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Sedimentology (2003) 50, 211–236

Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a middle Miocene


alluvial fan to cyclic shallow lacustrine depositional system
in the Calatayud Basin (NE Spain)
H AYFAA ABDUL AZIZ*, ENRIQUE SANZ-RUBIO, JOSE P. CALVO,
FREDIRIK J. HILGEN* and WOUT KRIJGSMAN*
*Faculty of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Budapestlaan 4, 3584 CD,
Utrecht, The Netherlands (E-mail: haziz@geo.uu.nl)
Dpto de Geologı´a, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, C/José Gutiérrez Abascal 2,
28006 Madrid, Spain
Dpto Petrologı´a y Geoquı´mica, Fac. CC. Geológicas, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain

ABSTRACT

The middle Miocene sedimentary fill of the Calatayud Basin in north-eastern


Spain consists of proximal to distal alluvial fan-floodplain and shallow
lacustrine deposits. Four main facies groups characteristic of different
sedimentary environments are recognized: (1) proximal and medial alluvial
fan facies that comprise clast-supported gravel and subordinate sandstone and
mudstone, the latter exhibiting incipient pedogenic features; (2) distal alluvial
fan facies, formed mainly of massive mudstone, carbonate-rich palaeosols and
local carbonate pond deposits; (3) lake margin facies, which show two distinct
lithofacies associations depending on their distribution relative to the alluvial
fan system, i.e. front (lithofacies A), comprising massive siliciclastic mudstone
and tabular carbonates, or lateral (lithofacies B) showing laminated and/or
massive siliciclastic mudstone alternating with tabular and/or laminated
carbonate beds; and (4) mudflat–shallow lake facies showing a remarkable
cyclical alternation of green-grey and/or red siliciclastic mudstone units and
white dolomitic carbonate beds. The cyclic mudflat–shallow lake succession,
as exposed in the Orera composite section (OCS), is dominantly composed of
small-scale mudstone–carbonate/dolomite cycles. The mudstone intervals of
the sedimentary cycles are interpreted as a result of sedimentation from
suspension by distal sheet floods, the deposits evolving either under subaerial
exposure or water-saturated conditions, depending on their location on the
lacustrine mudflat and on climate. The dolomite intervals accumulated during
lake-level highstands with Mg-rich waters becoming increasingly
concentrated. Lowstand to highstand lake-level changes indicated by the
mudstone/dolomite units of the small-scale cycles reflect a climate control
(from dry to wet conditions) on the sedimentation in the area. The spatial
distribution of the different lithofacies implies that deposition of the small-
scale cycles took place in a low-gradient, shallow lake basin located in an
interfan zone. The development of the basin was constrained by gradual
alluvial fan aggradation. Additional support for the palaeoenvironmental
interpretation is derived from the isotopic compositions of carbonates from the
various lithofacies that show a wide range of d18O and d13C values varying
from )7Æ9 to 3Æ0& PDB and from )9Æ2 to )1Æ7& PDB respectively. More
negative d18O and d13C values are from carbonate-rich palaeosols and lake-
margin carbonates, which extended in front of the alluvial fan systems,
whereas more positive values correspond to dolomite beds deposited in the
shallow lacustrine environment. The results show a clear trend of d18O

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212 H. Abdul Aziz et al.

enrichment in the carbonates from lake margin to the centre of the shallow lake
basin, thereby also demonstrating that the lake evolved under hydrologically
closed conditions.
Keywords Calatayud Basin, cyclic sedimentation, dolomite, lacustrine
deposits, Miocene, mudstone, palaeoclimate, Spain.

GEOLOGICAL SETTING AND


INTRODUCTION
STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK
Continental deposits have produced some of the
Tectonic setting
finest examples of astronomically controlled
cyclicity in sedimentary successions, for exam- The Tertiary Calatayud Basin (NE Spain) is an
ple in the Devonian of Scotland (Astin, 1990) elongate NW–SE-oriented intermontane depres-
and East Greenland (Olsen, 1994), the early sion, parallel to the main structures of the Iberian
Mesozoic Newark Supergroup of eastern North Range (Fig. 1). The Iberian Range constitutes an
America (Van Houten, 1964; Olsen, 1984, 1986; intraplate fold-and-thrust belt composed of
Gore, 1989; Smoot, 1991), the Eocene Green Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks, which developed
River Formation of Wyoming (Bradley, 1929; in three stages: (1) rifting and sedimentation
Fischer & Roberts, 1991; Ripepe et al., 1991) during the Mesozoic; (2) crustal thickening and
and in the late Neogene Ptolemais Basin of thin-skinned thrusting during the Palaeogene
northern Greece (Van Vugt et al., 1998; Steen- compression; and (3) post-orogenic transtension
brink et al., 1999). Most of these studies are and crustal thinning from the Neogene to the
confined to lacustrine successions because they present (Capote, 1983; Simón, 1990). During the
are most sensitive for recording astronomically last stage, especially during the Miocene, the
induced climate change in the continental Calatayud Basin underwent extensional tectonic
realm. Recent work by Abdul Aziz et al. (2000, deformation, together with a dextral strike-slip
2001) indicates that the cyclicity in lacustrine to component along NW–SE-bounding faults (Hoyos
distal alluvial fan-floodplain deposits from the et al., 1996). The geotectonic setting of the Calat-
middle Miocene sedimentary fill of the Calat- ayud Basin is complex, being the result of south-
ayud Basin, NE Spain, is also astronomically ward-directed compression from the Pyrenees
forced. Correlation of the high-resolution mag- (Simón, 1990), north- to north-west-directed
netostratigraphic record with the geomagnetic indentation from the south-eastern corner of the
polarity time scale (GPTS), corroborated by Betic Cordilleras (Doblas et al., 1991) and gener-
biostratigraphy, reveals that the cyclic succes- alized low-angle extension disrupting the western
sion ranges in age from 12Æ8 to 10Æ7 Ma. Spec- Mediterranean area (Valencia and Alborán
tral analyses of proxy records in both the depth Basins; Doblas & Oyarzun, 1990).
and the time domain reveal that the small-scale
mudstone–carbonate cycles correspond to the
Stratigraphy
astronomical precession cycle, whereas the
large-scale cycles reflect the 400 kyr eccentricity The basin margin consists mainly of Palaeozoic
cycle (Abdul Aziz, 2001). slate, quartzite and carbonate rocks bounded by
This paper presents the results of detailed NW–SE normal faults (Julivert, 1954; Anadón &
sedimentological analysis of the various sedimen- Moissenet, 1996). The sedimentary fill comprises
tary facies deposited in the study area. The Palaeogene and Neogene sedimentary rocks
geometrical relationships between cyclically bed- reaching up to 1200 m in thickness, as confirmed
ded deposits and lake margin and alluvial fan by borehole data from Marı́n (1932). The sedi-
sediments provide the basis for a palaeoenviron- ment distribution in the basin displays a concen-
mental reconstruction of the area during the tric facies pattern with siliciclastic deposits on
middle Miocene. Finally, the basic mudstone– the margins passing progressively into carbonates
carbonate units of the small-scale cycles in the and evaporites towards the central part of the
central parts of the lake basin are interpreted in basin, the latter deposits being indicative of a
terms of depositional environment, lake level and hydrologically closed basin system. The Neogene
climate. formations constitute most of the outcrops and
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Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a shallow lacustrine system 213

Fig. 1. (A) Location of the study area in the Calatayud Basin; square corresponds to the area of the geological map
shown in (B). (B) Schematic geological map with localities mentioned in the text.

are grouped into three main stratigraphic units show a remarkable regularity of bedding, which is
(Hoyos & López Martı́nez, 1985; Sanz-Rubio, particularly clear in the Valdelosterreros area
1999): the Lower and Intermediate Units, both (Fig. 2). Age control for the Neogene deposits is
containing evaporites (Ortı́ et al., 1994; Sanz- provided by calibration of high-resolution mag-
Rubio, 1999), and the Upper Unit mainly com- netostratigraphy of the cyclically bedded Orera
posed of terrigenous and freshwater carbonate composite section (OCS) to the geomagnetic
deposits. Major palaeogeographic changes oc- polarity time scale (GPTS) of Cande & Kent
curred at the boundary between the Lower and (1995), yielding an approximate age between
Intermediate Units, which are related to the 12Æ8 and 10Æ7 Ma (late Serravallian to early
activity of the NW–SE fault system in the base- Tortonian; Krijgsman et al., 1996). This outcome
ment, resulting in the development of a palaeo- is consistent with biochronological information
karstic surface on the Lower Unit evaporites in from micromammal sites near the village of
the central part of the basin (Sanz-Rubio, 1999). Miedes (Fig. 1), the fauna being characteristic of
The palaeokarst surface provides evidence for an the Upper Aragonian. Another micromammal
episode of subaerial exposure. Where palaeokar- site, located in the same hill as section I (Fig. 3),
stic features are not so evident, the stratigraphic consists of characteristic faunas from the late
discontinuity is defined by well-marked litholog- Aragonian and lower Vallesian (late Serravallian
ical changes (Sanz-Rubio et al., 2001). to early Tortonian; Canudo & Cuenca, 1989).
The studied successions belong to the Interme- The carbonate beds of the cyclically bedded
diate Unit and are exposed near the village of succession can be traced laterally towards the
Orera,  15 km south-east of Calatayud (Fig. 1). In village of Orera and towards the north, east and
the vicinity of this village, the Neogene strata south-east, where they pass progressively into
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214 H. Abdul Aziz et al.

Fig. 2. General view of the Miocene Valdelosterreros section (section IV of Fig. 4) in the Calatayud basin. Height of
the exposed succession is  50 m.

alluvial fan facies (Fig. 3). No outcrops are lithofacies are given in Tables 1–3, and a sum-
exposed in the southern part of the study area, mary is presented in the following paragraphs.
although a thick succession of evaporite and
mudstone cycles is exposed along the north-
Proximal and medial alluvial fan facies
western slope of the Perejiles river valley, which
(Table 1)
may be the stratigraphic equivalent of the cyclic-
ally bedded succession around Orera (Sanz-Rubio The alluvial fan facies, characterized by succes-
et al., 1999). sions of red siliciclastic deposits more than 100 m
The lower part of the Orera section correlates thick, forms a continuous fringe around the entire
with reddish siliciclastic deposits comprising basin margin (Fig. 1). The width of this alluvial
conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone that ex- fringe is variable depending on the more or less
tend to the north-west and south-east of the area progradational character of the individual allu-
(Fig. 3). In some places, red siliciclastic deposits vial systems that developed in the area during the
are capped by carbonate beds, which in turn Miocene. Near Orera, two main alluvial systems
grade basinward into a succession of mudstone can be recognized: a major NE–SW-trending
and carbonate deposits. Stratigraphic correlation system located in the Miedes area and a NNE–
(Fig. 4) provides evidence of the rapid lateral and SSW-trending alluvial system developed in the
vertical facies changes shown by at least the proximity of Orera (Figs 1 and 3).
lower part of the middle Miocene sedimentary
sections in the area. Description
The alluvial fan deposits extend up to 3 km from
the basin margin. The catchment area is com-
FACIES AND DEPOSITIONAL
posed of quartzite, slates and metamorphosed
ENVIRONMENTS
carbonate rocks of Early Cambrian age. The
proximal facies comprises typically amalgamated
Four main lithofacies groups are recognized in
and tabular conglomerates that grade laterally
the sedimentary units of the Orera study area. The
into a succession of red to pale brownish con-
detailed descriptions and interpretations of these
glomerate, sandstone and mudstone beds.
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Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a shallow lacustrine system 215

Fig. 3. Lithofacies map of the Orera


area showing the location of the
studied sedimentary sections
displayed in Fig. 4.

The reddish conglomerate beds are mainly lithofacies (Gm, Gp, Gc; Miall, 1978) is indicative
multistorey bodies (see middle lower part of of episodic ephemeral streams. This braided
section II, Fig. 4), which can be followed laterally alluvial system expanded radially from the Pa-
for tens of metres. The massive sandstone bodies laeozoic catchment area north-east of Orera, the
commonly display dark yellowish-orange mot- main axis of the NNE–SSW-trending fan (Fig. 3).
tling, are laterally extensive and are intercalated Overall, the alluvial fan deposits show a typical
with reddish to light brown, massive to vaguely downslope-fining trend (Bull, 1997). Some minor
laminated mudstones (Table 1). Root bioturbation coalescing alluvial fans developed eastwards
traces, mottling and local pedogenic carbonate along the margin, but their magnitude is consid-
nodules are typically present in the mudstones. erably reduced. In medial parts of the fan,
deposition took place in ephemeral braided
Interpretation streams (Alonso-Zarza et al., 1993; Bull, 1997)
flowing over smooth valley floors. The discon-
The conglomerate and subordinate sandstone
tinuous nature of stream deposition is supported
beds of the proximal alluvial fan facies were
by the development of incipient pedogenic fea-
mainly deposited by stream-dominated flows.
tures in both sandstone and mudstone deposits
The multistorey character of the conglomerate
(Wright, 1992).
bodies formed of superposed distinct gravel
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216 H. Abdul Aziz et al.

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Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a shallow lacustrine system 217

The nodular dolomite beds with palustrine


Fig. 4. Lithostratigraphic correlation of sedimentary
logs (see Fig. 3 for location of the sections) with features (sensu Freytet & Plaziat, 1982; Wright &
sampling levels (see Table 1). Dashed correlation lines Platt, 1995) can be interpreted as deposits that
indicate approximate (bio)stratigraphic correlations, accumulated in shallow ponds of reduced extent
whereas solid lines indicate characteristic sedimentary that developed on the distal low-gradient areas of
pattern correlations (confirmed by magnetostratigra- the fans (Sanz et al., 1995). The dolomite in these
phy; Abdul Aziz et al., 2000). ponds is thought to be a primary precipitate, as
deduced from the sedimentological features des-
cribed in Table 1. In the ponded areas, primary
precipitation of dolomite could have been bacte-
Distal alluvial fan facies (Table 1)
rially induced. The role of bacteria in the preci-
Description pitation of dolomite in shallow, short-lived lakes
has been investigated recently by Garcı́a del Cura
This facies association comprises dominant red-
et al. (2001), adding to previous evidence from
dish, massive to vaguely laminated mudstone and
Vasconcelos & McKenzie (1997) of microbial
subordinate sandstone with intercalated carbon-
mediation in the formation of lacustrine dolomite
ate beds (see lower middle part of section I and
sediments.
upper middle part of section II in Fig. 4; Table 1).
The vertical transition from mudstone to carbon-
ate is always gradational. The carbonate beds Lake margin facies (Table 2)
show a tabular but discontinuous geometry and
The lake margin facies can be divided into two
contain pedogenic features such as vertical root
lithofacies associations depending on their dis-
traces, carbonate nodules and platy structures
tribution with respect to the alluvial fan facies.
(Esteban & Klappa, 1983), typical of incipient to
The distal parts of the alluvial fans, which
relatively mature carbonate-rich palaeosols
coincide with the fans’ main axes, comprise
(stages I to IV calcrete profiles; Gile et al., 1966;
sandstones, siltstones and carbonates (lithofacies
Machette, 1985). Less common carbonate features
association A). These deposits can be distin-
include dolomitic glaebules (Fig. 5A), pseudo-
guished from the deposits lateral to the alluvial
spherulites (sensu Rossi & Cañaveras, 1999;
fans, which consist of cyclic successions of
Fig. 5B) and vertical and horizontal cracks.
dominant carbonate beds with siliciclastic mud-
In addition, nodular dolomite beds with tabular
stone (lithofacies association B).
geometries and sharp lower contacts occur asso-
ciated with the massive siliciclastic mudstone.
Lake margin lithofacies association A
The most typical features of the beds include
(Table 2)
nodular appearance, fenestral and root-related
fabrics and local tepee structures.
Description. Lithofacies association A has been
studied in sections I, II and VI (Figs 3 and 4). The
Interpretation
association comprises both terrigenous, mainly
Massive siliciclastic mudstone is interpreted to silt–clay deposits, and carbonate beds, the latter
have formed subaerially in a distal alluvial fan, consisting of palustrine and shallow lake carbon-
i.e. sandflat environment. The subordinate sand- ates.
stone represents mainly episodic sheetflood se- The terrigenous sediments are mainly formed of
dimentation related to dispersed floodwaters, greyish pink massive to light green, vaguely lam-
which were discharged onto the distal alluvial inated mudstone. Massive siliciclastic mudstone
areas (Hardie et al., 1978; Hubert & Hyde, 1982; exhibits widely developed mottling and abundant
Demicco & Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1986). The root traces. Laminated siliciclastic mudstone con-
associated carbonate palaeosols are possibly tains abundant plant remains and locally includes
indicative of periodic stabilization of the clastic calcareous concretions and rhizotubules.
input. Overall, the discontinuous lateral geome- The carbonate, mainly dolomite, occurs as
try and the variable degree of development of tabular beds in which several subfacies are rec-
palaeosols suggest that ephemeral streams con- ognised: (1) massive nodular dolomite; (2) exten-
trolled the distribution of both siliciclastic sive root-bioturbated dolomite beds (see Fig. 5C);
sand and mud deposits and associated soils in (3) horizontally cracked dolomite beds; and (4)
these distal fan areas (Wright & Alonso-Zarza, sandy to silty, laminated carbonate (see Table 2
1990). for details).
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218 H. Abdul Aziz et al.

Table 1. Proximal, medial and distal alluvial fan lithofacies.

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Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a shallow lacustrine system 219

Table 2. Lake margin lithofacies A and B.

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220 H. Abdul Aziz et al.

Table 3. Cyclic mudflat–shallow lake lithofacies.

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Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a shallow lacustrine system 221

Fig. 5. Photomicrographs (polarized light) of selected carbonate facies from the Miocene of the Orera–Valdelost-
erreros area. (A) Non-homogeneous fabric of a calcareous palaeosol (dolocrete) developed in distal alluvial facies; the
fabric consists of fine-grained sandy micrite with elongate holes (roots), partially filled by calcite spar, and cir-
cumgranular desiccation cracks. (B) Widely developed pseudospherulitic fibrous calcite (pseudospherulites; sensu
Rossi & Cañaveras, 1999) in dolocrete of the distal alluvial fan facies. (C) Irregular horizontal desiccation cracks and
vertically oriented, thin tubular root cavities in sandy dolomicrite (lake margin lithofacies association A); note the
fenestral appearance of this fabric. (D) Uniform dolomicrite (dark ground) containing abundant peloids and quartz
grains; individual peloids range from 0Æ1 to 0Æ5 mm in diameter (lake margin lithofacies association B). (E) Concentric
peloids and quartz sand grains in dolomicrite forming carbonate beds of the cyclic mudflat–shallow lake facies.
(F) Detail of a burrow structure developed in a shallow carbonate lacustrine environment; note the striated fill
pattern characterized by alternating laminae of dolomicrite and coarser grained sediment comprising quartz sand
grains and peloids. Scale bar in all photomicrographs is 1 mm.

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222 H. Abdul Aziz et al.

Interpretation. Lithofacies association A records Carbonate occurs as white to light grey tabular
deposition in a marginal lake environment where dolomite beds or as massive beds showing a
water level fluctuated periodically (Freytet & nodular appearance. The tabular beds show sedi-
Plaziat, 1982; Platt & Wright, 1992; Wright & mentary features similar to the laminated carbon-
Platt, 1995). The variable colours and abundant ate beds observed within the lake margin
mottling of the siliciclastic mudstone facies lithofacies association A; however, more distinc-
indicate that the mudstone accumulated, tive features include clayey mud aggregates and
probably by sedimentation from suspension bed- dolomicrite peloids (Fig. 5D). In addition, large-
load, in a marginal lake area that was subjected to scale deformation structures showing inverted ‘V’
periodic wetting and drying processes related to geometries are also present (Fig. 6A). The massive
fluctuating water level (Gierlowski-Kordesch & dolomite beds have a gradational basal contact
Rust, 1994; Wright & Sandler, 1994). with silty laminated carbonate, whereas the
The variety of subfacies recognized within the upper surfaces are usually irregular and mostly
carbonate lithofacies indicates that different sub- sharply defined.
environments are associated with the lake mar-
gin. Massive mud-grade nodular carbonate is Interpretation. The alternating mudstone and
interpreted to result from primary precipitation carbonate deposits of this lithofacies association
of dolomite (Garcı́a del Cura et al., 2001), fol- were deposited in a low-gradient lake-margin
lowed by periodic desiccation, probably accom- environment. Similar facies have been described
panied by root penetration, leading to extensive from both ancient and recent sedimentary settings
cracking of the sediment (Platt, 1989; Calvo et al., elsewhere (Turnbridge, 1984; Calvo et al., 1989;
1995). Carbonates showing tepee structures and Talbot et al., 1994). The reddish-brown, massive
fenestral fabrics are indicative of subaerial expo- mudstone is interpreted as siliciclastic mud that
sure and wetting/drying processes that occur accumulated from suspension by distal sheet-
along the lake margin (Freytet & Plaziat, 1982; floods. After sedimentation, the mud remained
Wright & Platt, 1995). The laminated carbonate subaerially exposed, thus evolving under oxid-
represents relatively shallow lake deposits that izing conditions and subject to local pedoturba-
accumulated basinward at the most distal parts of tion. Accordingly, a similar sedimentation
the alluvial fans. pattern is postulated for the accumulation of the
green siliciclastic mudstone deposits, although in
Lake margin lithofacies association B this case the sediment remained water saturated,
(Table 2) i.e. under reducing conditions, as suggested by
the green-grey colouring and the preserved plant
Description. This facies association has been debris (Wright & Sandler, 1994; Reinhardt &
recognized near the village of Orera (section III Ricken, 2000).
in Fig. 4), where massive and/or laminated silici- The laminated sandy to silty dolomicrite units
clastic mudstone and marlstone alternates with accumulated in very shallow waters subject to
tabular and/or laminated silty carbonate beds periodic wave and current activity. The large-
forming a well-defined cyclic succession. East of scale deformational structures in the carbonate
Orera, the succession can be correlated bed-to- beds are interpreted as tepee-like structures and
bed with the remarkably cyclically bedded suc- correspond to areas of groundwater resurgence
cession of Valdelosterreros (section IV in Fig. 4; that affected exposed sediments along the edge
Abdul Aziz et al., 2000). of a lake (Warren, 1983; Kendall & Warren,
Two siliciclastic mudstone facies are distin- 1987).
guished: reddish-brown massive mudstone and Besides the shallow character, several other
light to dark green massive and/or vaguely lam- features (see Table 2 and Fig. 6B) provide evi-
inated mudstone. The reddish-brown type mostly dence that the depositional area became episod-
grades upwards into the green mudstone facies ically subaerially exposed. Based on the
and exhibits sparse root traces. The more com- sedimentary features observed in this lithofacies
mon greenish mudstone type shows fine stratifi- association and its stratigraphic relationships
cation, abundant plant debris and rhizoliths, the with other facies, a low-gradient, low-energy,
latter developed at the transition between the lake-margin environment can be inferred (Wright,
mudstone and the overlying carbonate. 1990).

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Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a shallow lacustrine system 223

Fig. 6. (A) Large-scale deformation structures interpreted as tepees developed in carbonate beds of the lake margin
lithofacies association B. Height of the outcrop is 4 m. (B) Carbonate bed showing an irregular, convex-up, mound-
like morphology (thickness is  1 m; lake margin lithofacies association B). The depression to the left of the car-
bonate mound is filled with mudstone that is covered by a carbonate bed onlapping the mound. (C) Outcrop view of
basic small-scale cycles formed of mudstone (dark) and carbonate (white) beds (Valdelosterreros area; section IV of
Fig. 4). Thickness of the sedimentary cycles measured in the photograph is 1Æ7 m. (D) Close-up view of a carbonate
unit of a small-scale sedimentary cycle from the cyclic mudflat–shallow lake facies (scale at right, about 0Æ8 m). A
variety of carbonate deposits occur interbedded with thin green-greyish mudstone: massive dolomite is present at the
base of the carbonate unit, followed upwards by thin bedded dolomite; the upper part of the carbonate unit is formed
of a densely packed array of rhizoliths capped by nodular dolomite.

mudstone is only rarely identified in the lower


Cyclic mudflat-shallow lake facies (Table 3) unit of the cycles. It either directly overlies a
dolomite bed or grades upwards from green-
Description
greyish siliciclastic mudstone.
This lithofacies is remarkably well exposed in the The reddish-brown mudstone facies comprises
Valdelosterreros area (section IV of Fig. 4), east of massive unfossiliferous siliciclastic mudstone
the village of Orera (Figs 2 and 3). In this location, with a high clay mineral content. Characteristic
which was proposed as a cultural and geological features include abundant drab haloes and mud
heritage site (Calvo et al., 1999a), the studied aggregates (Rust & Nanson, 1989). The green-
stratigraphic succession reaches up to 78 m in greyish mudstone facies is strongly root biotur-
thickness and comprises 35 basic small-scale bated and comprises laminated, unfossiliferous
cycles (Abdul Aziz et al., 2000). The cyclicity is green-greyish siliciclastic mudstone with a vari-
defined by two components: a mudstone unit able clay mineral content. The transition between
formed mainly of massive, usually strongly root- the mudstone and the overlying tabular dolomite
penetrated green-greyish siliciclastic mudstone, beds is commonly marked by rhizoliths that
and a carbonate unit composed of white dolo- penetrate a few centimetres downwards into the
mite beds (Fig. 6C). Reddish-brown siliciclastic mudstone.
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224 H. Abdul Aziz et al.

The tabular dolomite lithofacies consists of an sediment underwent pedogenic alterations dur-
alternation of white dolomite beds and green- ing subaerial exposure, the clay mineral being
greyish siliciclastic mudstone beds together form- typical of arid to semi-arid climate conditions
ing tabular carbonate-dominated units at the top (Calvo et al., 1999b).
of the cycles (Fig. 6D). The dolomite beds are Accumulation of green-greyish siliciclastic
formed of soft, massive, uniform dolomicrite mudstone resulted from episodic flood discharges
commonly composed of quartz and peloid grains leading to rapid decantation of clay particles from
(Fig. 5E) or consist of a nodular internal structure highly concentrated suspension load (Van-
and/or display a laterally densely packed array of dervoort, 1997). The accumulation process is
dolomicritic rhizoliths (Fig. 5F). similar to that for the reddish-brown muds, but
North-east of the Valdelosterreros area, closer to the green-grey colouring suggests that reducing
the basin margin, the cyclic sedimentary succes- conditions prevailed after deposition.
sion is also formed of mudstone–carbonate cycles The textural features shown by the dolomite
(section V of Fig. 4). However, the mudstone beds units (Table 4) indicate that massive dolomicrite
are mainly reddish-brown and show a higher beds represent precipitation of dolomite under
content of silt-sized grains. Intensive root biotur- shallow subaqueous conditions. The features also
bation is also common in this mudstone. Carbon- support the notion that the dolomite is a primary
ate beds, forming the upper part of the sedimentary precipitate (Last, 1990; Warren, 1990; Garcı́a del
cycles, display tabular geometries but are thinner Cura et al., 2001), as precursors of other carbonate
than in the Valdelosterreros section. mineralogies have rarely been recognized. The
formation of dolomite resulted from precipitation
Interpretation after progressive concentration of Mg-enriched
lake waters, a process that was probably driven by
The remarkable lateral continuity (at least 600 m)
increasing evaporation of ponded water in the
of the siliciclastic mudstone and carbonate beds
basin. These hydrochemical conditions could be
over the Valdelosterreros area indicates that
similar to those invoked for the formation of the
deposition took place in a low-gradient, shallow
Coorong dolomites (Von der Borch & Lock, 1979)
lake basin. The upward persistence of the cyclic
and other lacustrine primary dolomites around the
sedimentary pattern shown by these facies sug-
world (Last, 1990). Although no clear petrographic
gests a unique balance between sedimentation
evidence for a bacterial origin of the dolomites
and subsidence over a considerable time interval.
from Orera has been found (Garcı́a del Cura et al.,
The reddish-brown mudstone resulted from
2001), a contribution to their formation from
episodic flood discharge through mud-dominated
microorganism communities cannot be exclu-
channel bodies into the basin, but remained
ded (Vasconcelos & McKenzie, 1997; Wright,
subaerially exposed after deposition. The pres-
1999).
ence of palygorskite strongly suggests that the

Table 4. Oxygen and carbon isotope composition of selected carbonate samples from the Orera–Valdelosterreos
area.

Mineralogy percentage Calcite Dolomite

Sample Facies Calcite Dolomite Clay Min. Q + Feld d18O d13C d18O d13C
TS-00 Carbonate palaeosol 5 79 6 10 )0Æ7 )7Æ4 0Æ6 )7Æ5
(Distal alluvial fan)
TS-01 Carbonate palaeosol 71 14 10 5 )7Æ9 )9Æ2 )3Æ0 )7Æ1
(Distal alluvial fan)
TS-02 Rooted carbonate 31 47 7 15 )4Æ5 )7Æ6 )2Æ2 )5Æ9
(Distal alluvial fan)
TS-03 Carbonate palaeosol 21 49 2 28 )2Æ9 )5Æ8 0Æ8 )3Æ3
(Lake margin A)
TS-04 Carbonate palaeosol 52 24 3 21 )3Æ3 )7Æ0 1Æ4 )4Æ8
(Lake margin A)
TS-05 Rooted carbonate 9 88 3 – )2Æ0 )6Æ3 )2Æ1 )6Æ0
(Lake margin A)
TS-06 Fenestral carbonate 8 89 3 – )2Æ1 )6Æ1 )2Æ3 )5Æ8

Ó 2003 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 50, 211–236


Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a shallow lacustrine system 225
Table 4. Continued.

Mineralogy percentage Calcite Dolomite

Sample Facies Calcite Dolomite Clay Min. Q + Feld d18O d13C d18O d13C
(Lake margin A)
TS-07 Rooted carbonate 7 87 5 1 )2Æ2 )5Æ4 )2Æ3 )5Æ3
(Lake margin A)
SDN-01 Carbonate palaeosol – 75 14 11 )4Æ2 )7Æ3
(Distal alluvial fan)
SDN-02 Carbonate palaeosol 3 68 15 14 )3Æ5 )6Æ6
(Distal alluvial fan)
SDN-03 Sandy carbonate with tepees – 76 3 21 )3Æ2 )6Æ8
(Lake margin A)
SDN-04 Massive carbonate 4 82 7 7 0Æ3 )6Æ9
(Lake margin A)
SDN-05 Massive carbonate – 91 6 3 )1Æ8 )6Æ6
(Lake margin A)
SDN-06 Massive carbonate 2 81 11 6 3Æ0 )7Æ3
(Lake margin A)
SDN-07 Sandy-rooted carbonate – 80 5 15 2Æ5 )5Æ4
(Lake margin A)
SDN-08 Nodular laminated carbonate – 88 5 7 )1Æ5 )4Æ7
(Lake margin A)
SDN-09 Laminated–rooted carbonate – 86 13 1 1Æ8 )6Æ0
(Lake margin A)
ORV-1 Silty carbonate 1 88 10 1 )1Æ3 )5Æ8
(Lake margin B)
ORV-2 Laminated–rooted silty carbonate – 79 9 12 )1Æ0 )3Æ9
(Lake Margin B)
ORV-3 Laminated and rooted carbonate – 84 8 8 0Æ0 )2Æ5
(Lake Margin B)
OR-1Æ1 Brecciated-rooted carbonate – 90 9 2 2Æ8 )2Æ0
(Shallow lake)
OR-1Æ2 Silty-rooted tabular carbonate 3 77 23 – 2Æ9 )2Æ4
(Shallow lake)
OR-22Æ2 Silty massive tabular carbonate – 70 12 18 2Æ5 )2Æ1
(Shallow lake)
OR-35Æ1 Mound-shaped rooted carbonate – 83 16 1 )0Æ6 )4Æ5
(Lake Margin B)
OR-38Æ2 Tabular rooted carbonate – 83 17 – 1Æ8 )4Æ5
(Shallow lake)
OR-21Æ2 Tabular massive carbonate – 77 12 11 2Æ5 )2Æ2
(Shallow lake)
OR-30 Tabular rooted carbonate – 87 9 4 1Æ6 )3Æ5
(Shallow lake)
OR-30A Tabular rooted carbonate – 73 23 – 2Æ2 )3Æ0
(Shallow lake)
OR-33A Tabular rooted carbonate – 91 7 1 1Æ9 )1Æ7
(Shallow lake)

Mineralogy of the samples is based on semi-quantitative analysis of XRD measurements. The sampled levels and
their stratigraphic positions are shown in the lithostratigraphic logs of Fig. 4.

STABLE ISOTOPES lithofacies associations that were distinguished


by sedimentological analysis (Table 4). Detailed
To provide an independent check on the inter- petrography and X-ray diffraction (XRD) meas-
pretation of the different lithofacies associations, urements indicate that dolomite is the main
stable isotope analyses were carried out on 29 carbonate mineral present in most of the samples.
carbonate samples, representative of the various The primary precipitate origin of the dolomites

Ó 2003 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 50, 211–236


226 H. Abdul Aziz et al.

(see discussion above) allows the isotopic signals


to be used for palaeoenvironmental interpreta-
tions (Talbot & Kelts, 1990). In some cases,
especially in carbonate palaeosols, calcite is
present as a major mineral, whereas it is sub-
ordinate to dolomite in some deposits of lake-
margin facies association A (Table 4).
The stable isotope analyses were performed in
the Laboratory of Analytic Geochemistry of the
Faculty of Earth Sciences at Utrecht University
(The Netherlands). All samples were prepared
and analysed in duplicate. The analytical preci-
sion is generally ± 0Æ15& for oxygen and ± 0Æ10&
for carbon. The samples were first washed with
distilled water to eliminate the soluble salts and
then dried. All samples were treated with 100%
H3PO4 at 25 °C. For mixed carbonate samples,
both calcite and dolomite were analysed if the Fig. 7. d18O-d13C cross-plot of carbonate samples from
lesser mineral constituted at least 10% of the total lacustrine and associated alluvial fan facies of the
carbonate; otherwise, only the dominant mineral Miocene from the Orera–Valdelosterreros area. Four
was analysed. The carbon dioxide evolved in the distinct groups with some overlaps are distinguished
first hour was attributed to calcite; the gas based on isotopic composition and facies of the car-
evolved between 24 h and 40 h was attributed bonate deposits (see text for explanation).
to dolomite. The resulting CO2 gas was analysed
on a VG-SIRA 24 mass spectrometer. The results pseudospherulitic fibrous calcite in other Tertiary
are expressed by the conventional d-notation formations (Rossi & Cañaveras, 1999). According
relative to the PDB standard. For the dolomites, to these authors, the depleted oxygen isotopic
the d18O values were corrected by )0Æ8& for the compositions can be considered typical of me-
fractionation effect during phosphoric acid reac- teoric-derived calcites, and the negative d13C
tion (Sharma & Clayton, 1965). Results are shown values may reflect the influence of 12C-enriched
in Table 4. soil-derived meteoric waters. On the other hand,
Isotopic values from dolomite and calcite in the the carbonate-rich palaeosols (dolocretes) hosting
carbonate samples show d18O and d13C values pseudospherulites show more positive d18O val-
ranging from )7Æ9 to 3Æ0& PDB and from )9Æ2 to ues (Table 4), which would reflect evaporative
)1Æ7& PDB respectively. Based on isotopic com- enrichment in d18O, probably under the influence
positions and facies associations, several groups of the adjacent moderately saline lake (Spötl &
of samples can be differentiated (Fig. 7): Wright, 1992; Calvo et al., 1995; Alonso-Zarza
et al., 1998).
Group I
Group II
Samples from this group correspond to carbonate-
rich palaeosols and carbonates deposited in Samples of this group correspond to carbonates
ponds associated with the distal alluvial fan deposited in a lake margin (lake margin lithofa-
terrigenous facies. The carbonate consists of both cies association A), which extended in front of
calcite and dolomite and shows more negative alluvial fan systems. Except for a few palustrine
d13C values for calcite (from )9Æ2& to )7Æ4& PDB) palaeosols where calcite is more prominent, most
than for dolomite (from )7Æ5 to )5Æ9& PDB), of the samples consist exclusively of dolomite.
whereas the oxygen composition is highly vari- The wide range of carbon and oxygen stable
able, ranging from )7Æ9 (calcite) to 0Æ6& PDB isotope compositions of these carbonate deposits
(dolomite). Some samples, showing very negative (Fig. 7) reflects the variable subenvironments of
values for both carbon and oxygen, come from carbonate deposition. Only one sample (TS-03,
carbonate-rich palaeosols in which calcite is Table 4), showing heavier carbon and oxygen
present as extensively developed pseudospheru- isotope values for dolomite, falls outside the
lite mosaics. The isotopic composition of these general trend displayed by the carbonate samples
pseudospherulites is similar to that reported from of this group. Overall, moderately negative d13C
Ó 2003 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 50, 211–236
Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a shallow lacustrine system 227

values of the carbonates suggest incorporation of ratios indicate a minor contribution of biogenic
organic-derived 13C-depleted carbon, which is in CO2 to the total dissolved inorganic carbonate
agreement with the pedogenic features recog- (TDIC) reservoir. In lakes of closed and semi-
nized in these deposits. The relative dispersion closed basin systems with a long residence time,
of d18O values may indicate a mixture between such as in this case, enrichment in d13C values
evaporite brine and meteoric waters (Coniglio may be induced by primary production of organic
et al., 1988). In fact, heavier d18O values are found matter (McKenzie, 1985) or non-equilibrium
in massive nodular dolomite, representative of degassing of 12C to the atmosphere (Talbot &
lake deposits subject to slight episodic desicca- Kelts, 1990) associated with a low water table
tion, whereas other carbonate facies, with more during evaporation. On the other hand, removal
definite palustrine and/or subaerial exposure of CO2 by degassing from the interstitial, d13C-
imprints, e.g. pedogenic features, tepees, fenestral depleted solutions tends to enrich the remaining
fabrics, have lower d18O values, indicative of TDIC in 13C by mass balance effect (Deines et al.,
episodic input of freshwater in the lake margin 1974; Pierre et al., 1984).
environment. Partial overlap of the isotopic val- The positive d18O values shown by the shallow-
ues of carbonate deposits of the lake margin lake carbonates indicate intense evaporitic con-
lithofacies association A with other groups of ditions or prolonged residence time of lake water
samples (Fig. 7) points to a close palaeohydro- (Last, 1990; Anadón & Utrilla, 1993). Evaporative
logical relationship among the different carbonate concentration, leading to saline conditions, is
lithologies. usually recorded by an enrichment of 18O of the
precipitated carbonate phases. The precipitation
of the lacustrine Orera dolomites most likely
Group III
resulted from evaporative concentrated surface
Samples from this group correspond to carbon- and groundwaters and could thus be considered
ates of lake margin lithofacies association B that ‘evaporitic’ dolomites as reported from other
extend laterally from alluvial fan deposits and recent and ancient lake systems (Rosen et al.,
pass into more open lacustrine facies. The car- 1989; Warren, 1990; Anadón & Utrilla, 1993).
bonate deposits consist only of dolomite with Finally, the isotope values support the subaqu-
d13C values ranging from )5Æ8 to )2Æ5& PDB, eous origin of the dolomitic carbonates as
whereas d18O values are confined to a narrow suggested in the depositional model.
range from )1Æ3 to 0Æ0& PDB (Fig. 7; Table 4). The The wide range in the d18O and d13C values of
moderately low d13C values suggest that carbon- the lacustrine system reflects the relatively broad
ate formation was not related to either sulphate variation of palaeoenvironments and processes
reduction or methanogenesis, which would pro- involved in isotopic fractionation. As a whole, the
duce lighter isotopic signatures than those isotopic data from the Orera dolomites show
obtained (Pierre et al., 1984). The relatively wide partial overlap with data obtained for other
range of negative carbon isotope ratios suggests dolomites in the rest of the Calatayud Basin, with
variable contribution of soil-derived CO2, which d18O and d13C values showing narrower ranges of
agrees with the episodic development of plant )5Æ5& to )1& PDB and )4Æ5& to )0Æ2& PDB
cover in lake margin areas. In contrast, the low (Sanz-Rubio, 1999) respectively. However, they
variability of the d18O record (range of 1Æ3&) agree with isotope values determined for dolo-
reflects moderate changes in water temperature, mites in the same study area (Mayayo et al.,
salinity and the hydrological balance (inflow 1996). Covariance of d18O and d13C values is
precipitation) between periods of carbonate particularly remarkable in dolomites from groups
precipitation. III and IV (lake margin B and shallow lake
lithofacies respectively), thus supporting the in-
terpretation that the lake basin evolved under
Group IV
hydrologically closed conditions (Talbot & Kelts,
Samples in this group correspond to carbonate 1990; Li & Ku, 1997). The positive d18O values for
deposited in shallow lake environments. The dolomite plot in the same range (1Æ5–3Æ0&) as
dolomite samples (Table 4) show slightly nega- middle Miocene carbonate deposits in the nearby
tive d13C values (from )4Æ5 to )1Æ7& PDB) and Ebro basin (Arenas et al., 1997). Furthermore, a
more positive d18O values (from 1Æ6 to 2Æ9& PDB) clear tendency for 18O enrichment of the dolo-
defining a separate group of isotopic composi- mites has been determined towards the centre of
tions (Fig. 7). The relatively high carbon isotope the Orera lake basin. This trend differs from the
Ó 2003 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 50, 211–236
228 H. Abdul Aziz et al.

isotopic trend in the Steinmergel–Keuper of remarkable regularity of the cycles, it is suggested


southern Germany, where a progressive d18O that climate change is the driving force behind
depletion is observed from playa margin to playa the lake-level fluctuations and thus the formation
lake (Reinhardt & Ricken, 2000). of the cycles. In the following paragraphs, the
Based on the sedimentary interpretations and sedimentary features in the mudstone–carbonate
the stable isotopes results, a depositional model cycles are discussed by comparing them with past
for the mudstone–carbonate cycles of the cyclic and modern analogues, and a depositional model
mudflat-shallow lake facies is presented. for the cycles is presented (Fig. 8).

Siliciclastic mudstones
DEPOSITIONAL MODEL FOR THE
MUDSTONE–CARBONATE CYCLES Primary structures in the siliciclastic mudstone
deposits are poorly preserved, yet evidence for
In arid to semi-arid climate regions, evaporation bioturbation, including rootlet traces, is abun-
in closed lake basins usually exceeds water dant. The mudstone beds are green-grey or red
inflow through run-off and/or streams and is and reddish-brown in colour and contain rare
therefore highly sensitive to variations in the clay and micrite peloids. These features are
evaporation/precipitation balance (Gierlowski- similar to those described in mudstone-bearing
Kordesch & Kelts, 1994). Low-gradient, shallow cycles from the Late Triassic Norian Mercia
lake basin environments, such as depicted for the Mudstone Group of Somerset in England (Wright
Orera area, are sensitive to minor fluctuations in & Sandler, 1994; Talbot et al., 1994), the Triassic
lake level; even a slight drop in lake level may Steinmergel–Keuper in Germany (Reinhardt &
result in exposure of large areas of the lake margin Ricken, 2000) and the Quaternary interior lake
and possibly the lake floor. The small-scale basins in east-central Australia (Talbot et al.,
mudstone–carbonate cycles in Orera indeed sug- 1994). In the last setting, mudstones are inferred
gest that lake-level fluctuations played an import- to have been deposited on wide, low-gradient,
ant role in their formation. Considering the partially vegetated plains. As observed by Nanson

Fig. 8. Schematic diagram and sedimentological and palaeoclimatic interpretation of a basic small-scale sedimen-
tary cycle of the mudflat–shallow lake facies of the Miocene at Orera. See text for details.

Ó 2003 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 50, 211–236


Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a shallow lacustrine system 229

et al. (1988) and Rust & Nanson (1989), mud During lake level lowstand, lake margin areas
deposition involved the transport of mud aggre- (lithofacies B) also underwent subaerial exposure.
gates by bedload and settling of suspended Red siliciclastic mudstones are found in both the
sediment from ponded floodwaters. cyclic mudflat–shallow lake facies and the lake
The green-greyish and reddish-brown mud- margin facies (Fig. 4), suggesting that mudflats
stones in Orera are interpreted to have been periodically extended their range over the lake
deposited by sheetfloods on low-gradient, vege- margin areas. The distal alluvial fan environ-
tated mudflats during dry climatic conditions ments were dominated by sandflats.
(Fig. 8). The green-grey muds were transported by
episodic floods and deposited on wet (saline)
Dolomitic carbonates
mudflats. The numerous tepees present in the
lake margin (lithofacies B) areas of the Orera The dolomitic carbonates in the cyclic deposits of
study area provide evidence for the influence of Orera show a variety of facies, from massive to
groundwater, a likely source of moisture to nodular and vaguely laminated with local tepee
develop a water-saturated mudflat in which structures. The dolomite beds are laterally con-
reducing conditions accounted for the green-grey tinuous over large distances, thus supporting an
colour of the mudstone. This is in agreement with origin from a standing, shallow-water body.
the hydrogeological model developed by Wright Moreover, the dolomitic carbonates in the cyclic
& Sandler (1994) for the Australian interior basins facies of Orera typically display a uniform
located at approximately the same (opposite) micritic grain texture characteristic of dolomitic
latitudes as the Calatayud Basin during Miocene muds presently formed subaqueously in shallow,
times. This model, which requires a regular brackish to saline lakes of the Coorong region of
Mg-ion supply by evolved groundwaters with south Australia (Von der Borch & Lock, 1979;
high ion concentration and pH during dry Wright, 1999) and other lake basins in the Aus-
seasons, could also explain the high content of tralian interior (De Deckker & Last, 1989; Rosen &
Mg-clays in the Orera mudstones. The green-grey Coshell, 1992). The isotopic composition of the
colour of the mudstone may also be related to Orera dolomites (group IV; Fig. 7) suggests that
poor drainage conditions, often a characteristic the carbonate precipitated from progressively
feature in closed basin systems (Hardie et al., concentrated waters. A subaqueous origin is
1978). supported by other features in the Orera carbon-
The reddish-brown siliciclastic mudstones ates, such as the scarce remains of charophytes
were transported by low-energy floods and and gastropods, indicative of brackish to fresh-
deposited on subaerially exposed dry mudflats water conditions, and infrequent organic-rich
where oxidizing conditions prevailed. Root bio- laminae implying seasonal climate. Hence, the
turbation in these mudstones is not as abundant dolomitic carbonates of Orera are interpreted as
as in the green-grey mudstones, which probably shallow-water deposits, which accumulated in a
results from lack of moisture to support continu- lake that extended over alluvial mudflats during
ous vegetation because of lowering of the ground- relatively humid climate conditions (Fig. 8). This
water table during drought periods. Punctuated assessment is in agreement with the interpreta-
wetter climatic conditions (Fig. 8) may have tions for the mudstone–carbonate cycles from the
raised the groundwater level, favouring hydro- Mercia Mudstone Group of Somerset (Talbot
morphic processes and local colonization et al., 1994) and the Steinmergel–Keuper of
by plants. The upper parts of reddish-brown southern Germany (Reinhardt & Ricken, 2000).
mudstones mostly pass gradationally up into thin The carbonates may indicate a period of stabi-
dark grey-green mudstones before being overlain lized lake environment, during which clastic
by tabular carbonate beds. This gradation may input was reduced probably as the result of an
imply that the original colour of the mudstone increase in floral density that limited erosion. At
was transformed as a result of oxide-reducing the onset of drier climate conditions, lake level
conditions. It is questionable whether all the dropped, and carbonate accumulation ceased,
green-grey mudstone in the Orera study area was leading to periods of subaerial exposure of the
initially reddish-brown in colour because of the top of some carbonate beds. Support for carbonate
gradual transition from reddish-brown to green- deposition occurring during wet periods comes
grey mudstone and the fact that the ‘reduced’ top from the gradational transition from mudstone to
part of the reddish-brown mudstones is often only dolomite, which is commonly marked by intense
a few centimetres thick. rooting and sometimes intercalation of abundant
Ó 2003 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 50, 211–236
230 H. Abdul Aziz et al.

plant debris. A similar transition is recognized


between mudstones and carbonates in the Late
Triassic Norian Mercia Mudstone Group of
Somerset (Talbot et al., 1994).
The bed-to-bed correlation between tabular
carbonate beds of the cyclic shallow-lake facies
and those of the lake margin (Fig. 4) indicates that
lake margin areas were also submerged during
periods of lake highstand. The development of
small isolated ponds and the formation of (exten-
sive) palustrine carbonates in the most distal
areas of the alluvial fan probably also relate to the
influence of an expanding lake and/or the asso-
ciated rise in groundwater level.

Sedimentation rates
Glenn & Kelts (1991) emphasized the fact that Fig. 9. Diagram showing changes in sedimentation
sedimentation rates within different lake facies in rates for the Orera composite section (OCS) through
closed lake basins may vary considerably and that time. Thick black line denotes the average sedimenta-
care must be taken in evaluating the thickness of tion rate, which is 7Æ4 cm kyr)1. Sedimentation rates
are determined from plotting the stratigraphic thick-
different lithofacies sequences with respect to
ness of the OCS record vs. the calibrated geomagnetic
time. The cyclic shallow-lake carbonates in the polarity time scale (GPTS) ages of Cande & Kent (1995)
Orera composite section (OCS) locally display (after Abdul Aziz et al., 2000). In the polarity columns,
features of subaerial exposure, suggesting that black denotes normal polarity and white reversed
some time may not be recorded in the upper parts polarity.
of these carbonates. However, the lateral con-
tinuity and relatively constant thickness of the
carbonate beds in combination with the absence balance between sediment supply and accommo-
of clear pedogenic profiles exclude very long dation space.
periods of exposure and major hiatuses in the
succession. More likely, only minor hiatuses are
present locally, which represent just a small part PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL
of the time covered by the individual basic RECONSTRUCTION
mudstone–carbonate cycles. Apart from possible
minor hiatuses, only average accumulation rates The sedimentary cycles present in Orera are
can be calculated for each mudstone–carbonate interpreted as shallow lake and mudflat deposits
cycle in the OCS, whereas the accumulation rates that grade laterally into lake margin facies (lake
for different lithologies within a cycle (i.e. mud- margin lithofacies association B) and further into
stone or carbonate) cannot be determined. alluvial fan deposits. The latter deposits are
Sedimentation rates in the OCS succession can related to the Orera alluvial fan system, the apex
be determined using the calibration of the OCS of which encroaches upon the northern margin of
magnetostratigraphy with the geomagnetic polar- the Calatayud Basin (Figs 1 and 10). A similar
ity time scale (GPTS) of Cande & Kent (1995) stratigraphic and geometrical relationship is
(Abdul Aziz et al., 2000). This calibration indi- observed between the lower part of the cyclically
cated that the succession was deposited in  2Æ1 bedded succession and the alluvial deposits of
million years (Abdul Aziz et al., 2000); hence, the the Miedes Fan, which extends south-east of the
average sedimentation rate for the entire compos- area. The Miedes Fan is a NE–SW-trending major
ite section remains fairly constant at 7Æ4 cm kyr)1 feature, the fan head of which is located near
(Fig. 9). Despite minor uncertainties in the sedi- Codos (Fig. 1). Like the Orera Fan, most distal
mentation rate, because of the local presence of alluvial fan lithofacies interfinger with lake mar-
small hiatuses, the fairly constant sedimentation gin lithofacies (lake margin lithofacies association
rate, the shallow character of the depositional A) forming a continuous belt in front of the
environment and the extraordinary regularity of alluvial fans. In this picture (Fig. 10), the cyclic
the sedimentary cyclicity point to a remarkable shallow lake deposits occupy a position in
Ó 2003 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 50, 211–236
Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a shallow lacustrine system 231

Fig. 10. Schematic block diagram showing the palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the Orera area during the
Middle Miocene. The cyclic sedimentary succession of Valdelosterreros (section IV in Fig. 4) accumulated in a shallow
lake basin that developed in a ‘shadow zone’ between the two major alluvial fans of Orera and Miedes. The northern
part of the lake basin is considered as a preferential pathway (arrows) for supply of most sediment into the lake.

between the Orera and Miedes fans. This area can (Kiefer et al., 1997). Examples from the ancient
be considered an interfan or ‘shadow zone’ sedimentary record have been documented by
(Hooke, 1967; Alonso-Zarza et al., 1993), lateral McGowen & Groat (1971) from the Van Horn
to the influence of alluvial sedimentation from Sandstone, West Texas, and by Seni (1980) from
the two main fans, resulting in a depressed area in the Neogene Ogalalla formation in Texas.
which a small lake basin developed. This palaeo- The development of the small lake basin was
environmental and palaeogeographic reconstruc- most likely constrained by aggradation of the
tion is supported by the fact that the lake deposits Orera and Miedes alluvial fan systems, which
extend laterally towards the north, where small extended from the north-eastern margin into the
coalesced alluvial cones fringe the (local) basin Calatayud Basin. The NW–SE-trending normal
margin. A recent analogue for this particular type faults, which delineate the basin margin, inevit-
of interfan lake basin is Lake Manly in Death ably influenced the position and setting of
Valley, California (Blair, 1999). Similar small lake these alluvial fans (cf. Bull, 1977; Harvey, 1987).
basins located in interfan positions are found In the study area, no direct evidence was
within the Sillwater fans system in Nevada found for structural elements that could have
(Harvey et al., 1999) and are associated with the controlled subsidence of the area of the small
Arcas fan in the Andean forearc of northern Chile lake basin in Orera. However, the presence of a
Ó 2003 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 50, 211–236
232 H. Abdul Aziz et al.

NNE–SSW-oriented fault in the river valley west tions in carbonates that accumulated in the front
of the village of Orera (Fig. 3) cannot be excluded. of alluvial fans is in agreement with the variety of
This potential fault may be linked to a fault in the depositional subenvironments in such a deposi-
Palaeozoic basement north of Orera (Instituto tional setting. Except for the irregular upper
Geológico Minero de España, 1983). Nevertheless, surfaces (mounds) observed locally in carbonate
biostratigraphic data from a locality in lake beds of lake margin lithofacies B (see Fig. 6B), car-
margin lithofacies A (Canudo & Cuenca, 1989) bonate beds typically exhibit a tabular geometry
show that this fault alone could not have that can be followed for hundreds of metres.
accounted for the development of the small lake Finally, the progressive decrease in subaerial
basin. The micromammal fossils indicate an exposure features (i.e. palustrine imprint of Frey-
upper Aragonian to Vallesian age (Peláez-Campo- tet & Plaziat, 1982) observed in carbonate beds
manes et al., 2000), which coincides with from marginal to more central lake settings is
approximately the middle part of section IV typical of low-gradient, ramp-type lake margin
(Fig. 4). Furthermore, the sedimentary cyclicity environments (Platt & Wright, 1991).
observed in lake margin successions exposed on
both sides of the river valley is similar and
resembles the cyclicity of the shallow lake facies. CONCLUSIONS
Unambiguous bed-to-bed correlation between the
cycles of lake margin lithofacies B (section III) 1 The middle Miocene sediments in the Orera
and shallow lake lithofacies (sections IV and V) study area are divided into four lithofacies
(Fig. 4) suggests that alluvial fan aggradation most associations: proximal and medial alluvial fan
likely provided the accommodation space neces- facies, distal alluvial fan facies, lake margin
sary for the deposition of the shallow lake facies with two distinct lithofacies associations
lithofacies. and cyclic shallow lake facies. The cyclicity in
Geometrical relationships between the different the last facies is defined by an alternation of
lithofacies indicate that deposition took place in a red/reddish-brown and/or green-grey mudstone
low-gradient, shallow lake basin where the sup- and white carbonate (dolomite). Isotopic com-
ply of siliciclastic sediment was mainly derived positions of the carbonates present in the several
from the area north of the basin (Fig. 10). This facies associations range from )7Æ9 to 3& PDB
direction of supply is supported by a west–east for d18O and from )9Æ2 to )1Æ7& PDB for d13C.
increase in thickness of the green-grey siliciclas- The more negative isotopic values come from
tic mudstone units from lake margin lithofacies B palaeosols in the distal alluvial fan facies and
towards the small lake basin. Because the depos- from lake margin carbonate beds, whereas more
its of the marginal lithofacies B are located east of positive isotope values are recorded in dolomite
and lateral to the Orera Fan, this fan can be beds from the cyclic shallow lake facies,
excluded as a major source of sediment (Fig. 10). reflecting lateral facies changes from marginal
The Miedes Fan can also be excluded because the to more central lake areas.
fan axis is relatively distant from the shallow lake 2 The mudstone–carbonate cycles are the
basin and extends in a south-west direction far result of lake-level variations caused by periodic
into the Calatayud Basin, thereby bypassing the changes in climate. To establish the link between
small lake area. In contrast, from north to south, a the siliciclastic mudstone and carbonate beds on
gradual decrease in thickness of siliciclastic the one hand and climate on the other, a deposi-
mudstone and siltstone units together with a tional model is presented for the mudstone–car-
gradual transition from reddish-brown silty mud- bonate cycles of the shallow lake facies. This
stone beds to green-greyish mudstone is observed, model implies that siliciclastic mudstone accu-
the colour change reflecting a zonation of subaer- mulated on vegetated mudflats during relatively
ially exposed marginal and mudflat–lacustrine dry climatic conditions. Low-energy floods
environments. The carbonate units show, in both transported the mud from adjacent alluvial fans to
west–east and north–south directions, a very the surrounding, vegetated mudflats. The red-
gradual change in thickness and facies types. dish-brown mudstones indicate that deposition
Moreover, the isotopic compositions of the car- occurred on dry mudflats, whereas the green-grey
bonates vary according to the arrangement and mudstones were deposited on wet mudflats. The
spatial distribution of facies, showing both 18O change towards relatively wetter conditions
and 13C enrichment basinwards (Fig. 7). The wide resulted in the development of a shallow lake on
spread of oxygen and carbon isotope composi- the former mudflats.
Ó 2003 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 50, 211–236
Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of a shallow lacustrine system 233

3 Accumulation of the cyclic succession took Anglo-Welsh area, southern Britain. In: Paleosols. Their
place in a low-gradient ramp-type basin, which Recognition and Interpretation (Ed. V.P. Wright), pp. 58–86.
Blackwell Science Publishers, Oxford.
developed in an interfan zone between two major Alonso-Zarza, A.M. and Calvo. J.P. (2000) Palustrine sedi-
alluvial fans. The continuous sedimentation mentation in an episodically subsiding basin: the Miocene
throughout most of the succession, inferred from of the northern Teruel graben. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.
sedimentological features and high-resolution Palaeoecol., 160, 1–21.
magnetostratigraphy, and the shallow lacustrine Alonso-Zarza, A.M., Calvo, J.P. and Garcı́a del Cura, M.A.
(1992) Palustrine sedimentation and associated features –
setting indicate that a particular balance between grainification and pseudo-microkarst – in the Middle Mio-
sedimentation and subsidence rates was main- cene (Intermediate Unit) of the Madrid Basin, Spain. Sed.
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accommodation space. (1993) Palaeogeomorphological controls on the distribution
and sedimentary styles of alluvial systems, Neogene of the
4 It is suggested that the distribution of the NE of the Madrid Basin (central Spain). In: Alluvial Sedi-
various lithofacies in the study area is linked to mentation (Eds M. Marzo and C. Puigdefábregas), Spec.
fluctuating lake levels controlled by periodic Publ. Int. Assoc. Sedimentol., 17, 277–292.
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and bed-to-bed correlations between the sedi- (1998) Calcified root cells in Miocene pedogenic carbonates
of the Madrid Basin: evidence for the origin of Microcodium
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Anadón, P. and Utrilla, R. (1993) Sedimentology and isotope
geochemistry of lacustrine carbonates of the Oligocene Cam-
We acknowledge M. Pozo for his assistance in pins Basin, northeast Spain. Sedimentology, 40, 699–720.
evaluating clay mineral results. Ana M. Alonso Arenas, C., Casanova, J. and Pardo, G. (1997) Stable-isotope
Zarza is thanked for help in fieldwork and further characterization of the Miocene lacustrine systems of Los
Monegros (Ebro Basin, Spain): palaeogeographic and
comments on the interpretation of the lacustrine palaeoclimatic implications. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.
sediments. J. E. Meulenkamp, P. L. de Boer and Palaeoecol., 128, 133–155.
A. Arche are thanked for their comments on the Assereto, R.L.A.M. and Kendall, C.G.St C. (1977) Nature,
manuscript. We are also very grateful to Elizabeth origin and classification of peritidal tepee structures and
Gierlowsky-Kordesch, Chris Fielding and an related breccias. Sedimentology, 24, 153–210.
Astin, T.R. (1990) The Devonian lacustrine sediments of
anonymous reviewer for their thorough reviews Orkney, Scotland: implications for climate cyclicity, basin
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Luis Luque and Sander Ernst in sampling is greatly 141–151.
appreciated. This research has been supported by Blair, T.C. (1999) Sedimentology of the debris-flow-dominated
Spanish projects PB97-0244, PB98-0503 and PB98- Warm Spring Canyon alluvial fan, Death Valley, California.
Sedimentology, 46, 941–965.
0691-CO3-03 financed by DGESIT, and by the Blair, T.C. and McPherson, J.G. (1994) Alluvial fans and their
Earth and Life Sciences Foundation (ALW) with natural distinction from rivers based on morphology,
financial aid from the Netherlands Organisation for hydraulic processes, sedimentary processes, and facies
Scientific Research (NWO). assemblages. J. Sed. Res., 64, 450–489.
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