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1. Explain the different types of research.

2. Discuss the criteria of good research problem.
3. Describe the procedure used to test the hypothesis
4. Write a note on experimental design
5. Elaborate the ways of making a case study effective.
6. What is non probability sampling? Explain its types with examples.
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‘lthough any typology of research is inevitably arbitrary. Research may be classified crudely
according to its major intent or the methods. ‘ccording to the intent research may be classified as:
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It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any Intention to apply it in practice, e.g.,
Einstein's theory of relativity, Newton's contributions, Gatileo's contribution, etc. It is also known
as basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness.
It is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge. It may lead to either
discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It lays foundation for applied
research. It offers solutions to marry practical problems It helps to find the critical factors in a
practical problem. It develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best
solution
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it is carried on to ‘nd solution to d real-life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is
thus problem-oriented and action-directed, It seeks an immediate and practical result, e.g.,
marketing research carried on for developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase
experience of customers. Though the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find solutions
to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the development of theoretical knowledge by
loading to the discovery of new facts or testing of theory or a conceptual clarity. It can put theory
to the test. t may aid in conceptual clarification !t may integrate previously existing theories
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It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which
the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined
objectives. It usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research may be to generate
new ideas, or to increase the researcher's familiarity with the problem or to make a precise formulation
of the problem or to gather information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to
attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies. "‘t the first level is the
discovery of the significant variable in the situations; at the second, the discovery of relationships
between variables."
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It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest type of research. It is
more specific than an exploratory research. It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a
community or institution or problem under study and also aims at a classification of the range of
elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to the development of a young science
and useful in verifying focal concepts through empirical observation. It can highlight important
methodological aspects of data collection and interpretation. The information obtained may be useful
for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the research. They are valuable in
providing facts needed for planning social action program.
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It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering what is
happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a
problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering and testing
whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior knowledge of the problem,
its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given population, adequate methods for collecting
accurate information, precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test of significance.
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It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic
programmers implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental projects on the development
of the project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and
its performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its success. It is concerned
with causal relationships and is more actively guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change
over time.
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It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action programme launched
for solving a problem for improving an exiting situation. It includes six major steps: diagnosis,
sharing of diagnostic information, planning, developing change programme, initiation of
organizational change, implementation of participation and communication process, and post
experimental evaluation.

‘ccording to the methods of study, research may be classified as:

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It is designed to asses the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon
by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what
manner variables are related to each other.
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It is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative
data. It may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to
numerical data. Hence it is also known as the Statistical Method. It aims at testing hypothesis and
specifying and interpreting relationships.

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It is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to
reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or a movement or a system and
discovering the trends in the past. It is descriptive in nature. It is a difficult task; it must often depend
upon inference and logical analysis or recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon direct
observation.
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It is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of data directly from a population or
a sample thereof at particular time. Its purpose is to provide information, explain phenomena, to make
comparisons and concerned with cause and effect relationships can be useful for making predications
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Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research:
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That is factual observations which other observers can see and check.
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That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a statement or describing things
exactly as they are and avoiding jumping to unwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or
fantasizing.

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That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or measurement. This avoids colorful
literature and vague meanings.
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That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting data in a systematic and organized way so
that the conclusions drawn are reliable. Data based on casual recollections are generally incompleteand
give unreliable judgments and conclusions.
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That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It means observation is unaffected by
the observer's values, beliefs and preferences to the extent possible and he is able to see and accept
facts as they are, not as he might wish them to be.
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That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since human memory is
fallible, all data collected are recorded.
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That is controlling all variables except one and then attempting to examine what happens when that
variable is varied. This is the basic technique in all scientific experimentation ± allowing one variable to
vary while holding all other variables constant.
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To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher has collected) whether or not the
hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the main question is: whether the null hypothesis or
not to accept the null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to all those steps that we
undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e., rejection and acceptance of a null
hypothesis. The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated below:
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The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho) and also of the alternative
hypothesis (Ha). This means that hypothesis should clearly state, considering the nature of the research
problem. For instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the load bearing
capacity of an old bridge which must be more than 10 tons, in that case he can state his hypothesis
as under
Null hypothesis Ho: N =10 tons ‘lternative hypothesis Ha: N >10 tons Take another example. The
average score in an aptitude test administered at the national level is 80. To evaluate a state's education
system, the average score of 100 of the state's students selected on the random basis was 75. The
statements to know if there is a significance difference between the local scores and the national scores.
In such a situation the hypothesis may be state as under,

Null hypothesis Ho: N =80 ‘lternative hypothesis Ha: p 0 80 the formulation of hypothesis is an important
step which must be accomplished with due care in accordance with the object and nature of the
problem under consideration. It also indicates whether we should use a tailed test or a two tailed test. If
Ha is of the type greater than, we use alone tailed test, but when Ha is of the type "whether greater or
smaller" then w. use a two-tailed test.
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The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such the same should have
specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1 % level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that
affect the level of significance are:
‡The magnitude of the difference between sample ;
‡The size of the sample;
‡The variability of measurements within samples;
‡Whether the hypothesis is directional or non - directional (‘ directional hypothesis is one which predicts
the direction of the difference between, say, means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate
in the context of the purpose and nature of enquiry.
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‘fter deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate
sampling distribution. The choice generally remains between distribution and the t distribution. The rules
for selecting the correct distribution are similar to those which we have stated earlier in the context of
estimation.

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‘nother step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an appropriate value from the sample data
concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish
empirical data.
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One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as it has from
expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.
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Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with the specified value for a, the
significance level. If the calculated probability is equal to smaller than a value in case of one tailed test
(and a/2 in case of two-tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis),
but if the probability is greater then accept the null hypothesis. In case we reject Ho we run a risk of (at
most level of significance) committing an error of type I, but if we accept Ho, then we run some risk of
committing
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Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:
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The experiment should be reaped more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental
units instead of one. By doing so, the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. For example,
suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we may divide the field into
two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in the other part. We can compare the
yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication
to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half of these parts
and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can collect the data yield of the two varieties and draw
conclusion by comparing the same. The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to the
conclusion we draw without applying the principle of replication. The entire experiment can even be
repeated several times for better results. Consequently replication does not present any difficulty, but
computationally it does. However, it should be remembered that replication is introduced in order to
increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy with which the main effects and
interactions can be estimated.
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It provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by
randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the `experimenting
such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general
heading of "chance". For instance if we grow one variety of rice say in the first half of the parts of field and
the other variety is grown in the other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in
the first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results would not be realistic. In such a
situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some
random sampling technique i.e., we may apply randomization principle and protect ourselves against the
effects of extraneous factors. ‘s such, through the application of the principle of randomization, we can
have a better estimate of the experimental error.
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It is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the
extraneous factors, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a ranges
necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and
hence eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the experiment in a
manner that we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in which the total variability of the data is
divided into three components attributed to treatments, the extraneous factor and experimental error. In
other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous
parts, known as blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatments.
Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. In general, blocks are the levels at
which we hold an extraneous factors fixed, so that we can measure its contribution to the variability of the
data by means of a two-way analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can
eliminate the variability due to extraneous factors from the experimental error.
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Experimental design refers to the framework of structure of an experiment and as such there are several
experimental designs. We can classify experimental designs into two broad categories. Informal
experimental and formal experimental designs. Informal experimental designs are those designs that
normally use a less sophisticated form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes, where as formal
experimental designs offer relatively more control and use precise statistical procedures for analysis.
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Before and after without control design
‘fter only with control design
Before and after with control design
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Completely randomized design (CR design)
Randomized block design (RB design)
Latin square design (LS design)
Factorial design
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John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as follows:
I)The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is, the case drawn out from its total
context for the purposes of study must be considered a member of the particular cultural group or
community.
The scrutiny of the life histories of persons must be done with a view to identify thee community values,
standards and their shared way of life.
ii) The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is, the action of the individual cases must
be viewed as a series of reactions to social stimuli or situation. In other words, the social meaning of
behavior must be taken into consideration.
iii) The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be recognized. That is, incase of
an individual being the member of a family, the role of family in shaping his behavior must never be
overlooked.
iv) The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social behavior must be clearly shown.
That is case histories that portray in detail how basically a biological organism, the man, gradually
blossoms forth into a social person, are especially fruitful.
v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood through adulthood must be stressed. In
other words, the life history must be a configuration depicting the inter-relationships between thee
person¶s various experiences.
vi) Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor. One of the important criteria
for the life history is that a person's life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and partly
owing to specific social situations.
vii) The 'life history material itself must be organized according to some conceptual framework, this in turn
would facilitate generalizations at a higher level.

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Non-probability sampling or non-random sampling is not based on the theory of probability. This sampling
does not provide a chance of selection to each population element.
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The only merits of this type of sampling are simplicity, convenience and low cost.
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The demerits are it does not ensure a selection chance to each population unit. The selection probability
sample may not be a representative one. The selection probability is unknown. It suffers from sampling
bias which will distort results.
The reasons for usage of this sampling are when there is no other feasible alternative due to non-
availability of a list of population, when the study does not aim at generalizing the findings to the
population, when the costs require for probability sampling may be too large, when probability sampling
required more time, but the time constraints and the time limit for completing the study do not permit it. It
may be classified into:
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It means selecting sample units in a just µhit and miss¶ fashion E.g. interviewing people whom we happen
to meet. This sampling also means selecting whatever sampling units are conveniently available, e.g., a
teacher may select students in his class. This method is also known as accidental sampling because the
respondents whom the researcher meets accidentally are included in the sample.

!1)+, Though this type of sampling has no status, it may be used for simple purposes such asc
testing ideas or gaining ideas or rough impression about a subject of interest.c
.#/: It is the cheapest and simplest, it does not require a list of population and it does notc
require any statistical expertise.
.#/, The disadvantage is that it is highly biased because of researchers subjectivity, it iscthe
least reliable sampling method and the findings cannot be generalized.c
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This method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to some pre-determined criteria.
This is also known as judgment sampling. This involves selection of cases which we judge as the most
appropriate ones for the given study. It is based on the judgment of the researcher or some expert. It
does not aim at securing a cross section of a population. The chance that a particular case be selected
for the sample depends on the subjective judgment of the researcher.

!1)+, This is used when what is important is the typicality and specific relevance of thecsampling
units to the study and not their overall representative ness to the population.c
.#/, It is less costly and more convenient and guarantees inclusion of relevant elements incthe
sample.c
.#/, It is less efficient for generalizing, does not ensure the representative ness, requiresc
more prior extensive information and does not lend itself for using inferential statistics.
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This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible sampling units by
traits such as sex, age, social class, etc. It is a method of stratified sampling in which the selection within
strata is non random. It is this Non-random element that constitutes its greatest weakness.

!1)+, It is used in studies like marketing surveys, opinion polls, and readership surveys whichc
do not aim at precision, but to get quickly some crude results.
.#/, It is less costly, takes less time, non need for a list of population, and field work canc
easily be organized.

.#/, It is impossible to estimate sampling error, strict control if field work is difficult,c
and subject to a higher degree of classification.

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This is the colorful name for a technique of Building up a list or a sample of a special population by using
an initial set of its members as informants. This sampling technique may also be used in socio-metric
studies.

!1)+: It is very useful in studying social groups, informal groups in a formal organization,c
and diffusion of information among professional of various kinds.
.#/, It is useful for smaller populations for which no frames are readily available.c
.#/, The disadvantage is that it does not allow the use of probability statistical methods.c
It is difficult to apply when the population is large. It does not ensure the inclusion of all the elements
in the list.