ML2

2/1/18

Lecture 1:

https://www.youtbube.com/watch?v=D8SD3ToKDsw

Major (Mm) – I
minor (mM) – i
Augmented (MM) – I+
diminished (mm) – i*
Triad functions:

- Tonic – Most stable chord – home

Expanded and prolonged through the inclusion of other chords
Root or First Inversion (2nd inversion is technically and elaboration of the dominant – it
doesn’t exist)
Double the root of fifth degree, not the third when in four-part harmonic settings

- Dominant (V, v)
Contains leading tone, hence resolves most easily to chord I (synthesis)
Functions in authentic, deceptive and half cadences
Can be ‘prepared’ by other chords before resolving
Used also in tonicisation/modulation to other key areas
Includes 7th and inversions
Never double the third (i.e. the leading tone, as it always resolves to the tonic, result in
parallel octaves)

- Sub-dominant (IV, iv)

Intermediate/passing chord
Used in dominant preparation
Does not contain the leading tone, so is a gentle contrast to chord I
Used in plagal and deceptive cadences
Can be elaborated as a seventh chord
Double root or fifth

- Supertonic (ii, ii*)

Intermediate/passing chord
Used in dominant preparation (i.e preceding chord V)
Frequently appears as a 7th, and in inversion
Double root or fifth
 - Submediant (vi, VI)
Intermediate/passing chord
Potential substitution for chord I
Used in harmonic sequences and modulations
Used in dominant preparation
Used in deceptive cadence
Doubling the third is permissible

- Mediant (iii, III, III+)

Modulation chords
Important chord related to the tonic (shares two tones)
Used in harmonic sequences (e.g. by the cycle of fifths)
Double root and fifth

- Chord vii*/VII
Can act as a dominant chord in first inversion (missing scale degree 5 – i.e the dominant)
Bridges gap to chord III when used in sequences
Often appears as a 7th chord

Lecture 2:

Harmonic Analysis:

Firstly:
- Identify tonic (I/i):
- Look for typical progressions:
Tonic-dominant (I-V) relationships, dominant preparations (ii/IV/vi-V), prolongations and
expansions of chords
- Tonicisations and applied dominants, Modulations
- Determine the harmonic rhythm:
The rate of harmonic change
This might come at different stages of analysis
Can change of the course of a composition (eg. The harmonic rhythm often increases ((chord
changes happen more frequently)) as a cadence or climax approaches)
Next:
- Mark the cadences (authentic, half, deceptive, plagal)
- Complete chordal anaylsis

Non-harmonic tones:

- Not every note will be considered a chord tone

- Non-chord tones can be accented (on the beat) or unaccented (off), and diatonic or chromatic
- Includes: Neighbour tones, Passing tones, Escape tones, Appoggiaturas, Suspensions,
Retardations, Anticipations, Changing tones, Pedal tones

Neighbour tones (NT/UNT/LNT):

Lead by a step up or down away, and then return to the original pitch – they may ascend or
descend, be accented or unaccented
Passing tones (PT):
Step away from a chord tone and continue a further step to another chord tone – they may
ascend or descend, be accented or unaccented

Escape tones (ET):

Lead by a step to a non-
chord tone and resolve by
leap

Appoggiatura
(App):
Approached by leap and resolved by step (opposite of escape tone)

Suspensions (S):
3 parts: Preparation -> Suspension ->
Resolution

Retardations:
The same as a suspension, except that
the resolution is upwards rather than
down

Anticipations:
A non-chord tone that anticipates a chord tone from the following chord

Changing Tones:
Approaches dissonance by step,
leaps to a second dissonance,
resolves to chord tone by step

Pedal Tones:
A held (drone) or repeated note that alternates between being a chord tone and a non-chord
tone, depending on the changes in harmony that occur over, above or around it

Combined Non-Harmonic Tones:

Different types of non-harmonic
tones can be combined to extend
the embellishment

Analysing Piano Textures:

- Different to 4-part vocal style (generally melody and accompaniment/not always the case)
- Various textures in Classical and Romantic period music: chordal (homophonic, like a
chorale), Alberti bass (broken chords), Arpeggio figures, Complex counterpoint
 - Reductive analysis may be necessary

Lecture 3:

Mixture:
Borrowing notes from another diatonic set – the parallel major/minor
Introducing flattened 3rd and 6th degrees into major, and raised 3rd degree into minor

Chord symbols:
- Accidentals placed before the roman numeral (: #VI) changes the quality of the chord root.
So, for example, this means that chord VI is a major chord, based on the 6th degree being
raised.
- A lone accidental after the Roman numeral indicates the third degree of the chord is
raised/lowered
- Accidentals are only required after the chord when using the upper-case system
- The quality of the chord (will already be apparent if you’re using the upper/lower case system
- If a note other than the third degree is altered, it is important to indicate which (eg. b5),
regardless of which system you’re using

Lecture 4:
Harmonic Progressions and Voice Leading:
The 7th of a chord can appear in any voice, and alwaus resolves down.

Harmonic Sequences: The Cycle of Fifths:

Apparent 7ths:

- A chord formation that appears to be a 7th chord, however doesn’t behave as such:
Passing chords
Neighbour chords
Other embellishments
- The dissonance is not caused by a 7th above the root
- Frequently appear as triads with added 6ths
- Generally, a voice is sustained through the progression

Lecture 5 (10/1/2018)

Atypical Resolutions:

Transferred 7ths:
- A transferred 7th occurs when the 7th of a chord is
transferred to a different voice before it resolves normally:
- Direct transfer takes place when the entire chord is re-
voiced, sending the 7th degree to a different voice
- Voice Exchange occurs when the voices ‘swap’ pitches, sending the 7th degree of the chord to
a different voice
Transferred Resolutions:
- A transferred resolution occurs when the 7th of a chord
resolves in a voice other than the one containing the 7th

Delayed Resolutions:
- A delayed resolution occurs when the 7th of a chord is left
unresolved by the next chord/s, but then reappears and
resolves later, or, is resolved without the reappearance of the 7th

Extended 7th Resolutions:

- Similar to a delayed resolution, except that rather than the resolved chord being extended, it is
the 7th chord itself which is extended (generally by incorporating intermediary chords)
- In either case, the resolution of the 7th degree of the chord will be delayed.

Unresolved or Non-Resolving 7ths:

- Non-resolving 7ths occur when the resolution of the 7th in the chord is abandoned; it does not
resolve

Combined Atypical Resolutions:

- As with non-harmonic tones, atypical resolutions may be combined in a passage to provide
multiple resolutions to a 7th

Diminished 7th Chords:

The Diminished Triad:

- Consists of two minor thirds stacked on top of each other
- Symbol: superscript ‘o’

The Diminished Seventh:

 Half-diminished 7th:
- Consists of two minor thirds and a major third
on top
- Symbol: superscript: ‘ø’
 Full-diminished 7th:
- Consists of three stacked minor thirds
- Symbol: superscript ‘o’

Leading Tone Diminished 7th:

viiø chord (leading tone half-diminished

chord):
- Relationship with chord V7
- Note the upper neighbour movement
in the movement of scale degree 5-6-
5

viiø chord (half-diminished 7th chord -

voice leading considerations):
- Resolution of the 7th = downward
- Resolution of the tri-tone
+ Preferred = to the 3rd if diminished 5th, or the 6th if augmented 4th
+ Acceptable = (e.g. A4 to P4) other, as long as the leading tone resolves up to the tonic

viio chord (leading tone full-diminished

chord)
- Can also be used in the major mode,
where the flat 6th degree is flattened
through mixture

viio chord (full diminished 7th chord –

voice leading considerations)
- Resolution of the 7th = downward
- Resolution of the tri-tone:
+ Preferably both – to the 3rd if d5 and the 6th if A4
+ Or if not both, at least the leading tone tri-tone

Peculiarities of Resolving Diminished 7ths:

- In root, 1st and 2nd inversion, the diminished 7th will resolve to either a root position or a 1st
inversion I/i chord
 - In 3rd inversion, the diminished 7th will resolve to 2nd inversion I/i chord
- As 2nd inversion I/i is an unstable chord, there must be further additions to the harmony to
bring it to a satisfactory close

Lecture 6

Applied Dominants:

- Stimulate the effect of a dominant chord (V/V7/vii7 and inversions)

- Not actually the dominant
- “Applies” to the chord it precedes (and/or sometimes follows)
- Can apply to any chord other than the tonic, (excluding naturally occurring diminished
chords: for vii in major and ii in minor)
- NOT a mixture chord
- Involves borrowing the dominant chord from the diatonic framework of the ‘new’ tonic
- Requires adjustment of accidentals

Construction of Applied Dominants:

- Determine the dominant (V) of the chord you are approaching

- Introduce the necessary accidentals to allow this transition (eg. Raise leading tone, lower 7th,
adjust other pitches)

Notation:

- VV
- V/chord that the dominant is applying to (eg. V/V denotes the applied dominant of the
dominant of the tonic key)

Applied vii:

- Applied dominants are not limited to chord V(7)

- They can be applied to any chord acting as a
dominant chord, and as such:
- Can also use chord vii as an applied dominant (and
vii7 and viio7)
Tonicisation:

- A chord other than the tonic that is temporarily treated as the tonic
- Brief (shorter than modulation)
- Only involves a few chord changes
- Requires the use of applied dominants (generally)

Lecture 7:

The Augmented chord:

- Not a self-sufficient harmony entity in19th century music (can’t behave as a

stable tonic without a perfect 5th)
- Doesn’t occur diatonically, only through chromaticism
- Late-Romantic and 20th century composers extended the augmented chord beyond its altered
dominant function, and treated it as a primary key area (somewhat like a tonic)

The Augmented Chord as Altered Dominant (chord replacing, yet functioning as the
dominant):

- In the 19th Century, normal functioning major triads could be augmented

- By far the most common is the dominant (V)
- An augmented sonority, yet still functions as the dominant (V+)

Composition of the Altered Dominants – the Augmented Chord (V+)

- 5th degree of the dominant (degree 2 of the key) is raised to become an augmented 5th, which
resolves to the 3rd of the tonic (degree 3) (upwards)
- This creates an increased sense of tension

Altered Dominants – the Augmented Seventh Chord (V+7)

- A dominant functioning seventh can also be chromatically inflected to become an augmented

7th chord
- The same note is changed: 5th degree of the dominant chord is raised to become an augmented
5th, which resolves to the 3rd of the tonic
- The minor seventh from the root gives the chord a dominant 7th (V7) feel
- The use of V+ intensifies the dominant feeling, and creates an even stronger urge to resolve to
the tonic as there is semitone movement to the tonic and the fifth (of the tonic chord)

Altered Dominants: Voice Leading:

- The altered pitch always resolves in the direction of its inflection (if the pitch is raised, it
resolves upwards, if it is lowered, it resolves downwards)
- Never double the altered pitch in 4-part vocal style: it has become a tendency tone, like the 3rd
of 7th degrees of a dominant 7th chord, and as such, must resolve in a particular way, meaning
that doubling results in parallel 8ves
 Lecture 8:

Tertian Harmony:

- Harmony derived from the interval of a major or minor third

- At a basic level, tertian harmony involves triads, seventh chords, and expansions on the 7th
with added thirds to create 9ths, 11ths and 13ths

Dominant 9th Chords:

- Major 9th chord:

Consists of a dominant 7th chord, topped by a major 9th
above the bass – occurs diatonically in major keys

- Minor 9th Chord:

Consists of a dominant 7th chord, topped by a minor 9th, can
be borrowed into major through mixture

Dominant 9th Chords – Function and Voice Leading:

 Voice Leading Principals:

1. The 9th almost always appears in the highest voice
2. The 9th, like the 7th, resolves downward by step  to the fifth degree.

 Functional Elements:
- An element of melodic figuration: derives from the upper neighbour
- Intensifies the dissonant quality of the dominant
- Unlike 7ths, 9ths can resolve within the chord, this can lead to ambiguity (if the 9th resolves
down while the chord remains a V chord, it is most likely a non-harmonic tone/if the 9th
resolves down over a change to a tonic functioning chord (I or vi), it is most likely a
functioning 9th)

Dominant 9th Chords in 4-Part Vocal Style:

- 4-part vocal style will only permit the use of four simultaneous pitches, so one pitch must be
left out of the dominant 9th
- Not the root otherwise the chord ceases to be a 9th chord and becomes a viio7 chord
- Not the 9th otherwise it’s not a 9th chord
- Not the 3rd
- Not the 7th
- It must be the 5th that is omitted

Elevenths and Thirteenths

- The 11th sounds like a suspended of anticipated 4

- The 13th sounds like a suspended or anticipated 6

Dominant 11th chords:

 Lecture 9 (16/01/2018)

Phrygian or Neapolitan 6th Chord:

- Functions as a sub-dominant (dominant preparation)

- Proceeds to the dominant or tonic, or used to extend sub-dominant

Em: i iv V I Em i bII6 or N6 V7 i

- Almost always appears in first inversion (N6)

- The bass note is the 4th (sub-dominant) scale degree
- Dissonant tritone movement in the bass, when in root position
- In inversion, bass resembles IV-V progression
 Em: bII or N V bII6 or N6 V

Phrygian or Neapolitan 6th Chord – Voice Leading:

- Melodically, the flat-2 scale degree should proceed to scale degree 1:

- However, if proceeding to the dominant, a problem arises
- Often, the flat 2nd degree is in the melody, and will fall via diminished
3rd to the leading tone (#7)
- Solution #1: The awkward interval becomes a melodic feature:

Em: i bII6 or N6 V i

- Solution #2: Inclusion of non-harmonic tones:

Em: i bII6 or N6 V i

- Solution #3: addition of an intermediary chord

Eg. The cadential 6/4 chord:

 Em: i bII6 or N6 V64 - 53
i

Eg. An applied dominant chord:

Em: i bII6 or N6 viio7/V V i

- Avoid exposing the direct chromatic inflection

of b2 to natural 2
- Unless the inflection is in the middle voice:

Phrygian or Neopolitan 6th Chord’s Use in Major:

- The Phrygian or Neapolitan Chord (bII6 or N6)

can be used in the major mode as well:

Doubling:

- Typically, the 3rd (4th scale degree)

- Doubling the 3rd is similar to doubling the root EM: I bII6 or N6 V I
in IV chord
- The only unaltered pitch (in major)
Phrygian or Neapolitan Chord Atypical Uses:

- Can be used as a pivot chord during a tonicisation or modulation to a new key

- Can be approached or preceded by an applied dominant
- Can be voiced in root position, rather than 1st inversion

Common Tone Full-Diminished 7th:

- A neighbour-functioning chord:

CM: I #iio42 I
- 1 is the common tone
- #2 is a chromatic neighbour of 3
- #4 and 6 are neighbours of 5
- It is an apparent 7th, rather than a true-functioning 7th as the 7th does not resolve the way we
expect it should

Common Tone Full-dim 7ths: Voice Leading:

- Voice leading is quite simple:

- There are no P5 to avoid
- #2 and #4 resolve upwards by step when moving to I
- 7th is non-resolving when moving to I (may resolve when moving to I (may resolve when
moving to other chords)
- Avoid cross relations when moving to V, ii, or other chords which involved chromatic
movement

Some clarifications:

- Usually, only occurs in major (some exceptions)

- The raised 2nd degree (#2) is the lower neighbour to 3, not b3

Lecture 10:

Augmented 6th Chords:

- First ????: iv#6
- Second ????: iv#65
- ii#643
-
 - The Italian 6th is the simplest: it contains only 3 notes (iv#6)
- The German 6th sounds like V7 though it is not spelled like one (iv#65)
- The French 6th sounds the most discordant: it contains 2 major thirds (ii#643)
- Generally, the augmented 6th chord leads to the dominant (V)

Augmented 6th Chords: Voice Leading:

- Augmented 6th interval must resolved in a particular way:

- Both tendency tones (#4 and b6) must resolve in the direction of their chromatic inflection
- i.e. step upwards or downwards respectively

- Italian 6th:
Double scale degree 1
The doubled pitch resolves outward to the
third and the fifth of the V chord

- German 6th:
Use cadential 6/4 chord to avoid
parallel 5ths, or
Triple root and omit 5th to avoid
parallel 5ths

- French 6th:
One pitch (scale degree 2) is non-resolving
The other pitch (scale degree 1) resolves down to the leading tone

Augmented 6th Chords: Progression to V7:

- The raised 4th scale degree can be resolved before being lowered as part of V7
- Or the resolution can be elided
Augmented 6th Chords: Approaching Chords:

- Augmented 6th chords can be approached by a number of different diatonic chords, including:
- IV and II, and iv and ii (particularly in first inversion)
- I and i (particularly in minor)
- Vi in minor, and bIV in major

“Inversions”:

- Both of these augmented 6th chords are analysed as Fr6 in spite of their different voicing
- “inversions” might be apparent, if a note other than the flat 6th degree is in the bass –
relatively infrequent
- (Note the opportunity for highly chromatic bass lines)

Lecture 11:

Modulation Critera:

- Introduction of the new key

- Establishment of the new key (this is what makes modulation different to ‘tonicisation’)

Closely Related Keys:

- Keys both major and minor that either:

share the key signature of the original, or
have a key signature no more than one accidental away.
- Every key has 5 closely related keys
In major, these keys are built on the:

- Submediant (vi) (in C: Am)

- Dominant (V)(GM)
- Subdominant (IV)(FM)
- Mediant (iii)(Em)
- Supertonic (ii) (Dm)
 No relation to the Leading tone, as we can’t treat
diminished areas as a tonal area

In minor, these keys are built on the:

- Mediant (III) (in Am: C)

- Dominant (v) (Em)
- Subdominant (vi) (Dm)
- Subtonic (VII) (G)
- Submediasnt (vi) (VI)

Modulation:

 5 types, 5 different ways of introducing the new key:

1) Static modulation:
- Unprepared: old key ends, new key starts – no transitions or preparation
- Also called ‘phrase’ modulation

2) Pivot chord modulation:

- A pivot chord is a chord that exists diatonically in two keys
- Also called common chord modulation
- Can be short and abrupt, or prolonged
- Allows the transition to 5 closely related keys (including the dominant, sub-dominant and
relative major/minor)

Lecture 12:

Formal Analysis:

- Micro level:
Phrases
Motivic units
Cadences
- Macro level:
Periods, sections and episodes
Large-scale repetition and behaviour
Phrase repetition and development

Micro Level Analysis:

Thematic Structures:
 - Musical phrases are classified as either progressive or terminal depending on what kind of
cadence they finish with:

 Progressive:
Half, Deceptive, and Imperfect Authentic

 Terminal:
Plagal and Perfect Authentic

- Perfect Authentic:
- V or V7 to I
- Root position
- Melody finished on the tonic

- Imperfect Authentic:
- vii or vii7
- Not root position
- Melody finishes on a different note to the tonic (including 3rd and 5th)

Phrase Relationships:

- If the second phrase is an exact repeat of the previous phrase, the relationship is parallel
- If the second phrase is similar to the previous phrase but not an exact repeat, the relationship
is modified
- If the second phrase is decidedly different from the previous phrase, the relationship is
contrasting

Periods:

- A grouping of 2, or sometimes 3, complimentary phrases sharing thematic similarities

- Generally, these phrases will have an antecedent and consequent relationship
- Typically characterised by balance and symmetry
- Each major section of a piece usually consists of 1 or more period(s)

Macro Level Analysis:

A :||: B :|| - is known as binary form

ABA - is known as ternary form

A :||: B A’ :|| - is known as rounded binary form (repeated opening, repeating second theme consisting
of contrasting material and a modified treatment of the opening material

Lecture 13:

Modulation cont. (modulation to distant keys)

 3. Chromatic Modulation:

- A modulation that occurs through the chromatic alteration of a chord tone from the previous
key, creating a chord tone in the new key
- Frequently used to transition to distant keys
- Material after the point of modulation cannot be analysed in the old key
- And the material before the point of modulation cannot be analysed in the new key

4. Enharmonic Modulation:

- A modulation in which a chord common to

both the new and old keys is respelled
enharmonically to propel the progression
towards different keys
- These chords are usually either:
full-diminished 7th chords or dominant
7th/augmented 6th chords
- Convenient means of accessing distant keys
 Augmented 6th chords Enharmonic
Possibilities:
- Composers took advantage of the aural similarity between the augmented 6th (particularly the
German 6th) and dominant 7th-functioning chords
- Through enharmonic respelling, an augmented 6th can become a dominant 7th-functioninf
chord, and lead the harmony somewhere else entirely (eg. To a distant key)
- The same is true of the reverse (i.e. V7 into G6)
- This is another form of enharmonic modulation

5. Common Tone Modulation:

- A scale degree from the old key is sustained, becoming a new diatonic scale degree in the
new key
- There is no pivot or preparation chord; the modulation relies on a shared (common) tone
between the old and new keys
- Permits transitions to distant keys
- The common tone may or may not be respelled enharmonically

Lecture 14:

Exploration of Early Pre-Sonata Forms:

- 3 kinds of ‘early’ forms:

Binary
Ternary
Rounded Binary

- These forms have particular harmonic implications, where thematic development is directly
linked to harmonic exploration

Rounded Binary Form:

 - A kind of two part form, characterised by a repeated opening theme, then a repeated section
consisting of contrasting material and modified treatment of the opening material
- A :||: B A’ :||
- The opening theme (A) will frequently modulate (generally to V in major, or rel. major if in
minor), while the modified opening theme (A’) will remain in the tonic
- Rounded binary form is a precursor to sonata form

Early Sonata Form – History:

- Retains the basic structure and harmonic trajectory of rounded Binary

- Though is expanded and transformed
- Influenced by other instrumental and vocal forms (da capo aria, concerto, etc.)

Early Sonata Form – Structure:

- Retains the identity of a 2-part formal design, however comprising of three distinct sections:
Exposition
Development
Recapitulation
May included other passages, such as bridges, codas, codettas, etc.

Early Sonata Form – Thematic Considerations:

- Allowed greater thematic contrast than earlier forms:

Before 1750, a single movement would be more thematically unified: (present one musical
idea developed motivically throughout the composition)
Involves the exploration of at least two contrasting theme groups, themselves comprising
multiple thematic ideas

Early Sonata Form – Harmonic Considerations:

- Harmonic contrast and tonal direction is of primary concern

- Tonic-Dominant (I-V) relationship becomes a defining element of the composition
- Harmonic trajectory is ‘pendular’:
Leave home, explore somewhere new, come back home
The harmonic plan is the driving force for affecting thematic development
How is resolution achieved?

Comparisons between Rounded Binary and Early Sonata Form:

Similarities:
- Both contain 3 primary sections: A:||:BA:||
- Both have similar harmonic trajectories: I-V:||:? Or V-I:||
Differences:
 Basic thematic content:
- In Rounded Binary the A section is generally monothematic
- In early Sonata form the A section contains 2 contrasting themes, and possibly a codetta
- Varying degrees of complete returns of the A material
 Larger structural issues:
- In rounded Binary, the middle section (B) is a contrasting theme
- In early Sonata form the middle section develops the 2 themes presented in the exposition
- Early sonata form is harmonically more adventurous
Establishing Sonata Form:

- During the second half of the 18th century, composers such as Mozart and Hayden
consolidated ‘classical’ period sonata form, through:
- The flexibility of solo and chamber instrumental composition
- And the dramatic nature of the symphony composition
- Longer sections with more thematic ideas
- Greater textural variation
- Larger transitional passages
- More adventurous harmonic exploration
- Development section gained further freedom
- Took on different structural roles, depending on which movement it was employed in (1st, 2nd,
minuet or finale)

Lecture 17:

Counterpoint (Linear vs. Horizontal):

18th Century Counterpoint:

- Extensive melodic transformation
- Combining independent voices in intricate ways
- Rich textual exploration: polyphony
- Reached its zenith in the work of J.S. Bach

Motive:
- Small melodic unit with identifiable rhythmic
character and pitch behaviour
- Can be transformed through various things
- Countermotive: A complimentary motive to
the main

Contrapuntal Devices:

- Original (Prime)
- Inversion (reversing every interval,
rhythmically exactly the same)
- Retrograde (Putting a mirror on the melody)
- Retrograde Inversion (putting a mirror on the
melody, and then reversing the invervals)

 Note. In order to retain the diatonic quality, the

operation (inversion, retrograde, etc.) is performed on
the interval quantity (3rd, 4th, 5th, etc.) not the interval
quality (maj., min., etc.).

- Fragmentation
- Sequence
 - Augmentation (make longer)
- Diminution (make shorter)

- Interval Expansion (Melodic

Augmentation)
- Interval Contraction (Melodic
Diminution)

- Stretto (motivic statements pulled ‘tightly’ together to increase sense of drama)

Micro Analysis: Opening Statement and Middle Entry:

- Full statement(s) of Motive
- Countermotive
- Free material (doesn’t serve any motivic function – i.e. doesn’t return frequently)
- Linking Material
Micro Analysis: Episode:
- Based on portion of the motive/countermotive, and includes free material:
- Motivic fragmentation
- Motivic transformation and development
- Sequential treatment

Macro Analysis:

Observe large-scale behaviour:

- Number of motives (and Countermotives)
- Number of statements of the motive(s)
- Number of episodes
- Bridging passages
 - Prevalence of free material
- Harmonic Implications – i.e. modulations

Lecture 18 (18th Century Counterpoint – Canon and Invertible Counterpoint

Two-part Inventions:
- Motivic development and transformation (using contrapuntal devices, including inversion,
augmentation, etc.)
- Flexible form:
Opening statement of motive (and possible countermotive)
Episodes
Middle Entries
Bridging passages, etc.
- Most are examples of free imitative counterpoint

Canon:
- Strict form of imitative composition
- The second voice enters before the first voice finishes – continues to imitate the first voice for
a sustained length of time
 Distinction between:
- True canon (continuous imitation)
- Canonic Imitation (freer approach)

- Two voice canons are the most common, though 3, 4 and 5 voices are possible
- First voice = dux (leader)
- Subsequent or imitating voice = comes (follower)
- In many works featuring canonic imitation, the roles of the dux and comes can change

Invertible Counterpoint:
- Describes a scenario when two or more voices could work as the highest or lowest voice –
they are literally, ‘invertible’
- Also called double counterpoint
- Not to be confused with contrapuntal device known as inversion
- The most common form of invertible (double) counterpoint is at the octave (8ve)
- A voice is transposed up or down one or more octaves so that the second voice becomes the
upper/lower voice
- Inversion at the octave, you need to be careful of 4ths and 5ths: when a fifth is a prominent
interval, in inversion it becomes a fourth, which in 2-part writing is considered a dissonance,
so must be treated carefully

Canon: Primary Considerations:

- The time interval: the distance between the entries
- The harmonic interval: the interval at which the canon is occurring

Canon and Contrapuntal Devices:

- Inversion (Contrary Motion)
- Retrograde (Crab Canons)
- Augmentation
- Diminution
- Combinations (rarely)
 Lecture 19 Fugue:

Fugue:
- A type of contrapuntal composition with a clearly identifiable subject
- That is explored, as in a musical conversation
- Between three to five voices
- Using a mixture of strict and free approaches to imitative counterpoint,

Fugue – opening:
- A subject is stated in any of the voices
- The subjected is then imitated (answered) in another voice, while the first voice continues
with either free counterpoint, or a countersubject
- There may be a short bridge passage, before the third voice states the subject
- This answer is accompanied by either free counterpoint, or one or two countersubjects in the
other voices
- The behaviours continues until all voices have stated the subject
- The process is called the exposition – once all voices have stated the subject, the exposition is
complete

Fugue – Exposition:

Tonic (I) Dominant (V) Tonic (I)

st
1 voice Subject Countersubject
Bridge Countersubject
(1) or free(optional) (2) or free
nd
2 voice Answer Countersubject
(1) or free
rd
3 voice Subject
*sometimes there might be a fourth statement of the subject, so it will sound like a 4-voice
fugue with one voice dropped

Fugue – Subject

- Like motives, they have characteristic melodic and rhythmic features that make them easily
identifiable
- Can be of varying lengths – one or many measures
- May be submitted to all sorts of transformations throughout the composition, such as
fragmentation, inversion, augmentation, diminution, etc.
- May contain a short link, allowing the subject to transition to the subsequent material – this
link will not always be present (scalic, arpeggiated etc.)
- It is generally easy to see where a fugue subject ends: short cadential figure, or a feeling of
cadential motion + linking material

Fugue – Real vs. Tonal Answer

- When analysing fugues and other compositions, using imitative counterpoint, it is important
to investigate the nature of the answers
- are they real or tonal?
- If the answer occurs at the dominant level – i.e. imitated at the 5th and contains the same
intervallic relationships as the subject, it is said to be ‘real’ – it is an exact copy
- If the answer contains altered intervallic relationships compared to the subject, it is said to
be ‘tonal’
Tonal answers:

- Tonal answers retain the same shape and direction as the subject, despite one or more small
intervallic adjustments
- These adjustments are made due to the harmonic behaviour of the subject leading away from
the tonic, towards the dominant
- They affect the harmonic profile of the subject, helping to preserve the tonic harmony during
the early stage of the fugue (hence, ‘tonal’ answer)
- Generally, if a subject contains the dominant note early on, this will often necessitate a tonal
answer
- Similarly, a tonal answer generally follows a subject that begins on dominant note

Fugue – Countersubjects

- Like the subject, has melodic and rhythmic interest and is readily identifiable
- Generally not as distinct as the subject
- Complements the subject, rhythmically and harmonically
- May or may not be present, or might be more than one
- Must be invertible to the subject

Fugue – Bridge

- Provies an elegant link back to the statement of the subject in the tonic key
- Can incorporate motivic material from the subject and/or countersubject
- Can also be composed of free material
- May or may not be present

Fugue – next:

Development, containing any of the following:

- Episodes (featuring sequential material, motivic fragments, etc.) where no full statement of
the subject is present – move from one key to another
- Middle Entries – full statements of the subject, usually in a closely related key
- Use of contrapuntal devices, such as inversion, augmentation and diminution of the subject
(and countersubject), stretto, etc.
- Continuous forward motion – at least one voice is always moving, even through cadence
points
Recapitulation:
- Final statement of the subject in the original key
- Might behave like the exposition, with subject and answer at different intervals, or all
statements of the subject may stay at the tonic
- May feature a coda: free or motivic material leading to a final cadence

Lecture 19 (Fugue and the development of fugal composition into the 20th century)

Fugue:

Episodes: Featuring sequential material, motivic fragments, etc.) where no full statement of
the subject is present – move from one key to another
Textual variation – dropping out of voices is common during episodes
Middle entries: full statements of the subject, usually in a closely related key
Use of contrapuntal devices, particularly inversion, augmentation and diminution of the
subject (and countersubject) and stretto
A false Exposition
Always moving – never rests until the end

Fugue – Practical Issues:

- Balance up to 5 voices
- Textural variation – voices will drop out
- The more voices, generally the similar the material
- There needs to be consideration what the instrumentalist can play (must fit under the fingers)

Double Fugue:
- A type of fugue with two equally-important subjects stated at the same time at some point
during the composition
- The second subject may be stated during the exposition
- Or it may be stated after the exposition of the first subject
- Or it might have its own exposition

MEDIANT RELATIONSHIPS (and extended mixture):

The Tonic-Dominant Relationship:

- Functional harmony and small/large-scale musical structures rely on the tonic-dominant
dichotomy (don’t relate but work together)
- In most diatonic music (leading to the end of the 19th century) one can’t exist without the
other
- By nature, I-V is an oppositional and complimentary relationship
- In the 19th century, composers began to rely less on the dominant
- Began exploring structures based on cycles of thirds
- The contrast between tonic and (sub-)median (III and VI) is less pronounced – share 2 pitches
- So, the sense of departure from the tonic to the median is less pronounced
- Opportunity for chromatic exploration

Chords can be built on the diatonic of chromatic median (III/iii) or sub-mediant (VI/vi)
Mediant (III) Sub-Mediant (VI)

Mediant Relationships – Diatonic Mediants:

- Mediants which exist diatonically – i.e. without any chromatic alteration
 C Major: I bIII(b5) bVI(b5)

C minor: i #III(#5) #VI(#5)

Mixture – Simple:
- Borrowing notes from the parallel major/minor:
- Raising/flattening 3, 4 and 7 (scale degrees)
- *Mediants

Mediant Relationships: Chromatic Mediants

- Other chromatic mediants are derived through secondary mixture
Secondary Mixture
- Altering the 3rd of a triad which doesn’t result from normal mixture (always resulting in a
stable sonority)
- Raising/flattening 1, 4, 5 and sometimes 2 (scale degrees)
- *Mediants

The last chromatic mediants are derived through double-mixture:

Double Mixture:
- applies both simple and secondary mixture procedures:
- i.e. borrows between parallel major/minor + outside of the parallel major/minor:

Mediant (3rd) Relationships:

- Each key (major and minor) has a total of 8 mediants
- 2 diatonic mediants and 6 chromatic mediants
Extended Mixture:
- A combination of all three types of mixture allows the use of major and minor triads built on
any of the chromatic pitches, except #4 (scale degree) – which doesn’t occur diatonically in
major or minor keys
- Various seventh chords can also be modified through mixture, through some are more
common than others (eg. Full-dim 7ths, German and French 6ths)

Mediant Relationships:
3 different kinds:
1. Mediant key relationships:
- Large-scale harmonic movement according to median relations
2. Mediant root relationships:
- Harmonic sequences according to ascending/descending 3rds
3. Local median relationships:
- Includes the use of extended mixture within the context of a phrase or harmonic progression

Mediant Key Relationships:

- The median and/or sub-mediant are treated as key areas
- Can be arrived at through various modulations: static, common-tone, chromatic
- Involves a modulation up or down the diatonic or chromatic mediant
-
Progressions based on the cycle of thirds:
Arranging the diatonic triads in ascending thirds:

- Provides for a weak harmonic progression and regression

Arranging the diatonic triads in descending thirds:
Local Mediant Relationships:
- Use of chromatic mediants within the context of a harmonic progression
- Earlier uses: substitutions for the tonic, or dominant preparation
- Later uses: direct movement between the tonic and mediants

Chromatic Mediants:
- Chromatic mediant relations are highly expressive due to:
a) Shared or common tones
b) Linear movement by semitone
c) Bass motion by third

Chromaticism and Mediant Relations:

- Harmony is considerably freer – less ‘centered’ than it used to be
- Most ‘ chromatic’ music we have explored still operates under a diatonic framework
(functional rather than just colour)
- The precedence of remaining within one or a limited number of diatonic areas is overthrown
by the 19th century
- These, and other chromatic processes we’ve looked at this semester, all leads towards the
dissolution of functional harmony in the 20th century

Lieder:

19th Century German Art Song

Compositional Features:
 - Melodic simplicity
- Emphasis on natural phrasing derived from spoken word
- Harmonically adventurous – use of various chromatically inflected chords and distant
modulations
- Piano accompaniment supports the vocal line, but also embodies the emotional and narrative
content of the poetry

EXAM

Sharp 4th in the melody options:

- Applied V to V (dominant function chord)
- Augmented 6th chord (dominant preparation)
- Common-tone viio7
Flat 6th in the melody options:
- Mixture (bVI)
- Leading tone viio7
- Tonicisation of bIII
Piano Style:
- Greater flexibility regarding voice leading and doublings
- Left-hand accompaniment consisting of bass line + chordal accompaniment
- Compositional craft expect when creating accompaniment patterns: block chords, arpeggios, a
combination (look at the melody)