Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343 – 366

www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Lithofacies and palaeosol analysis of the Middle and Upper Siwalik

Groups (Plio–Pleistocene), Haripur-Kolar section,
Himachal Pradesh, India
J.V. Thomas a,*, B. Parkash a, R. Mohindra b
a
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Roorkee, Roorkee, U.P., India
b
R.M. Software India Pvt. Ltd., A-7, Sector-16, Noida-201 301, India
Received 8 February 2001; accepted 10 September 2001

Abstract

The Middle – Upper Siwalik Groups (Plio – Pleistocene) are exposed at Haripur-Kolar, Himachal Pradesh, India. The
succession is 2800-m thick and has been subdivided into Unit M1 of the Middle Siwalik and four units U1 – U4 of the Upper
Siwalik Group, on the basis of facies associations, and type and degree of development of palaeosols. The available
magnetostratigraphic ages for bases of Units U1, U3 and U4 are 5.5, 2.6 and 1.77 Ma, respectively. The top of the section has
been dated as 19 ka. Lithofacies association and palaeocurrent analysis indicates that the Middle and Upper Siwalik Groups
were formed mainly by a basin transverse fluvial system. Two types of river systems, which differ in their size, can be
documented in Unit-M1, Unit U1 and Unit-U2: one trunk river system similar to the modern Kosi and the other smaller river
system, which formed tributaries to the former. The large rivers were mainly braided in nature. The Unit U3 and lower part of
Unit U4 were deposited in the piedmont depositional system mainly by small braided streams and the upper part of the Unit U4
was deposited during a period of arid climate by sediment gravity-flows. Integration of fluvial lithofacies and pedofacies helps
to identify two fluvial depositional systems from the modern Indo-Gangetic Plains. The Lowland System involved deposition
on alluvial megafans and interfan areas, which resulted in sand-rich and mud-rich sequences with weekly developed soils. The
Upland System allowed large tracts to act as high ground for thousands of years, thereby giving rise to sandstone poor intervals
with moderately to strongly developed soils. Occurrence of moderately to strongly developed soils was controlled by uplifting
and tilting of large tectonic blocks, without any relation to distance from the main channels. Rate of subsidence apparently
controlled the occurrence of Lowland and Upland systems. Deposition of the Unit M1, Unit U1 and Unit U2 took place under
Upland and Lowland systems, very similar to those identified from the modern Indo-Gangetic Plains. The warm and humid
climate between 5.3 and 2.6 Ma led to the formation of red Alfisols with calcrete nodules at places. Slightly cooler and drier
climate starting at about 2.6 Ma and approximately coinciding with the onset of global-scale glaciation, produced poorly
developed yellow soil with common development of nodular calcretic horizon and calcitc material disseminated in the
groundmass. At ca. 0.9 Ma, a probable significant change to still drier and cooler climate produced typical sediment gravity-
flows in the piedmont system, that continued until at least up to 19 ka. D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Upper Siwalik Group; Fluvial depositional systems; India; Tectonic control on sedimentation

*
Corresponding author. Present address: NNRMS, India Space Research Organisation Headquarters, Antariksh Bhawan, New Bel Road,
Bangalore, India.
E-mail addresses: jv thomas@mantraonline.com (J.V. Thomas), bparkfes@rurkiu.ernet.in (B. Parkash), rakeshm@riskinc.com
(R. Mohindra).

0037-0738/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 3 7 - 0 7 3 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 2 0 3 - 2
344 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366

1. Introduction 1992; Srivastava et al., 1994; Kumar et al., 1996; Singh

The Indo-Gangetic Foreland Basin formed at about
60 Ma (Patriat and Achache, 1984; Besse and Cour-
tillot, 1988; Klootwijk et al., 1992; Beck et al., 1995),
and since about 20 Ma, fluvial sedimentation has been
a dominant process. The modern sedimentation pro-
cesses and the present geographic setting of the basin
are essentially a continuation of these processes and
set-up, with minor modifications (Parkash et al., 1980).
Recent literature on the surficial (mainly Holocene)
soils and sedimentation processes in the Indo-Gangetic
Plains has now become available (Mohindra et al.,
et al., 1998). These soils and sedimentation processes
provide excellent analogues for understanding sedi-
mentation in this basin since about 20 Ma.
This study describes upsection changes in a thick
stratigraphic record (2800 m) from a part of the
Middle Siwalik and the Upper Sitwalik Groups (Plio–
Pleistocene) of the Indo-Gangetic Basin exposed in
the Haripur-Kolar section (Fig. 1). These changes
include variations in channel-belt/overbank deposit
ratios, thickness and mean size of lithofacies units,
lithofacies associations, and number and degree of
development of palaeosols. These features have been

Fig. 1. Geological location map of study area. Units of the Siwalik Group are defined in Fig. 2.
 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366 345

used to subdivide the section into stratigraphic units. been used to interpret changes in depositional pro-
These observations along with those on the Halocene cesses and systems, as well as the effects of tectonics
soils and sedimentation processes in the basin have and palaeoclimate on fluvial sedimentation and pa-

Fig. 2. Log for part of Haripur-Kolar section showing lithology, palaeocurrent directions and inferred depositional setting. Vertical up points
north for palaeocurrents. Solid and hollow arrows indicate palaeocurrent directions obtained from cross-bed foreset dips and pebble/cobble
fabric, respectively. Mudstones include overbank deposits, mudflow deposits and palaeosols.

Table 1
Description and interpretation of facies associations
Facies association Description
Sandstone facies association It includes planar to low-angle cross-bedded
conglomerate and sandstone, and trough
and planar cross-bedded sandstone.
Up to 20-m thick fining-upward sequences
common. Typically sandstones friable,
due to poor cementation, and locally
contain calcite-cemented hard nodules of
up to 70-cm diameter. Rarely weakly developed
palaeosols present in upper part. Two fairly
distinct classes of sequences recognised with
thickness of 4 – 20 and 0.8 – 4 m. Thicker sequences
commonly multistoreyed and probably have
sheet geometry, because they can be
traced on airphotos for > 10 km.
Mudstone – sandstone The association composed of 0.5- to 3.2-m thick,
facies association thinly bedded siltstone, shale and minor fine
sandstone. It generally occurs at the top of
thick channel sandstones. Siltstones lenticular in
shape and cross-laminated. Pedofacies I and II
palaeosols occur at different levels. Thin sandstone
deposits, with uniform grain size or coarsening-upward
nature incised into well-bedded siltstones and mudstones.
Their three-dimensional geometry not determined
because of limited exposures.
Laminated mudstone Composed of mainly siltstone and claystone,
facies association and minor fine sandstone, and on the whole,
finer-grained than the mudstones – sandstone facies
association; 30 cm – 4 m thick. Mudstones moderately
to strongly calcareous. Locally pedofacies I – III
palaeosols present.
346
Interpretation
J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366
Thick and thin sandstone facies
sequences considered channel
belt deposits of large and small
rivers, respectively, similar to
those in the modern Gangetic Plains.
Thick sandstone sequences were
probably deposited by rivers with
braided nature.
Siltstone and claystone facies with
minor thin sandstone facies, together
with the presence of poorly developed
palaeosols and common association with
underlying channel deposits, suggest
their deposition probably on natural levees
(Tyler and Ethridge, 1983; Fielding, 1984).
Thin sandstone facies may represent crevasse
splay deposits. The interpretation of the
deposition on natural levee is tentative in the
absence of three-dimensional geometry
(Brierley et al., 1997).
Laminated mudstone facies are interpreted
as sediments deposited on a floodplain,
mainly by slow-moving floodwaters within the
floodbasin or by stagnant waters in small lakes.
Palaeosol facies association
Organised conglomerate and
sandstone facies association
Disorganised (clast-supported)
and organised conglomerate association
Disorganised, matrix-supported
conglomerate association
Sandy mudstone facies association
Palaeosols occur rarely as isolated facies,
but commonly as members of a palaeosol facies
association, which is generally 2 – 40-m thick and
consists of 2 to 11 weakly to strongly developed
palaeosols with/without interbedded thin,
single-storied channel/floodplain deposits
(Fig. 4a). Such associations may represent a cumulative
hiatus of up to 30,000 years, calculated on the
basis of ages of comparable pedofacies recognised
among surficial soils of the modern Gangetic Plains
(Mohindra et al., 1992; Srivastava et al., 1994;
Kumar et al., 1996).
Similar to the thin sandstone facies association,
except that conglomerates form more than 30%
of this association. Fining-upward sequences common
and typically consisting of amalgamated beds
(thickness — av. 2.77 m, max. 24 m) of moderately sorted,
well-organised, pebble conglomerate,
passing upward into sandstones. Matrix usually highly
calcareous coarse sand.
The lower part commonly comprises 3 – 4-m thick
beds of poorly sorted, disorganised, clast-supported,
boulder – cobble conglomerate facies. Matrix composed
of sand to mud. This facies is generally overlain by
relatively finer, well-organised, stratified conglomerate
facies at places with a transitional or abrupt contact.
Two to three such beds amalgamated, with a maximum
thickness of 24 m.
Consists of disorganised, 4 – 5-m thick, poorly sorted,
massive, matrix-supported pebble conglomerate.
Clast size 0.5 – 15-cm diameter. Matrix consists of red mud.
Development of pedofacies I seen.
Composed of massive sandy, red mudstones, with medium
to coarse sand particles suspended in clayey matrix (Fig. 4b).
Crude bedding observed. Typically individual beds 80 – 150-cm
thick and amalgamated into up to 18-m thick associations.
Poorly to moderately developed soils equivalent
to pedofacies I – III observed within active floodplains
of modern rivers (Mohindra et al., 1992; Sinha
and Friend, 1994) and a similar origin envisaged
for isolated palaeosols. Thick palaeosol associations
with moderately to strongly developed palaeosols
(pedofacies III – VI) probably developed on uplands
(Srivastava et al., 1994; Kumar et al., 1996).
Intermittent deposition from small streams draining
uplands (Fig. 3, Srivastava et al., 1994), or in
ephemeral ponds, followed by pedogenesis,
might have contributed to their multiple nature.
The characteristics of the association resemble
J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366
the deposits of modern gravelly braided streams
(e.g., Smith, 1974; Rust, 1978; DeCelles et al., 1991).
The upward-fining trends within individual
associations resulted from waning flow
following floods. The upper sandstone units are
considered to have been deposited on the top portion
of mid-channel bars during waning stages of floods.
During deposition a dense dispersion of pebbles,
cobbles and boulders was probably carried along
by a composite fluid phase consisting of sand,
mud and water, and particle-to-particle interaction
was a significant process as in ‘granular debris
flows’ (Coussot and Meunier, 1996). Later flow
of clear water reworked the top portion of
earlier deposits and formed the well-organised
conglomerate facies.
Massive, matrix-supported, poorly sorted gravels
characteristics of pseudo-plastic debris flows
(Johnson, 1970; Miall, 1978; Schultz, 1984;
DeCelles et al., 1991) or muddy debris flow
(Coussot and Meunier (1996)).
The lack of physical sedimentary structures and
muddy matrix suggest deposition by clast-poor-debris
flows or mudflows (Coussot and Meunier, 1996).
347
348 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366
laeosol development through the Plio – Pleistocene
period.
2. Stratigraphic units
Medlicott (1879) proposed a threefold classifica-
tion of the Sitwalik Supergroup into Lower, Middle
and Upper Siwalik rocks. Pilgrim (1910, 1913, 1934)
subdivided the Lower Siwalik into Kamlial and
Chinji, Middle Siwalik into Nagri and Dhokpathan
and Upper Siwalik into Tatrot, Pinjor and Boulder
Conglomerate Formations, based on vertebrate fossils.
The Siwalik Supergroup was considered to be of
Middle Miocene to Pleistocene age. In the Haripur-
Kolar section investigated in the present case, mainly
Upper Siwalik Group rocks correlative with the
Tatrot, Pinjore and Boulder Conglomerate and a small
part of Middle Siwalik Group correlative with the
Dhokpathan Formation, are exposed.
In this study, only the exposed, upper 270 m of the
Middle Siwalik was examined and the base of the
Middle Siwalik is taken at 0-m stratigraphic level
(Fig. 2). The Upper Siwalik is divided into four units
U1 –U4, with their tops at the 870-, 1705-, 2288- and
2805-m levels, respectively. Unit U4 is further divided
into two subunits U4a and U4b with boundary defined
at the 2548-m level. Units U1 and U2 are part of the
Tatrot Formation, whereas, Units U3 and U4 corre-
spond to the Pinjore and Boulder Conglomerate For-
mations, respectively. Magnetostratigraphic dating of
the section by Sangode et al. (1996) and Kumar et al.
(1999) has determined ages of the bases of units U1,
U3 and U4 at 5.5, 2.6 and 1.77, respectively. The top
of the section has been dated by one of the authors
(J.V. Thomas) as 19 ka by the Optically Stimulated
Luminescence method at the Physical Research Lab-
oratory at Ahmedabad, India. Assuming uniform rates
of deposition for compacted sediments, between the
dated boundaries, bases of Unit U2 and Upper part of
U4b are assigned tentative ages of 4.3 and 0.9 Ma,
respectively.
3. Facies associations
Eight lithofacies associations, i.e., sandstone fa-
cies, mudstone – sandstone facies, laminated mudstone
facies, palaeosol facies, organised conglomerate and
sandstone facies, disorganised (clast-supported) and
organised conglomerate facies, disorganised matrix-
supported conglomerate facies and sandy mudstone
facies associations have been recognised from the
Siwalik Groups of the study area. Major character-
istics of various facies associations and their environ-
ment/mode of deposition are given in Table 1.
The two classes of sandstone facies sequences
observed in the Siwaliks of the present areas: thick
(4 –20 m) and thin (0.8 – 4 m) (Table 1), were reported
previously from the Siwalik Supergroup in Pakistan
and were interpreted to be channel-belt deposits by
Willis (1993a,b), Willis and Behrensmeyer (1995),
Khan et al. (1997) and Zaleha (1997a) in the Potwar
Plateau. They reconstructed the palaeohydrology and
flow patterns of these two types of sequences by
detailed investigation of some unique flow-transverse
sections extending over tens of kilometers. They found
that the lateral extents of the thick and thin sandstone
bodies corresponded to dimensions of modern sand
bodies deposited by large and small rivers of the
modern Indo-Gangetic Plains and large steams were
braided in nature. Because lateral exposures of the
formations in our study area are limited, such palae-
ohydrologic and flow pattern reconstructions are not
possible. However, by analogy, thin sandstone facies
sequences are considered to have been deposited as
channel belt deposits of large and small rivers, respec-
tively, similar to those from the modern Indo-Gangetic
Plains. The complex vertical stacking of storeys of
thick sandstone sequences (4 – 20 m) suggests that
during their deposition, frequent channel switching
or low depositional rate prevailed. The common
occurrence of amalgamated channel sandstone bodies,
with sheet-like geometry and low variability in palae-
ocurrent directions (described later), within the thick
sandstone associations, indicate that the deposition of
these associations in the Siwalik Group was accom-
plished probably by large braided river systems.
4. Palaeosol facies
Because the palaeosol facies is an integral part of
the different lithofacies associations and crucial to
understanding their environment of deposition, it is
described in detail. The palaeosols were logged in the
 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366
field and features such as soil colour, structure, texture,
mottles, nodules, coatings, carbonate content, horizon
boundaries, root channels, and biotubes were des-
cribed following the terms described by Soil Survey
Staff (1966) and Retallack (1988). In addition to
master soil horizons (A, B and C) and sub-horizons
such as the darker and more developed B-horizon,
argillic (illuvial clay enriched) horizon (t), calcareous
(k) and gleyed (g) horizons were also identified. Both
disturbed samples for chemical and clay analysis and
undisturbed samples for thin-section preparation were
collected in the field. Two typical stratigraphic logs
from Unit U1 showing major characteristic features of
palaeosols are shown in Fig. 3.
Reddish, reddish-brown, greyish and greenish col-
our horizonation and mottling are the most common
features in the Siwalik palaeosols. Calcium carbonate
is present in fine disseminated form, both as carbonate
(micrite) nodules and as cemented petrocalcic horizon.
Fe –Mn nodules are also fairly abundant. Micromor-
phological studies confirm these field observations and
show a common close association of calcrete coatings
and Fe-nodules and the presence of compound nodules
consisting of microsapr and hematite in these palae-
osols. The manganoferrous segregations are also com-
mon.
Rhizoliths and rhizoconcretions are common. Fecal
pellets are also associated with some of the palaeosols,
even with those containing calcium carbonate nod-
ules. Soil structure is extensive in B-horizons (Fig.
4c), but less common in C-horizons and is absent in
unaltered parent material/sediment. Pedogenically
altered sediments thus display a textural pattern sug-
gestive of a soil profile.
Most of the Siwalik palaeosols in the study area
except those from the Unit U4, show one or two sets
of slickensides with random orientation, as in vertic
soils (i.e., Vertisols). But no evidence of vertical
cracks produced by swelling and shrinking of clay
minerals on wetting and drying, characteristic of
Vertisols, were observed. Out of 11 palaeosis showing
slickensides, only three palaeosis contained consider-
able smectite (15% – 29%), as determined by X-ray
diffraction technique. Thus, the absence of significant
correlation between the occurrence of smectite and
slickensides and the absence of slickensides in the
youngest stratigraphic unit suggest that this feature
may be post-burial in nature.
349
Detailed characterisation of the Siwalik palaeosols
is used to establish their relative development, where
development of a particular kind of soil is defined as
the relative length of time required to form the soil,
assuming that all other soil-forming factors (e.g.
parent material, palaeo-slope, moisture, vegetation/
organism) remain approximately constant. Based on
the variations in morphological characteristics (lith-
ology, colour, soil horizon thickness, soil structure,
calcification) and micromorphological characteristics
(coatings, b-fabric and nodules) in palaeosols, six
pedofacies, I – VI, are defined (sensu Bown and
Kraus, 1987) (Table 2). Soils showing the least
development are classified as Pedofacies I, whereas
the most developed soils are defined as Pedofacies
VI. In addition, three subtypes of palaeosols: red,
noncalcareous moderately to strongly developed
palaeosols with Bt and with or without Bk horizons,
calcareous palaeosols and low-chroma palaeosols are
identified.
4.1. Noncalcerous palaeosols
Noncalcareous palaeosols are present in all of the
above described six pedofacies. In pedofacies III
and IV of all of the palaeosols studied, 50% are of
this type. When Bk horizon is present in pedofacies
IV and V, they show stages I and II –III morphol-
ogy of calcrete development (Machette, 1985), res-
pectively. In pedofacies III and IV of all of the
palaeosols studied, 50% are of this subtype. At pla-
ces, mottles are present in the lower horizons. Red
colour of these palaeosols indicates their formation
under well drained, oxidising conditions. Due to a
high degree of pedogenesis and prolonged leaching,
any calcium carbonate present in the parent mate-
rial (if at all present) must have been leached
away.
4.2. Calcareous palaeosols
Calcareous palaeosols are calcareous throughout
the profile. The majority of pedofacies I (62%) and
pedofacies II (56%) palaeosols belong to this subtype.
The absence of calcareous content in pedofacies III –
VI is probably due to leaching of calcium carbonate
from higher to lower horizons or their development
from carbonate-free parent materials.
350 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366

Fig. 3. Typical stratigraphic sections (330 – 402 and 472 – 502 m) with palaeosols and sandstones from Units U1. Pedofacies, colour and hue
(after Munsell colour chart) and carbonate content (after Retallack, 1988) for different palaeosols are indicated.
J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366 351

4.3. Low-chroma palaeosols

Low-chroma palaeosols were identified in the field

by the presence of low-chroma (chroma V 2) colour
and the presence of Fe –Mn nodules, indicating gley-
ing. Commonly gleying is limited to the upper hori-
zon (A, AB) of moderately to strongly developed
palaeosols (pedofacies IV and V). The lower horizons
exhibit soil features similar to noncalcareous palae-
osols and sparse calcareous nodules as well. In the
case of pedofacies I –III, gleying is present throughout
the profile.
Red noncalcareous and calcareous palaeosols were
formed on topographically high regions with good
drainage and low regions with poor drainage, respec-
tively, as envisaged for similar palaeosols observed
from Miocene Siwalik Formation by Zaleha (1997c).
As suggested above, calcareous palaeosols had calca-
reous parent material. Noncalcareous palaeosols with
mottles in the lower horizons developed in regions
with temporary seasonal shallow water table (Birke-
land, 1999, pp. 34 – 136). Low-chroma palaeosols
with gleying throughout the profile developed under
reducing, saturated conditions (Birkeland, 1999, pp.
134– 136) in regions surrounding lakes/ponds. Gley-
ing in the upper horizons in moderately to strongly
developed palaeosols (pedofacies IV and V) was due
to poor to imperfect drainage caused by formation of
an impermeable, well-developed Bt horizon, rich in
clay. Such drainage conditions caused ponding and
sometimes near-surface waterlogging for long periods
during rainy seasons.

4.4. Classification of pedofacies and duration of their

formation

Using modern soils as analogues and the soil

classification of US Department of Agriculture (Soil
Survey Staff, 1992), the different pedofacies can be
broadly classified. Pedofacies I and II are weakly

Fig. 4. (a) A palaeosol facies association in the middle part of Unit

U2. I, II,. . . and V refer to pedofacies I, II,. . . and V, respectively.
The base of the oldest palaeosol corresponds to 1598-m level. (b)
Micrograph of sand-sized grains embedded in a muddy matrix in a
sandy mudstone in the upper part of Unit U4. The base of the bed is
at 2745-m level. (c) A palaeosol showing coarse (4 – 10 cm)
subangular blocky peds in Unit U2. The base of the bed is at 1658-m
level.
 352
Table 2
Soil morphological and micromorphological features of the various pedofacies
Features Pedofacies I Pedofacies II Pedofacies III Pedofacies IV Pedofacies V Pedofacies VI

J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366

Horizonation C A–C A–B–C A – BA – Bt – C A – BA – Bt – BC – C A – AB/BA – B – BC/CB – C
Thickness of B horizon – – 30 – 50 cm 70 – 90 cm 120 – 150 cm 150 – 180 cm
Structure weakly developed massive coarse subangular subangular blocky subangular blocky subangular blocky structure
subangular blocky blocky structure structure or massive or massive
structure
Micro-structure – granular, pellicular grain, platy structure pellicular crack structure vughy structure
bridge grain structure grain structure
Voids – channels, vughs channels, vughs, vughs, vesicles, channels channels, vughs
vesicles chambers
Coarse/fine – porphyric porphyric porphyric porphyric porphyric
related distribution
b-Fabric – horizontal parallel unistrial, parallel, parallel, unistrial, cross, parallel, unistrial, parallel, cross-,
striated cross, reticulate, reticulate porostriated grano-striated reticulate straited
porostriated
Clay coating – – 100 – 200 Am 100 – 150 Am 100 – 150 Am 100 – 200 Am
Ferro-manganese nodules – present present present present large scale impregnation
of groundmass
Calcrete features disseminated and disseminated and micritic crystallisation micritic nodules micritic nodules, micritic nodules
nodular forms nodular forms, in biotite flakes, radial spars
at places petrocalcic radial calcite spars,
horizon present typic coatings,
rhizoconcretions
Other pedofeatures few flood-coatings few flood coatings slickensides common slickensides common Strongly developed
slickensides
 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366
developed palaeosols. These can be classified as
Entisols. Pedofacies III and IV can be considered as
moderately developed soils. They show a well-devel-
oped B-horizon and show enrichment of sesquioxides
and clay. These soils can be classified as Inceptisols
and Alfisols, respectively. Pedofacies V and VI are
strongly developed soils. Pedofacies V palaeosols
show a >30-cm-thick argillic horizon and are better-
developed Alfisols. Pedofacies VI palaeosols exhibit
the maximum accumulation of illuviated clay as well
as sesquioxides and development of kaolinite in B-
horizons, as compared to other pedofacies, and are
classified as Ultisols.
Pedofacies I– V are similar to modern soils of the
Indus plains to Middle Gangetic Plains, with mainly
illuviation of soil plasma involved (Srivastava et al.,
1994; Kumar et al., 1996; Singh et al., 1998). How-
ever, pedofacies VI palaeosols, with significant
amounts of kaolinite and development of iron oxide
features, are very similar to Ultisols developed along
well-drained terraces and parts of the uplifted Barind
Tract of the Lower Gangetic Plains (Hossain, 1994).
Similar palaeosols, however, have been described
from the Lower Siwalik by Tanaka (1994) and ascribed
to the unusual type of recently observed spodosols
from steppe, savanna, bush-savanna, dry forest, rain
forest and swamp forest conditions (Richards, 1941;
Klinge, 1968). Because savanna to swamp forest
regions with spodosols are not known from the Indo-
Gangetic Plains, we prefer to classify pedofacies VI
palaeosols as Ultisols.
Soils from the Indo-Gangetic Plains similar to
Pedofacies I – V palaeosols represent time periods of
development < 100, 100 – 500, 500 – 2500, 2500 –
5000 and 5000 –8000 years respectively (Mohindra
et al., 1992; Srivastava et al., 1994; Kumar et al.,
1996). Soils similar to pedofacies VI palaeosols have
been observed from the terraces and the Barind Tract
of Bangladesh plains, which have been dated as
25,000 years (Whitney et al., 1999). If one assumes
the means of end values (in years) needed for develop-
ment of pedofacies I– V, and 25,000 years for pedof-
acies VI as periods of nondeposition or hiatus, and the
ages of bases Units U1, U3 and U4 given by magneto-
stratigraphic technique as 5.5, 2.6 and 1.77 Ma,
respectively (Sangode et al., 1996; Kumar et al.,
1999), then rates of deposition for Units U1 and U2,
U3, and U4 are calculated as 61.1, 75.8 and 31.3 cm/
353
1000 years, respectively. Times accounted for by
pedogenesis, expressed as a percentage of the total
time for units U1 –U4, are 14.5%, 8.7%, 8.5% and
0.35%, respectively.
5. Vertical stratigraphic variation of facies
associations
Upsection variations in mean grain size of lithof-
acies at 1-m interval (dominant grain size in each 1-m
interval taken as the mean grain size) (Fig. 5a), sand-
stone (including conglomerate) percentage in succes-
sive overlapping 100-m ranges with an overlap of 50
m (Fig. 5b), and channel-belt spacing as indicated by
interval between successive erosional surfaces (Fig.
5c) have been plotted in order to define stratigraphic
units and to infer fluvial processes. The channel-belt
spacing is calculated by measuring the vertical dis-
tance between the bases of two successive channel
sandstones.
Average grain size has sympathetic relationship
with moving average sandstone percentage. Unit M1
has a high percentage of sandstone and Unit U1 is
marked by two cycles of decreasing sandstone per-
centage from bottom to top. Unit U2 has three such
cycles with a high at the top of the Unit. Units U3 and
U4 exhibit an overall increase in percentage of sand-
stone except for a drastic decrease near the top (Fig.
5a). Stratigraphic separations between bases of chan-
nel deposits are similar for units M1, U1 and U2 and
show high variability. These separations are smaller
and with a lower dispersion in Units U3 and U4 (Fig.
5c). Variation of total sandstone as percentage of
sedimentary log, thick and thin channel sandstones
as percentage of sedimentary log, and the average
thickness of thick and thin channel sandstone bodies
also show some significant variations in different units
(Fig. 6a – e). Percentage of sandstone is high (84%) in
Unit M1, slightly lower (70 –77%) in Units U1 – U3
and again fairly high (82%) for Unit 4. Thickness and
percentage of thick channel deposits is high in Unit
M1, slightly lower in Units U1 and U2 and is signi-
ficantly low in Unit U3, and major channel deposits
are absent in Unit U4. The average thickness and
percentage of the total sedimentary log of minor
channel deposits show a trend antipathetic to major
channel deposits from Unit M1 to Unit U4.
354 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366

Fig. 5. Upsection variation in (a) mean grain size, (b) the ratio of sandstone/conglomerate to mudstone calculated for each successive
overlapping 100-m intervals, and in (c) the stratigraphic separation (CHS) between the bases of vertically superjacent channel belt sandstones
within the measured section. (^) Ages after Sangode et al. (1996); (*) OSL date, obtained by one of the authors (JVT) at Physical Research
Laboratory, Ahmedabad, India.
 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366 355

Fig. 6. Variation in (a) total sandstone thickness as percentage of sedimentary log, (b) thick sandstone facies sequences as percentage of
sedimentary log, (c) average storey thickness of thick sandstone facies sequences, (d) thin sandstone facies sequences as a percentage of
sedimentary log, (e) average storey thickness of thin sandstone facies sequences, and (f) overbank deposits as percentage of sedimentary log, in
different stratigraphic units.

Different stratigraphic units are characterised by
fairly distinctive palaeosols. In Unit M1, five out of
seven observed palaeosols show moderate to strong
development (pedofacies III – VI, noncalcareous sub-
type). In Unit U1, most of the palaeosols are non-
calcareous and show moderate development and red
colour (pedofacies III – IV). However, a part of the
Unit (470 – 570-m level) is characterised by moder-
ately to strongly developed noncalcareous palaeosols
(pedofacies III – VI). The palaeosols of Unit U2 are
also moderately developed, but the palaeosols showing
weak development (pedofacies I and II) are more
common than in Unit U1. Both Fe– Mn and calcrete
nodules are observed in moderately developed palae-
osols of Units U1 and U2. The lower 200 m of the Unit
U3 has mainly yellow, moderately developed palae-
osols (pedofacies III –IV), and above that level mainly
weakly developed palaeosols (pedofacies I – II) are
common, and pedofacies III palaeosols appear locally.
About 70% of the palaeosols are calcareous in nature
and contain significant amounts of calcite material in
the form of nodules or fine calcareous matter dissemi-
nated in the groundmass. Low-chroma palaeosols
(subtype ‘B’) are fairly common in the Upper Siwalik
rocks and the percentages of these palaeosols in Units
I, II and III are 16%, 14.5% and 15%, respectively.
Units M1 to U4a are characterised by sandstone
facies, mudstone – sandstone facies, laminated mud-
stone facies, organised conglomerate and sandstone
facies, palaeosols facies associations. Organised con-
glomerate and sandstone facies are more common in
Units U3 and U4a than in other units. Units M1 – U2
are commonly characterised by a typical succession of
multi-storeyed, thick channel sandstone facies associ-
ation passing up into mudstone and sandstone facies,
which in turn is overlain by laminated mudstone
facies/palaeosols facies associations. However, disor-
ganised conglomerates (granular debris-flow deposits)
overlain by organised conglomerates (fluvially re-
worked upper part) are dominant in the lower portion
of Subunit U4b (2548 –2734 m) and the upper portion
of the Subunit is characterised by the presence of
356 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366

mainly sandy mudstones (mudflow deposits) and
minor gravelly deposits (channel deposits) and disor-
ganised, matrix-supported conglomerates (muddy deb-
ris-flow deposits). A detailed columnar section of Unit
U4 is shown in Fig. 7.
From vertical changes in facies in Units M1, U1 and
U2 three types of 100-m scale successions are recog-
nised. The first type consists mainly of thick and thin
channel-belt sandstone and weakly developed palae-
osols. The second type (e.g. 470– 570-m level in Fig.

Fig. 7. Detailed sedimentary log of Unit U4 (2287 – 2805 m).

 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366
2) is typically composed of thin channel-belt sand-
stones and weakly developed palaeosols and minor
thick channel-belt sandstones. Mudstones are more
common than in the first type. The third type is
distinguished by thick channel belt sandstones and
mudstones containing moderately to strongly devel-
oped palaeosols. Minor thin channel-belt sandstones
are sometimes interbedded with palaeosols. These
three types are named SSA, SSB AND SSC, respec-
tively. These successions vary in thickness from 60 to
205 m, probably spanning 0.1 to 0.35 million years
(intervals calculated from rates of sedimentation and
magnetostratigraphic dates).
6. Palaeocurrent orientations
Palaeocurrents prevailing during the deposition of
Units M1, U1 and U2 were inferred by measuring
cross-bed foreset azimuths, and for Units U3 and U4
by observing orientations and imbrications of long
axes of pebbles and cobbles from fluvial conglomer-
ates. Palaeocurrents in Unit M1 were mainly from SSE
to SSW. The thick sandstones in the lower parts of
Units U1 (up to 470-m level) and U2 (up to 1130-m
level) show SE palaeocurrent directions, whereas the
upper parts of Units U1 and U2 show S to SW, and SW
directions, respectively (Fig. 2) Although the number
of observations is limited, variability in palaeocurrent
directions in individual thick channel sandstones is
small. The thinner channel sandstones show current
directions directed mainly towards the SE and SW, in
Units U1 and U2, respectively. Units U3 and U4
exhibit palaeocurrent directions directed mainly
towards the SSE to SSW. Thus, the overall palae-
ocurrent patterns were mainly towards SSE to SW and
less commonly to SE during the deposition of the
Middle and Upper Siwaliks of the present area.
7. Discussion
7.1. Holocene fluvial system with soils on the Indo-
Gangetic Plains
Because the observations are from a single outcrop
section and the regional continuity of different units is
not known, it is difficult to use the available facies
357
models (Allen, 1978; Leeder, 1978; Bridge and
Leeder, 1979; Alexander and Leeder, 1987; Bridge
and Mackey, 1993) in explaining their variations. Even
in cases where continuous spanning tens of km are
available, (Willis, 1993a,b; Khan et al., 1997; Zaleha,
1997a,b) unequivocal solutions from these models are
not possible. For this reason, an alternative approach
involving comparison of the ancient sediments with
the Holocene deposits of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, and
inferring sedimentary and pedogenic processes, is
adopted here.
In the Indo-Gangetic Plains (India), most of the
large rivers flow oblique to transverse to the basin
axis. In the Ganga Plains these basin-transverse rivers
meet the Ganga river flowing west to east at the
southern margin of the basin. The basin-filling is
mainly accomplished by a basin-transverse drainage
system. The large rivers have mainly a braided and
low-sinuousity nature over most of their courses
(Gohain and Parkash, 1990; Mohindra et al., 1992;
Kumar et al., 1996).
Sinha and Friend (1994), Willis (1993a,b) and
Gohain and Parkash (1990) found that two types of
large and small streams are active in the Gangetic
Plains. The large streams (e.g., Sutlej, Ganga, Yamuna,
Ghanghara, Kosi, etc.) have discharges of the order
of 104 m3/s, whereas smaller streams have discharges
f 103 m3/s. The large rivers originate in the Tibetan
Plateau or Central Himalaya and are perennial and
snow-fed. The smaller streams originate mainly in the
Outer Himalaya and rarely in the Lesser Himalaya.
These may form small fans in the foothills and
continue further onto the uplands or interfan areas.
The Panjab and Haryana Plains (westernmost parts
of the Indo-Gangetic Plains in India, drained by
tributaries of the Indus) and the Upper Gangetic Plains
are typically upland areas characterised by moderate
to very strongly developed soils. Major parts of the
Indus Plains in Pakistan also comprise similar uplands
(Ahmad et al., 1977; Beg, 1993). These upland areas
have been stable since at least 2500 BP (Sehgal et al.,
1968; Sehgal and Stoops, 1972; Singhai et al., 1991;
Srivastava et al., 1994; Kumar et al., 1996). Major
sedimentation is taking place only in the Piedmont
Depositional System and along floodplains. Large
rivers having incised floodplains are carrying most
of their sediment load further downstream and sedi-
ment bypassing is taking place on a large scale
358 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366

(Srivastava et al., 1994). Typical successions, as
revealed in some cliffs along entrenched parts of
streams, especially in the distal basin portion, are
thick channel-belt sequences overlain by mud-rich
successions containing several moderately to strongly
developed soils. This is here named the Upland
Depositional System (Fig. 8).
Moderately to strongly developed soils in the
Upper Gangetic Plains (Upland Depositional System)
occur in uplands, at elevations above the largest flood
of the large rivers, and their distribution is mainly
controlled by tectonics (Srivastava et al., 1994; Kumar
et al., 1996). Large tectonic blocks measuring hun-
dreds to thousands of square kilometers may tilt in
stages, leaving freshly deposited sediments exposed,
on which pedogenesis commences. Consequently,
more-to-less-developed soils occur from the uptilt to
downtilt direction. Also, uplift of tectonic blocks takes
them above the level of sedimentation, so that pedo-
genesis can begin. The degree of soil development is
dependent on the time elapsed ( f 103 –104 years)
since the uplift. In parts of the Upper Gangetic Plains,
a broad increase in the degree of soil development,
from the proximal northern region to distal southern

Fig. 8. Diagrammatic sketch of Upland Depositional System from the modern Indogangetic Plains, with higher degree of soil development in
the more distal block ‘B’ than the proximal block ‘A’. Rivers are generally entrenched. The level difference between the proximal piedmont
zone and distal plain is about 140 m.
 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366 359

region, is discerned (Fig. 8). This is related to the
overall higher rate of sedimentation and subsidence in
the basin in the north as compared to the south, as
indicated by a decrease in thickness of the Cainozoic
sediments overlying the Precambrian basement, which
varies from 8 to 10 km in the north, to almost zero in
the south (Raiverman et al., 1983).
The Middle Gangetic Plains are marked by weakly
developed soils over most of their area, and moder-
ately developed soils are present only at a few places
(Sinha, 1996). Major sedimentation is taking place in
the form of alluvial megafans. Braided and straight
streams are active over upper and lower halves of the
megafans, respectively. These streams are rapidly
shifting their courses and are depositing sand-rich
successions (Gohain and Parkash, 1990; Singh et al.,
1993). In the interfan areas, major sedimentation over
large areas is in the form of muds, deposited by
vertical accretion from floods that cover vast areas
during the monsoon period. Other processes are
crevasse splay and avulsion due to tectonic activity
and autocyclic processes (Sinha and Friend, 1994;
Sinha, 1996). The whole region is subsiding actively
and sedimentation is keeping pace with subsidence in
the megafan areas, but in the interfan region, sub-
sidence is faster than sedimentation. This results in
poor drainage and waterlogging in such areas and
gives rise to mud-rich successions with small amounts
of small/large river belt sands (Mohindra et al., 1992).
This deposeting is here named the Lowland Deposi-
tional System (Fig. 9). Thus, Lowland and Upland
Systems are two major types of fluvial depositional

Fig. 9. Diagrammatic sketch of Lowland Depositional System from the modern Indo-Gangetic Plains, including megafan and interfan areas.
Megafan area is characterised by sand-rich sequences and interfan area is marked by mud-rich sequences of vertical accretion. Soils show poor
development. The level difference between the proximal piedmont zone and distal plain is about 130 m. Symbols for different facies as in Fig. 8.
360 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366
systems (Miall, 1984, p. 280). Regions of Upland and
Lowland systems are marked by low and high rates of
basin subsidence, respectively, probably related to
differing rates of crustal flexure.
The northern parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plains in
the Himalayan foothills, from Kashmir to Assam, are
marked by a well-developed Piedmont Depositional
System ( < 30-km wide). Limited sedimentological
observations of this zone are available (Srivastava et
al., 1994; Kumar et al., 1996). The piedmont System
is presently dominated by parallel braided streams
flowing transverse to the general Himalayan trend,
and stream flow, flash floods and streams floods
(Basu and Sarkar, 1990) are the dominant processes.
Typically small streams are active. However, in some
places large streams cut through this region and pass
into the middle and central part of the plains, thus
intersecting the Lowland or Upland Systems. Mainly
fluvial gravels are present in the proximal part and
these pass gradually into alternating sand and mud in
the distal parts. Typically thick channel-belt sands are
expected close to the large rivers and thin channel-belt
sands are expected away from the large rivers, and
alternations of the two are likely to occur in the
transitional zone.
Within the Indo-Gangetic Plains, Srivastava et al.
(1994) observed the pedofacies changes related to rate
of sedimentation similar to those described by Bown
and Kraus (1987) in the Piedmont System, constitut-
ing < 15% of these plains. The rate of sedimentation
decreases and the degree of soil development in-
creases from the proximal to distal parts. The whole
of the Piedmont System, megafan and interfan areas
of the Lowland System in the Middle Gangetic Plains,
and active floodplains in the Upper Gangetic and
Indus Plains, are commonly characterised by weakly
developed soils and rarely by moderately developed
soils. However, most of the Upper Gangetic Plains
and Indus Plains (Upland System) are characterised
by moderately to strongly developed soils and are
marked by pedofacies relationships controlled by
movement of tectonic blocks, as explained earlier
(Mohindra et al., 1992; Srivastava et al., 1994; Kumar
et al., 1996).
Atkinson (1986) and Kraus (1992) observed a
correlation between the general distribution of palae-
osols within ancient fluvial formations and long term
rates of subsidence in the basins, with more developed
palaeosols occurring in regions of the basin marked by
low rates of subsidence, and vice versa. However, a
clear picture of tectonic control on soil development
has become available from the recent studies (Mohin-
dra et al., 1992; Srivastava et al., 1994; Kumar et al.,
1996; Singh et al., 1998) of Quaternary soils in the
Indo-Gangetic Plains. These studies have shown that,
instead of a gradual change in degree of soil develop-
ment characterised by lower to higher rates of sub-
sidence, over small periods of time ( f 103 – 104
years), the basin is broken into large tectonic blocks
and the timing of their uplift determines the degree of
soil development. Thus, the observed spatial change in
soil development from areas of lower to higher rates of
subsidence, is in discrete steps. Also, large tectonic
blocks may tilt at distinct time intervals, thus giving
rise to a higher degree of development of soils in the
uptilt direction than in the downtilt direction. In these
cases, degree of soil development as a function of
distance from the active channel, as implied by the
pedofacies model of Bown and Kraus (1987), is not
observed. Pedofacies relations arising from the above
two settings have been called tectopedofacies associ-
ations (Kumar et al., 1996).
7.2. Depositional processes and setting
The dominantly SSE to SW palaeocurrent pattern
of the Middle and Upper Siwalik Groups of the study
area and the general SE – NW trend of the basin-axis
suggest a general basin-axis transverse drainage dur-
ing the Plio –Pleistocene period, similar to that of the
present Indo-Gangetic Basin. The Middle Siwalik and
Units U1 and U2 show channel-belt sand, levee
deposits, floodplain deposits and palaeosols similar
to those observed across major parts of the modern
Indo-Gangetic Plains.
As discussed later, during the deposition of the
major parts of the Upper Siwalik Group, especially
Units U1 and U2, palaeoclimate was similar to that in
the modern Upper and Middle Gangetic Plains. Such a
palaeoclimate probably supported two sets of rivers of
widely differing discharges and braided/low-sinuou-
sity large rivers similar to the modern Indo-Gangetic
Plains. Also, the occurrence of thickest ‘Upper Siwa-
lik Conglomerates’ (? Units U3 –U4a) close to the
points, where large rivers enter the Indo-Gangetic
Plains from the Himalaya (Pascoe, 1964, p. 2090),
 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366
suggests deposition of at least a part of the Upper
Siwalik rocks by immediate predecessors of the mo-
dern large rivers.
The SSA-type successions consisting of domi-
nantly mudstone and minor small and large channel
sandstones, and weakly developed palaeosols were
probably deposited in interfan areas, and SSB-type
successions with predominantly large channels depos-
its were probably deposited on the megafans. Thus,
both the SSA and SSB type successions were depos-
ited in a Lowland Depositional System. The SSC-type
successions with large channel sandstones and moder-
ately to strongly developed palaeosols are interpreted
to have been deposited in an Upland Depositional
System, with large uplifted blocks, acting as uplands,
on which pedogenesis took place and large rivers
were incised. Pedogenesis on upland blocks contin-
ued for periods of f103 – 104 years. Recent observa-
tions from the modern uplands indicate that large
ponds are locally present and small groundwater-fed
steams draining upland regions (see Fig. 3 of Srivas-
tava et al., 1994) are aggrading due to local tectonics.
Pedogenically unmodified deposits interstratified with
palaeosols in the palaeosol association complexes in
the Siwaliks may be ancient analogues of deposits of
ponds and such small channels.
Using the above models, Unit M1 of the Middle
Siwalik is interpreted to have been deposited mainly
on megafans (Lowland System). The lower part of
Unit U1 was deposited in an Upland System. The
upper part of Unit U1 and whole of Unit U2 were
probably deposited in megafan and interfan regions of
the Lowland System (Fig. 2).
Unit U3, with significant amounts of small channel
belt deposits (45% of all the sandstones/conglomer-
ates), sandy to pebbly conglomerate channel deposits,
generally weakly developed palaeosols, and a general
absence of sediment gravity-flow deposits, was depos-
ited in the Piedmont System dominated by fluvial
processes, very similar to the modern Piedmont Sys-
tem. Because large channel-belt sandstones constitute
a significant part of the Unit U3, it seems that this
Unit was dominantly deposited in the transitional
region between the area where the large channels
exited into the plains, and the adjoining Piedmont
System dominated by small streams.
In Unit U4, the conglomerates contain up to 90%
sandstone pebbles. In Unit U3, the major proportion
361
(up to 90%) of the pebbles are quartzite. This indi-
cates a change in the provenance. According to
Kumar et al. (1999), the Nahan thrust was activated
at around 1.77 Ma and the provenance of the sedi-
ments of the Siwalik region changed from the quartz-
itic inner Lesser Himalayan zone to the sandstone-rich
outer Lesser Himalayan zone.
The coarse sediments in Subunit U4a were depos-
ited by fluvial processes similar to those responsible
for Unit U3. However, deposition of the Subunit U4b
was marked by mainly sediment gravity-flows (gran-
ular and muddy debris flows, mudflows) over major
parts of piedmont fans. At times, gravelly braided
streams were also active on the fans and they formed
small lobes in the distal parts of the fans.
Three scales of signatures of tectonic control on the
Siwalik sedimentation, i.e., formation level, sequence
level and individual palaeosol level, may be inferred.
(i) Progradation of coarse wedges into fluvial
basins has been earlier related to activity of faults
(Burbank et al., 1988; Heller et al., 1988; Beck et al.,
1988). The major change from fluvial systems to a
piedmont depositional system, from Unit U2 to Units
U3 – U4, is probably the result of progradation of
coarse wedges into the plains. Progradation was
caused by activity of the Main Boundary Fault, during
the depositional period of Unit U3, and activity of the
Nahan Thrust, during the depositional period of Unit
U4.
(ii) On a smaller scale, 60 –205-m-thick succes-
sions representing Upland and Lowland Systems
resulted from differences in the rate of subsidence
over periods of 0.1– 0.35 million years.
(iii) On the smallest time scale, moderately to
strongly developed palaeosols, probably represent
uplift of large tectonic blocks, which acted as uplands
for periods of f 103 –104 years.
7.3. Palaeoclimate
Carbon (y13C) and oxygen (y18O) isotopes of
pedogenic and nonpedogenic calcretes from Units
U1 to U4a were analysed by Thomas (1996), but
Subunit U4b was not studied, because no suitable
material for such analysis was recovered. Isotopic
composition of nonpedogenic and pedogenic carbo-
nates is controlled by isotopic composition of CO2 in
the atmosphere, and the prevailing vegetation and
362 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366
photosynthesis pathways (Cerling, 1991; Mack et al.,
1991), respectively. Isotope data from the study area
suggests that both C3 (virtually all trees, shrubs, herbs
and grasses favoured by a cool growing season)
(Ehleringer, 1988) and C4 (grasses favoured by a warm
growing seasons and a few shrubs in the families
Euphorbiaceae and Chenopodiaceaea) (Smith and
Epstein, 1971) flora were present in the lower part
of the Unit U1 and C3 flora was dominant. C3 flora
was gradually replaced by C4 flora from bottom to
top of the sequence U1 –U4a. Broadly precipitation
decreases from about 1000 mm (humid) from near the
base of Unit U1 to semiarid palaeoclimate towards the
top of Subunit U4a (age f 0.9 Ma). Also, a decrease
of temperature from bottom to top of the sequence is
inferred. The warm, humid palaeoclimate in the lower
part of the Upper Siwalik Group was essentially a
continuation of warm and humid tropical palaeocli-
mate inferred for the Middle Siwalik from palaeonto-
logical studies (Sahni and Mitra, 1980; Johnson et al.,
1981; Mathur, 1984) and was very similar to that
prevailing presently in the Middle and eastern Upper
Gangetic Plains. An arid palaeoclimate has also been
inferred for the adjoining areas for the period from 40
ka to the Early Holocene (Kotlia et al., 1997;
Duplessy, 1982; Van Campo et al., 1982; Singh et
al., 1974). Thus, a detailed reconstruction of palae-
oclimate of this region for the period f 0.9 –0.04 Ma
is not available.
The warm and humid palaeoclimate in the lower
part of the Upper Siwalik Group gave rise to moder-
ately to strongly developed red palaeosols with pedo-
genic calcrete and Fe nodules, and strong illuviation of
clay forming well-developed Bt horizons. Similar soils
are present over a wide range of climate (from humid
to semiarid) in the modern Upper and Middle Gangetic
Plains (Mohindra et al., 1992; Srivastava et al., 1994;
Kumar et al., 1996). The presence of some Ultisols in
the lower part of Unit U1 suggests that palaeoclimate
at times changed to even perhumid similar to that in
the Lower Gangetic Plains. However, previously red
coloured soils with calcrete horizons were described
mainly from the modern warm, arid to semiarid
climate (Gile et al., 1965, 1966; Machette, 1985) and
have been used for such interpretations in palaeosols
(Wright, 1982; Evans, 1991; Joeckel, 1995).
Close association of sesquioxide coatings and
calcrete features and compound nodules consisting
of microspar and hematite are widespread in the
Siwalik palaeosols, especially in Units U1 and U2.
These indicate that iron oxide and carbonates were
mobilised probably during post-depositional periods,
in a climate marked by alternate wet and dry seasons,
a characteristic feature of the monsoon climate, that
prevailed in this basin even before 7.4 Ma (Quade et
al., 1989, 1993, 1995; Morgan et al., 1994; Rettallack,
1995).
Pollen, foraminifera and y13C studies from North
Indian Ocean (Duplessy, 1982) and Arabian sea (Van
Campo et al., 1982) suggest that northwest India
experienced an arid climate, with a weak monsoon,
during the period that the mid latitudes experienced
the Last Glacial Maximum, with a peak at 20– 18 ka.
It indicates that period of global Pleistocene cooling
staring at 2.7 Ma was marked by an overall arid/
semiarid climate in NW India. The change from
warm, humid to cool, arid palaeoclimate caused a
change of colour of moderately developed palaeosols
from red (Units U1 and U2) to yellow in Unit U3 and
Subunit U4a (2.6 to f 0.9 Ma). Earlier yellow colour
of palaeosols and the presence of common calcrete
horizons and disseminated calcareous material in
mudstones, as observed in Unit U3 and Subunit 4a,
have been related to a low rainfall by Schwertmann
(1985), Flach et al., (1969) and Reeves (1976).
The common weaker development of palaeosols in
Units U3 and U4a, as compared to those of Units U1
and U2, is probably due to a higher rate of sedimen-
tation in the Piedmont System envisaged for Units U3
and U4a, as compared to Fluvial Systems for Units U1
and U2, and to some extent, cooler and drier climate
prevailing during deposition of Units U3 – U4a. Higher
rates of sedimentation observed for Unit U3 (75.8 cm/
1000 years) as compared to Units U1 and U2 (61.1
cm/1000 years) supports this contention. Change of
deposition in the Piedmont System from braided
streams (Units U3 and U4a) to mainly sediment
gravity-flows (Subunit U4b) contributed to an overall
lower sedimentation rate for Unit U4 (31.1 cm/1000
years), as sediment gravity-flows are not efficient
agents of transfer of sediments from the drainage
basin to the depositional basin.
The cause of the change of deposition from braided
stream to sediment gravity-flows at about 0.9 Ma is
not well understood. A review of correlation between
climate and sediment-gravity-flow processes by Miall
 J.V. Thomas et al. / Sedimentary Geology 150 (2002) 343–366
(1996) suggests that sediment gravity-flow deposits
seem to be more common in arid climates, although
they have been reported from varied climatic zones. A
change from dry, cold climate, which prevailed since
at least 40 ka (Kotlia et al., 1997), to warm and humid
conditions at about 10 ka, was accompanied by
a change of deposition from sediment gravity-flows
to braided stream in the large fans in northern parts
of the Doon Valley, lying just north of the study area
(Singh, 1997). Thus, a change in: (i) type of sed-
imentation at about 0.9 Ma, (ii) a general cooling and
drying trend observed from 5.26 to f 0.9 Ma
(Thomas, 1996), (iii) the possibility of this trend
continuing later, and (iv) the association of sediment
gravity-flow deposits with arid climate of the Upper
Pleistocene in nearby areas, suggest that initiation of
deposition by sediment gravity-flows in the Piedmont
System at about 0.9 Ma was probably due to a
change to still drier climate at that time.
Palaeoclimate was warm, humid and strongly sea-
sonal from at least 5.5 Ma, and gradually it became
cooler and drier with significant changes taking place
at about 2.6 Ma, and probably at 0.9 Ma. Warm,
humid climate gave rise to moderately to strongly
developed red palaeosols with pedogenic calcrete in
Units U1 and U2. A change to cooler, drier climate at
about 2.6 Ma resulted in yellow soils, slower pedo-
genesis and less-developed palaeosols in Units U3
and U4a. Probably a change to a still more arid
climate at about 0.9 Ma resulted in a change in
deposition from braided streams to sediment gravity-
flows in the Piedmont System.
Acknowledgements
We are highly thankful to Drs. A.D. Miall of
Toronto University, Steven G. Driese of University of
Tennessee, Michael J. Zaleha of Indiana University,
Mary J, Kraus of University of Colorado at Boulder, K.
Nakayma of Shimane University, Peter F. Friend of
Cambridge University and Chris Fielding of Unversity
of Queensland for their review of earlier versions of
the manuscript. Their comments have helped us to
improve the manuscript substantially. Sincere thanks
are due to Prof. D.C. Srivastava and Mr. Premanand
Mishra of University of Roorkee for suggestions in
improving the manuscript.
363
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