s + 1.48
1+ * 0.12 * 2 * 1 1 +
2.5s + 1 2.5s + 1
TRsp(s) TR(s)
Km Gc1
Characteristic equation:
1+OLTF=0= 1 + Gc1 0.48 * 0.6 * 2 = 0

2.5s + 1.48 13s + 1 s + 1
Gc1 0.48 0.6 2 Gc1 0.576

1+ * * =0= +1
2.5s + 1.48 13s + 1 s + 1 (2.5s + 1.48)(13s 2 + 14s + 1)
Gc1 0.48 0.6 2 Gc1 0.576

1+ * * =0= +1
2.5s + 1.48 13s + 1 s + 1 (2.5s + 1.48)(13s 2 + 14s + 1)
(2.5s + 1.48)(13s 2 + 14s + 1) + Gc1 0.576 = 0
(2.5s + 1.48)(13s 2 + 14s + 1) + Gc1 0.576 = 0
32.5s 3 + 35s 2 + 2.5s + 19.24 s 2 + 20.72 s + 1.48 + 0.576Gc1 = 0
32.5s 3 + 54.24 s 2 + 23.22 s + 1.48 + 0.576Gc1 = 0
− 32.5iω3 − 54.24ω2 + 23.22iω + 1.48 + 0.576 Kcu = 0
32.5ω2 = 23.22and − 54.24ω2 + 1.48 + 0.576 Kcu = 0
ω = 23.22 / 32.5 = 0.845andKcu = (54.24ω2 − 1.48) / 0.576 = Kcu = 64.7

8
a. h=0.05; a=0.019; T=115/7=16.4=Tu

b. wu=2pi/T=0.38 rad/min
c. kcu 4h/pi a=4*0.05/(3.14128*0.019)=3.35
d.
i. The Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop or on-line tuning method involves the following steps:
1. Switch off the integral and derivative parts of the controller so the controller is only working
in proportional mode.
2. With the loop closed, increase the proportional gain until the output oscillates with constant
amplitude. The value of the gain at which the loop oscillates is the ultimate gain K cu. Obtain
the period of oscillation T u from a time recording of the oscillation. The ultimate frequency
can be obtained from the period of oscillation T u .
2π
ωu =
Tu
ii.
1. Open the loop (this is most easily done by switching the controller to manual). The controller
output is now disconnected, and the output signal should be constant. Make sure the
system is stable and no disturbances can occur whilst the test is being performed.
2. Apply a step change to the controller output.
3. Record the transmitter output signal as a function of time until it reaches steady state.
4. Estimate the process gain by dividing the steady state change in the transmitter output by
the step change in the controller output.
5. Estimate the dead time t 0 and the time constant τ
6. Calculate the settings of the controller parameters using Ziegler-Nichols tuning formulas for
a quarter decay ratio response (i.e. the amplitude of each successive oscillation is ¼ of the
previous one).
i. T= Tu= (105-2)/6 =17.2; Kcu = 3.39. wu= 2pi/T = 0.366. Pretty close.
e. i. PID Ziegler Nichols Quarter decay based on autotune.
Proportional- K T T
integral-derivative, K c' = cu τ 'I = u τ 'D = u
1.7 2 8
PID*
Kc=3.35/1.7=1.97
Tu
τ 'I =
2
16.4/2=8.2 min
Tu
τ 'D =
8
=16.4/8=2.05
Ii Use Tyreus-Luyben
Tyreus-Luyben controller settings for a more conservative response
Kc τI τD
PI 0.31K cu 2.2T u -
Kc=0.31 Kcu=0.31*3.39=1.05; τ I = 2.2Tu=2.2*17.2=37.84 min

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1

2013/14 Answers Distillation

Using the information below:

Component Feed Flowrate Recovery in Distillate

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B40EA March 2016 v1

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B40EA March 2016 v1

Shortcut Distillation Column Design Equations

1st Underwood Equation 2nd Underwood Equation

Distribution of Non-key components

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B40EA March 2016 v1

Feed Recovery Distillate Bottoms Mole Fraction Composition

160 89.385 70.615 1 1 1

Ki=y/x y=Kx Ki=y/x y=Kx

Distillate P (atm) T deg C P (atm) T deg C

Pressure drop across the column is 10 kPa so the bottom pressure is

Ki=y/x y=Kx Ki=y/x y=Kx

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Average Volatilities Avg Alpha

Average volatility of LK/HK 2.26

Actual number of stages –

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A 100 kmol/hr mixture, composition given below, is distilled in a column

a) Using this information determine the:

Feed Distillate Bottoms

Equilibrium constants are given in the accompanying table. Molkanov’s

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Temp N-PENTANE BENZENE CYCLOHEXANE TOLUENE

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©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B40EA March 2016 v1

Feed Recovery Distillate Bottoms Composition

Need to find the condenser temperature

Ki=y/x y=Kx Ki=y/x y=Kx

Now work out the top tray temperature

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Min reflux ratio 8.5

Vapour rate from top plate 459.2 kmols/hr

Distillate Liquid from tray Vapour to top tray

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Answer: 67 deg for the 1st tray, 76 deg C 2nd tray.

Compositions on each tray

ii) Vapour flow to 2nd tray is 490 kmol/hr

Reflux multiplier 1.2

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iv) Internal flowrates

The second recommendation is to separate the benzene and

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b) The company selects option 2 which removes hydrogen first. The

c) A de-methaniser used to separate methane from the other components

K values for this question are found in the accompanying graphs.

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Compare the direct sequence with the one recommended by heuristics

HYDROGEN METHANE ETHYLENE ETHANE PROPYLENE PROPANE 1-BUTENE N-BUTANE

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HYDROGEN METHANE ETHYLENE ETHANE PROPYLENE PROPANE 1-BUTENE N-BUTANE

A/B 1.2136 0.1278 0.0140 0.0053 0.0002 0.0005 63918.6350

Now for the heuristic sequence

This shows that the direct sequence is the preferred option –

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©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B40EA March 2016 v1

Model answers control II

Model answer Question 1