104

CHAPTER - III

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS - INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

Environmental ethics as an academic discipline came into the scene

in west during 1970's. Now, environmental ethics is accepted to be a major

academic discipline throughout the world. Although conceived under the

philosophy of applied ethics, environmental ethics surpasses all the

academic barriers and this subject is not limited in academic world alone.

But still, there is a general sense of feeling that compared to Eastern

traditions of ecological heritage, environmental ethics has many pitfalls. So

the major concern of the study is what makes the Eastern tradition,

especially Indian tradition of ecological heritage preferable to western

oriented environmental ethics. It is not because India is having oldest

civilization. One can not claim that being oldest among all traditions, Indian

tradition is most preferred. It is not biological time that proves worthiness of

Indian ecological tradition. It is because unlike west, Indian ecological

tradition is not an outcome of environmental crisis. In the west,

academicians stai1ed to think about environmental ethics when cns1s

emerged and environmental issues started to mount. So western

environmental ethics is the outcome of environmental crisis. In contrast,

Indian ecological heritage is not a result of environmental crisis, but our

ecological heritage is the real outcome of man's communion with nature.

 105

Western community saw nature as a thing to be experimented. Indian

community on the other hand, saw nature as a thing to be experienced with

it. Westerners' attitude to nature as a thing to be exploited resulted in losing

harmony and balance in nature.

It was only after 1972' s Stockholm conference that the western world

came to know that this earth comprises not man alone but plants and animals

also. Until then, the exploitative strategy followed by man made him as an

isolated one. Now, he realized that he can not live lonely in this world, that

he is only one of the links in this biosphere. But it was not the case of India.

Indian culture lived in a world of unity, our religion, culture and literature,

every thing voiced unanimously to pay respect to nature.

Indian spirituality can be characterized as nature based spirituality.

Ancient Indian literature speaks about divine relationship between

materialism and spiritualism. In modem society, the concept of satisfaction

is limited in materialism alone. But it was not the case in the past. We lost

the spiritual peace and stuck up in materialism. A return to the former state

is possible only through reading of ancient texts.

Almost all the Indian philosophical systems teach that man is part of

the divine, an integral pati of the divine being. There is also an integral bond
 106

between nature and divinity. Since divinity is an integral part of both man

and nature, Indian philosophical systems maintain a harmonious and holistic

relation between man and nature. Indian literature is rich with vivid

description of nature, throughout the time, from ancient period to present

day. "We never had merely a utilitarian relationship with nature. Our bond

with nature was not founded merely on the general qualities of its greenway

and the comf011s accruing from it. In India the meaning of the term 'nature'

is not just restricted to the world of vegetations, or to the physical world. We

have comprehended nature as a cosmic system and that is why we have

always tried to be natural in all our activities". 1

It is said that Hinduism is an environmentally sensitive philosophy.

The main reason for this sensitivity is that everything is part of the Supreme

Being. So our perception of nature was a thing to be experienced, not a thing

to be exploited. In all the Indian philosophical systems there is not a single

instance of antagonism towards nature. Whether it is Vedas, Upanishads·,

Ramayana, Mahabharata or Puranas, all preach about the holy relation

between man and nature. For an Indian, staiting from a stone to the animal,

everything is a thing to be worshiped. Westem modem society criticized

Indian attitude towards nature as animism as they could not find any value to

nature and considered only man is having values. Now, they are looking for

1
Banwari, pancavati - Indian Approach to Environment (Delhi: Sri. Vinayaka Publications. 1992).
p. XVI
 107

alternative ways of environment protection and found that only Asian

traditions, especially Indian traditions is having complete philosophy of

ecological view. This ecological view is not limited in abstract concepts but

each Indian's day starts with reverence to nature. So application oriented

philosophy, especially applied environmental philosophy has been practised

by Indians for centuries.

The hist01y of man's evolution from unconscious animal to conscious

rational animal is also the history of environment. Environmental history is

also the history of environmental crisis. When materialist development

started its continuous journey to unravel the myste1ious forces in nature,

environmental crisis also developed as a by product. The materialist

development in human evolution has lot of stories to tell about man's

relationship with nature. In the beginning nature stood like a great magician

in front of man, exhibiting the magical powers, sometimes nurturing and

caressing man with her calm weather and at some other times threatened

man's existence by strong forces of earth like earthquake, thunderstorms etc.

Man became deeply interested in this magic and wanted to know the secrets

of this magic. This was man's first journey to unravel the mystery.

This quest to unravel the mystery of nature helped and developed an

interest in man to travel and discover new places and lands, man's unsecured
 108

nature and openness to danger from nature kindled man's desire to control

wild animals; this was the first step towards controlling nature. The

insecurity from nature's part made man to create his own conducive

environment and culture. Man's will to exist against forces of nature gained

him new knowledge and with this new knowledge he started new tools for

exploration. The advent of science with the help of industrial revolution

increased man's desire to have more and more material wealth and this

opened the Pandora's Box. Thus, unethical and immoral practices started to

dominate in all areas including environment, and by unraveling the

chemistry of environment, man started to play God with the help of his new

tool - science and technology. This resulted in the present day ecological

imbalance and pollution.

The present day man is engaged with a new journey, a journey to

search ways and means to overcome environmental crisis. This

environmental crisis is a long drawn one and it has multilayers like

pollution, extinction of species ecological imbalance, over population etc.

As the problem is diverse, the search for solution to the problem also is

diverse, which gave rise to various environmental movements and nature

preservation programs. As a solution to the environmental problems man

employed all ways, both scientific and non-scientific. Man started to realize

that scientific solution is not ultimate answer to the problem and crisis is still
 109

left untouched. So it is primarily concerned with man's mode of thinking

and behavior - the net result in relation to environment was environmental

ethics. Indian tradition is rich with ethics of environmental care and Indians

need not go to modem prophets of environmentalism. What they are

intended to do is simply to give a repeated reading of their own philosophic

texts and a re-understanding of their own practices, both religious and

cultural.

Indian philosophical and cultural traditions in Ecology

Philosophy and philosophical systems are commonly perceived as

pertaining exclusively spiritual and metaphysical content and it has nothing

to do with man's day to day affairs. In contrast to this, science and

technology are viewed as systems to develop man's material progress and

have no connection with spiritual process of man. So the

compaitmentalization of materialism and spirituality created the crisis. This

crisis is deep rooted in ecological problem because value is attached with

spirituality or philosophy and practice is attached with science or

materialism. So the crisis mounts when science aims at only material

progress without any due care to value system. Now, we are in a paradox

that ou r science and technological systems fail to give basic material

facilities. The resources of earth are replenishing fast and science and
 110

technology stand helplessly to refill the resource basis. So this situation is a

chance to reappraise our traditional philosophical and cultural attitude

. toward materialism in general and ecology in particular.

The essence of Indian philosophical tradition is that it teaches us to

live in partnership than exploitation. In all indigenous Indian cultures, the

earth has a sacred role, the role of a mother who nurtures and preserves . Our

great rsis wishes that.

"Saptadbveepa Nivasinam

Praninam akshaiyamupanistatu"

"Let all the living creatures in the seven continents be blessed"

According to Indian philosophical tradition, the world of man,

animal, the flora and the fauna, everything thing is existing only because the

elements made of everything is similar. They comprise the sky (akasa), air

(vayu), fire or energy (Agni), water (Jala) and soil (Prithvi). This concept

stands for the crucial lesson of ecology, i.e. harmonious balance of all

be ings. So these are the life -supporting systems of whole earth. "Man's

urge to paiticipate in the cosmic drama is expressed daily through gestures:

by offering water with folded hands to the sun God, by kindling the sacred

fire, by attrition of the two aranis or lighting the home fire, by pouring ghee

on fire, by fumigating the house, by pouring water at the foot of trees, by

 111

ritual bathing in rivers, by the conservation of sacred groves, by garlanding

of domestic animals in fact, by all acts of daily life that becomes rituals in

that they associate man with nature. 2

So an investigation into the traditional Indian philosophical systems

reveals two crucial aspects in relation with ecology.

1. All the traditional systems prescribe about man's relationship with

nature/environment as a mode of sustenance and material prosperity.

2. Such prescription is also important from the point of view of

hannonious balance between all creatures. This also provides social

hannony and peaceful co-existence.

Indian philosophical systems provide an environmental philosophy

based on ethics and a cultural system which cares for all natural entities. Our

great seers foresaw the dangers of environmental crisis even when there is

no chaos. They prescribed certain rules for the protection of environment in

relation with religion, so that men may follow these rules in the fear of God.

But with the impact of west, we ridiculed such practices as dogmatic. If we

look back to Indian systems of philosophy, we can see that they can

contribute much to the environmental philosophy. "Religious traditions have

! Marta vannucci, "Tradition and Change" in Geeti Sen, ed., Indigenous vision (New Delhi: Sage
Publishers, 1992). p.p 25 - 26
 112

a dual role in the search for peace in contempora1y times. At the level of

resource - use they can provide the value framework which makes prudent

and hence, sustainable use of resources possible and thus create the material

conditions for peace. At the level of social conflicts, they can prevent the

social consequences of resource degradation from taking on a communal and

sectarian form, by reminding the religious communities that all religions

teach peaceful co-existence. Never before have the teachings and traditions

of religions been more alienated from society and never before has the need

for their guidance been g�ater". 3

The indigenous peoples of India have developed effective methods of

land and water harvesting system that have been sustainable over many

centuries. They owe their experience and knowledge mainly to the cultural

philosophy which they were following through centuries. Such traditional

peoples still hold rare wisdom about natural resource usage by keeping a

haimony with ecosystems like forests.

The belief of ancient people that culture was born and developed in

the forests and forests stands as a resource for human survival made them to

have respectful attitude to nature. The forests played a vital part in evolving

cultural patterns of India. "Most of the ancient books like Vedas, Puranas,

B.V. Krishnamurthy and YRS Schoettli, "Environment in India's Religious and Cultural
1
·
Traditions'' in J. Bandyopdhyay. ed.. India's Environment-Crisis and Responses (Dehradun:
Natarj Publishers. 1985) p.160
 113

Brahmans and Aranyakas were written by Rsis' living in forests. One finds

reference to there main types of vana of ancient times i.e. Mahavana,

Tapovana, and Srivana. Mahavana was devoid of human habitation and the

human interference was therefore negligible. Such forests were dense, virgin

and natural covering large mountainous and low lying areas. Lord Siva is

believed to be the presiding deity of these forests. Tapovana was the forests

where the sages did tapas. Our Upanishads and Aranyakas were written in

those forests. Most of the tapovanas are extinct now. These forests were

actually full of plants and trees which gave edible and medicinal leaves,

roots, fmits, shades and soothing climates. Srivanas were local forests and

were managed by village and town panchayats. They were full of various

kinds of trees, depending on soil, climate and other environmental

conditions and local needs. Thus the concept of social forestry was born to

Indians even in that hoary past" .4

The entire ecological crisis in present day society is mainly because

the so called modem society is built up in parallel with industrial society. In

the past, Indian society was deeply rooted in nature and Indian civilization is

a major contribution of nature. In contrast to this, the present day society has

an antagonistic attitude towards the nature. Although we can generally reach

to the conclusion that Indian environmental crisis is only the result of global

1
• Bansilal Malla, Trees in Indian Art, A{ythology and Folklore (New Delhi: Aryan Books
International, 2000), p.8
 114

crisis in environment, but being a unique country in its own, India failed to

keep its uniqueness in nature. When a country attains freedom, it means that

it has ceased to be a dependent country, but we continued to depend

mentally on westerners and followed western planning process. Western

history, religion, and culture were rooted in exploitation of nature. But

Indian history, religion and culture are rooted in peaceful co-existence. It is

high time that we rediscover the wisdom of India.

So the primary duty of all Indians is to rediscover and reacquire the

lost wisdom of ancient India. It does not mean that we should go back to

Vedic period. It also does not mean that we should spread the religious

tenets. Wisdom is high above all the religions. As the only cultured animal,

man has the duty to show the traits of culture by recognizing the value of

everything. Indian spirituality is wisdom oriented and this wisdom is not

limited in books and laws. It is within eve1y one of us. Consciously or

unconsciously we are following it. Our approach to nature is unique one

with worshiping trees and animals in all forms. Such an approach which

takes into consideration everything should be followed by everything. Such

wisdom is lost in cities and modernized societies. Modernization should

occur in our mind structure also. Rediscovering past does not mean that we

should follow the cultural patterns which were practiced in past. Custom is

not constant. When a past custom does not fit into present situation, we

should discard it. Wisdom lies is accepting appropriate selection.

 115

Environment in Vedic literature

Cultural and philosophical response to environmental crisis means

rediscovering and redefining concepts, value systems and philosophy of life

styles. India is a country with rich natural entities and it means that India

followed respectful attitudes in preserving this natural entities. This attitude

was the result of our heritage and our ecological ethics must be based on this

cultural philosophy. Even because of wide geographical area, we never

failed in respecting nature. India is a land of many cultural patterns, but all

cultural patterns showed wisdom in natural resource utilization. So the

ancient Indian culture followed an ethic of conservation mixed with

spirituality. With the establishment of British Kingdom we became weak in

protecting and respecting our natural environment. British industrial society

totally destructed our conservation ethics and in its place we continued this

exploitation strategy even after attaining freedom. So a deep understanding

of our cultural philosophy is needed in order to establish a harmonious

relation between man and environment.

Ranchor Prime is his seminal work 'Hinduism and Ecology' says that

"Western civilization needs to rediscover the balance and harmony which it

has lost. We must take advantage of the fact that we are now a global

community and are no longer limited to learning from only one tradition.
 116

There are many sources of wisdom left to us all over the world. The west has

much to learn from the wisdom traditions of India. Having exposed most of

the rest of the world to our own traditions, and having largely abandoned

them ourselves, we now need to learn form others, to put aside our swords

and guns, our computers and microscopes, our cars and televisions, and have

the courage and vision to journey in new territory where these seemingly in

dispensable aids may be of little value". 5 Ancient Indian philosophy in

relation to ecology is rich with preventive awareness about environment. It

is preventive awareness because there was no environmental crisis as it is

today. But still, they were concerned -about environment. The main reason

for their concern was the attitude towards nature. Attitudes are mainly

depending on the surroundings and Indians have developed a nature of

'fellowness' in their relation with nature. On the contrast, westerners

developed a master -slave attitude towards nature. So the westerners wanted

power to control the world. But ancient rsis wanted wisdom in order to get

free from the life-disturbing factors. Marta vannucci clearly mentions about

this point. "The fundamental difference between the science of the ancient

rsis and the science of the west, lies in the aims for which the learned

persons of the priesthood sought truth: the 'unveiling of Rta'. Knowledge in

the west was basically used to acquire power; technicalities had priority over

pure knowledge. Even scholastic philosophy is in many ways the

5
Ranchor Prime, Hinduism and Ecology- seeds of Truth (New York: Cassel Publishers. 1992), p. 5
 117

methodological and technical aspect of ancient philosophies, but discusses

no new truths. In the East, as revealed clearly in the Vedas, knowledge was

gained basically for the purpose of acquiring wisdom. Wisdom was the aim

of the rsi and wisdom was applied even for developing techniques to

improve the quality of life, as for instance Ayurveda or Yoga". 6 The Vedic
7
rsis believed that it is only through wisdom that one can obtain immortality.

In Vedic period there was no distinction between philosophy and

religion. The Vedic man interpreted nature with the help of analogies and

personification. The main aim of Vedic man was to obtain knowledge. In his

mn for obtaining knowledge, nature played a vital part. In fact, nature was

his teacher and Vedic man learnt lessons of survival mainly form nature. In

this sense, Vedic man worshipped nature as a mother of which this form of

worshipping is continued even today. "The Vedic poets populated nature

with personal gods, yet the naturalistic basis was never forgotten and hence,

due to incomplete personification, the gods were not gods in the true sense

of the te1m and, consequently, Vedic mythology is only "a mythology in the

making". 8 In ancient India, all the Vedic truths were learned and taught

under the shades of trees which they considered auspicious. Some trees

gained special recognition and poems were composed about the trees. Our

6
Marta Yannucci. Human Ecology in the Vedas (New Delhi: DK print world (P) Ltd., 1999),
P.P. 2 - 3
Keno Upanishads Section II Verse 4 in P.B. Gajendragadkar, The Ten Classical Upanishads
1

(Bombay: Bharatiya vidya Bhavan, 1981), p.209_ . . .

Uma Gupta. Materialism in the Vedas (New Dellu: Class1cal Pubhshmg Company. 1987) p.150
8
 118

Rsis believed that each tree has a vriksha-devata or tree deity and should

worship that particular tree deity with reverence.

They reordered the details about each tree in detail and particularly

about medicinal plants. This system of scientific recording excels even

modern classification "Because they lived in the forest the early Vedic

teachers attached great importance to trees. Beneath a tree was the correct

place for a disciple to receive spiritual instruction from a guru. The tree was

the symbol of patience and tolerance. The sages carefully studied and

recorded the herbal and medicinal properties of the forest. Some trees gained

special significance and poems and prayers were composed about them and

the spirits dwelling within them". 9 Indian sages identified man with nature.

In the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, the sage Yajnavalkya equates man with a

tree-"As is the mighty tree so indeed is a man: this is true. His hairs are the

leaves and his skin is the outer bark". 10

India's cultural heritage is rich with stories and descriptions about

mutual harmony between man and nature. The Vedic. person was in a

transition stage, a stage he had developed with his intellectual capacity, and

considered himself that nature had blessed him by giving such a life. Vedic

man treated himself as part of nature. Vedic man believed that the Supreme

9
RanchorPrime. op.cit. p.9
Nitya Chaitanya Yati, The Brahadaranyaka Upanishad (here onwards Br. UP) III 9.28 (Delhi:
10

D.K. print world Ltd: 1993), p.316

 119

Being incarnates in the form of different species. So each species is

important and sacred. So for Vedic man God and nature was same. At the

same time, Vedic societies felled trees for agricultural purpose and cleared

land and killed wild animals but still, hey were conscious of the ecological

worthiness which is evident through their literatures. "A vedic person

describes plants as mothers and Goddesses.

0 plants, I pray you as mothers and Goddesses". 11

The Vedic literature is full of stories with sentimental relationship of

man and environment. He was more closely attached with environment and ·

conceived environment as equal partners. During this period, human habits

and ways of living were influenced by the environment and surroundings.

His concept of family includes not only humans but also cattle, pets etc.

"Feeling of love and attachment towards environment, expression of belief,

gratitude and sacrifice in special circumstances for environmental

conservation are true human sentiments. If we feel oneness with all the

constituents of environment of a particular area, feel happy if it prospers and

feel sad if it degrades; this is the best of our environmental consciousness.

This is the vedic concept towards environment and its constituents". 12

11
"Suk/a Yajun,eda 12. 76"in Ralph Frigith,Yajurveda Samhita(New Delhi: Nag Publications,1990)
12
Ranjay Pratap Singh, "Environment and Vedic Literature" in D.C. Srivastava, ed, Readings in
Environmental Ethics-Multidisciplinary perspectives (New Delhi: Rawat publications. 2005)
p.108
 120

Hinduism and Natural environment

To study the development of Hindu Philosophical Systems' attitude

towards nature, we should start from vedic period where the earliest hymns

of human thought is dedicated to natural powers. When the earliest man

passed the evolutionary form from animal to rational man, he was stuck by

the powers and chaims of nature. He started learning the forces of nature by

worshipping them in all forms. It was nature which nurtured human intellect

with food for thought and food for body. Consequently the whole culture of

Vedic man developed by worshipping nature and he glorified the nature's

powers. Nature, for Vedic man provided a firm platform to develop and

harness skills for human survival. Nature was his guide in all stages of

development, from satisfying bodily needs to spiritual needs. This

dependence resulted in personifying various deities like sun, (Surya) fire

(Agni) etc. Initially such worshipping was in the form of mass worshipping

and people demanded favors for such worshipping in return. The cultural

aspect of Hindu Philosophy is expressed as 'Forest culture'. This forest

culture or Aranya Sanskriti started from Vedic period. The importance given

to trees and to forests is clearly mentioned in Vedas, since forests played a

vital role in shaping the culture of ancient man. It taught him the most

important lessons of living, made him to survive in his own terms, educated

him in the importance of human collectiveness Domesticated animals and

 121

fruit bearing trees made him to believe that he is one among nature's sons.

Medicinal plants made him conscious of nature's worthiness.

Indian culture is not wholly spiritual oriented or material oriented, we

kept a balance between the two. Our attitudes and concepts of material

prosperity are not limited in man alone, but include all living beings

including plants and trees. "Only that culture can prosper which is beneficial

to all, in which people's interest do not clash unnecessarily, in which even

the life of birds and animals is being made comfortable, and along with this

the resources provided by nature are being used in such a way that as we use

them we can also increase them in the same proportion". 13 We formulated

elaborate rules for farming. Such rules ensured that the land is used properly

and fertility is maintained through organic farming. According to Indian

concept, all vegetation, animals and humans emerge from the first principle

of world order, i.e. seed and womb; both are energized by prana (breath). 14

Our ancient culture always encouraged planting of trees and such acts

of planting trees and maintaining gardens of different flowers were told to

inherit swargam, or a place in the heaven. At the same time, we also

encouraged superstitions in order to ban the cutting of trees. Indian folklores

such as yaksas were made to believe that some deities inhabited in trees and

13
Banwari. op.cit. p.13
14
Bancilal malla, op. Cit. p.59
 122

should not cut down. For cutting the trees for material purpose like

constmction activities, very elaborate rituals should be followed. Our

ancestors identified each trees with particular God or Goddess so that such

trees may be preserved for the benefit of humanity. Such concept is not mere

animistic form, but they contained wisdom and this wisdom is expressed

through the language of myth and innumerous symbols. "The pivot, around

which Indian myth moves, not unlike that of other parts of ancient world, is

ecological balance". 15 The villagers of India considered the trees as their

natural friends which helped them to maintain a fertile soil and which checks

the soil erosion.

Prithvi Sukta is an important hymn dedicated to the earth. In the name

of this hymn, India received much acclaim for carefully presenting the

beautiful expression of nature through ancient cultural philosophy. Prithvi

Sukta advices mankind to use the resources of nature in an intelligent way,

so that future generation is also benefited from it. In a sense, Prithvi Sukta

can be called as a reminder about man's dependence on mother earth. The

earth is seen as abode of a family of plants, animals, man and every living

and non-living entities. 'Vasudha' means "this earth", while 'kutumba'

means "extended family" including human beings, animals and all living

beings. Every entity and organism is part of one large extended family

Kapila Vatsyayan, "Ecology and Indian Myth" in Geeti Sen, ed: Indigenous vision (New Delhi:
15

Sage Publication. 1992) p. 161

 123

system presided over by the eternal mother Earth. It is she who supports us

with her abundant endowments and riches; it is she who nourishes us; it is

she who provides us with a sustainable environment; and it is she who, when

angered by the misdeeds of her children, punishes them with disasters". 16

Prithvi Sukta gives a detailed elaborate about water, air and soil. In

Prithvi Sukta, the earth is conceived as mother who represents ecological

balance.

For evoking the mother earth, the rsis recite

"Oh mother earth sacred are thy hills,

Snowy mountains and deep forests. Be kind to us and bestow upon us

happiness

May you be fertile, arable and nourisher of all. May you continue

suppmting people of all races and nations May you protect us from

your anger. And no one exploits and subjugates your children". 17

Prithvi Sukta says that the mother earth treats all the elements of

nature in an equal manner, so that the equilibrium is maintained in a rational

16
Christopher Key Chapple and Mary Elvin tucker, ed., Hinduism and Ecology (Oxford: Oxford
11
University Press. 2000) p. 9
Atharva Veda, Kanda 12 hymn 1 verse II in O.P. Dwivedi, Vasudhaiva kutumbakam: A
Commentary on Atharva Vediya Prithvi Sukta, 2"d edn (jaipur:Jnstitute for Research and
Advanced Studies, J 998)p.18
 124

manner. It maintains that "no group or nation has any authority over the

attn'butes of earth". 18

According to Indian Philosophical tradition every living being is

constituted by five basic elements. The five basic elements or

Panchamahabhutas are sky, air, watetl�d soil. Kapila vatsyan observes that

five elements of water, earth, air, space and fire comprise the microcosm of

the biological man as also the macrocosm of the universe. But no single

element is autonomous in itself. It is in their ecological interaction that they

assume significance. 19

According to Sankhya Philosophy, prakrti is the root cause of all

objects. A ll worldly effects are latent in Prakrti� it is the potentiality of

nature. Prakrti is conceived as unity of three gunas which are held in

equilibrium. The three gunas are Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. "They are

constituents of Prakrti and through it of the worldly objects". 20 According to

Sankhya, Prakrti needs to be viewed with affection and adoration. Dealing

with forces of nature, one should take judicious decision

18
Atharvaveda Kanda 12 hymn 1 verse 18 in O.P Dwiredi, Op.cit.p.32
Kapila Vastyayan, Op.cit, p.161
9

.
-° Chandradar Shanna. A critical Survey of Indian Philosophy (New Delhi: Motilal Banars1dass.
'.

1987) p.154
 125

The Panchamahabhutas which constitute our nature are evolutes of

Prakrti. Each of the elements possesses peculiar quality and has its own life

but all are interdependent. The Taittiriya Upanisad says: from Brahman

arises akasa; from akasa arises vayu; from vayu arises tejas, from tejas

arises ap; and from ap arises Prithvi". 21 "In the Maintrayani Upanisad, it is

stated that the three quartered Brahman has its roots above, and its branches

below; the branches are earth, water, five air and space" . 22

Indian Philosophical systems have the same attitude towards all

objects. Although we accept the material stand point of the five elements we

also perceive divinity in Panchamahabhutas. The same divinity is perceived

in trees, mountains, lakes etc. so India is having the wisdom of perceiving

divinity in every thing that exists in nature. This helped us to have a

harmonious relationship with all elements of nature. This harmonious

relationship creates balance and equilibrium in nature. All the civilizations

which took birth in India contained this eternal wisdom and this wisdom

keeps all such civilizations continue to thrive on from generations to

generations.

Bhagavat Gita also points out this harmonious marnage between

matter and spirit. "The spiritual factor (purusha) presiding over a given

:i Taittiyiriya Upanishad in Paul Deussen, Sb..1Y, Upanishads of the Veda (Delhi: Motilal
,, Banarsidass, 1980) p.p. 217-246
·- Maitrayani Upanishad in Paul Duessen Op.cit, p.p. 327-386
 126

matter envelopment, dynamises the inert matter and makes the insentient

mineral assembly to act, as though it is intelligent and vital".23

Out of the five pnmary elements "water is the first principle of

fertility and Varuna finds its support in water. 24 Varuna is considered to be

the God of water and the great custodian of (Rta). Water is considered to be

the life purifying element. All the major civilization of the world took birth

in the river banks. An ancient Vedic hymn describes water as great cleanser

and has the great understanding of water cycles in nature.

There are innumerous myths woven around the concept of water. The

Banalinga from Narmada and Shaligrama are symbols of water and solar

energy and they stand as ecological symbols. 25 The lotus is another peaceful

symbol of ecology. Lotus is an important vegetative form connected to the

mythical centre of the earth through its stem. Water is considered to be one

of the primary reasons for creation. The upanisadic thinkers explained the

reality of Supreme Being from the elements of nature. At one point, water is

said to be the source of all things. "From water satya emerges". 26 The seers

also explained the creation theory in the form of Trivrtkarana vidya i.e. the

23
Bhagavat Gita VII.4
24 Br. UP III 9.22 (Vol II), p.305
at
Pravin Seth. Environmentalism: Politics, Ecology and Development (New Delhi: Raw
25

Publications. 1997) p.24

26
Br. UP V 5.1 (Vol III). p.280
 127

knowledge of that which is consisting of three -every thing is composed of

three elements-prithvi (earth), Ap (water) and Tejas (luster). 27

Another important element namely, the earth is a living system and

shelters all the species including man. It is a home to all beings, both

animate and in animate. We consider earth as mother which nourishes and

sustains all forms of life. Earth is the prime reason behind all the material

prosperity of man Prithvi Sukta is one greatest hymns dedicated to earth.

Indian literature is rich with innumerous names of earth. The concept of

green earth is an ideal one for all the beings and dream of everyman.

Air is the most essential part of our natural environment. Air is the

reason that there is life in the planet. Air, according to Indian myth is

limitless and crosses all boundaries of land, sea earth and water. Air is

considered to be pure breath (prana) which takes one to the ultimate state of

consciousness. Vayu Purana is famous one which is wholly dedicated to air.

Fire or Agni is considered as divine element. In the Vedic period Agni

is treated as the sacrificial fire of the Yajna. Sun is the source of the fire and

India is the unique country which is having temples wholly dedicated to sun.

The natural forces which the Indian sages worshipped were not on the basis

'1
" Br. UP I 2.3 (Vol I), p.30
 128

of dogmatism, instead, on the basis of scientific and philosophical

understanding of nature.

The great Saint Sayanacharya worships the sun as

"Yojananam sahasre dwe

Deve shante deve cha yojane

Ekena nimishardhena

Karma mana namastuthe"

"I salute you (Sunlight) who travels two thousand two hundred and

two Yojanas by half of a nimisha". 28

It reveals that we have the scientific calculations of natural forces in a

systematic manner. Akasa is used to denote space, which is the most subtle

of the five elements. Space is qualified by sound. Akasa is omnipresent and

fills all voids. In Indian philosophy, there are innumerable myths in relation

to akasa. All these myths are produced by those who are having high

consciousness and initiative knowledge about the elements such people were

ofno ordinary people. They were having intuitive capacity to know about all

the five elements. "The akasa, verily, is the highest goal of all beings. For all

beings are born from the akasa; from the akasa after they are born, they live;

and depart from here; they are again merged in the akasa". 29

28
Rg 1 'eda - savana Bhasva111
29
''Nr Simhapt{rana- Tapaniya Upanishad" in Paul Duessan. Op.cit, p.824
 129

Vrksayurveda

India is the land of richest biogenetic resources in the world. Our fore

fathers were aware of the varieties of flora and fauna in their area. Ancient

Indian literature contains detailed studies about plants and trees and their

conservation strategies. We have a unique tradition of classifying and listing

of plants according to its characteristics. The main such varities of

classification are as following. 30

Vrkshayurveda yoga Treatment for plants

Buruhaanam dohada the art of grating trees

Vrksharohanam Growth of trees

Pushparthoranam Decorations with flowers etc

Throughout ancient literature we can find detailed descriptions about

plant treatment and forest conservation. In modem sense, it is a part of

environmental ethics in general. But the growth of modem western

environmental ethics can not match with the rich knowledge of ancient

Indian literature. We have detailed description about evolution of plants,

nature of plant like and feature of forests. "Almost all the plants and trees

that we make use of in Indian today were known to our ancestors. The

ancient Indian texts contain names of about thirty thousand plants which

30
Subhashini Sridhar. et. al. T,.ridshayurveda, Aryun,eda for plants (Chennai: centre for Indian
knowledge systems. 200 l ). p. l
 130

were used as medicines in our day to day life, where as the western

phannaceutical companies still prepare medicines from roughly thirty

plants". 31 Indian approach to the plant life is unique one as we treat each

plant as that having a direct or indirect bearing on our social and economic

life. Another special characteristic of vrksayurveda is that our understanding

of plants was not in a peripheral level of identifying and classification of

plants. We possessed deep knowledge of interrelationship and inter

dependence of each plants with other plants and animals, soil characteristics

and other agrarian phenomenas. Charaka Samhita defines a physician as one

who is well equipped with all knowledge about names and external features

of plants and able to use them wisely according to the properties of plants. 32

Vrksayurveda contains a detailed and organized description about

plant life and its various usages. It contains most particular details about the

season in which a tree bears flowers and yields fruits. The cultivators

possessed a fair knowledge about the preparation of manure and treatment of

plants through manure or fertilizer. They also possessed detailed knowledge

about the medicinal properties of different parts of a tree. They know about

the diseases associated with plants in different seasons. They calculated

about the life plan of trees and fertility of the soil. Detailed rules about

watering of plants have been dealt in Vrkshayurveda. They also prescribe

31
Banwari, Op.cit, p.17
32
Subhashini Sridhar, Op.cit. p.2
 131

treating the diseased plants. It is believed that those who accrue punya by

planting trees are greater than that from begetting a son. It is generally

believed that a place without trees is disease prone place and people should

avoid such places.

Various plant disorders and diseases and its treatment are explained

in detail in the works of Angnipurana and Varahamihira 's Brihatsamhitaha.

This tradition of preparing encyclopedias of plants is unique to our country

and plants are classified into three types based on their constitution. This

method of classification followed the same pattern in which we classify

human beings according to Ayurveda, namely Vaatha, pitta and Kapha

constitution.

Koutilya 's Arthasastra also mentions about Vriksayurveda, or the

knowledge of the long life of trees. He mentions about the sources of

revenue collected from forests and forest products. A man was given charge

for supervising forest produce and medicines. He was specialist in the field

of plants and especially medicinal plants. In modem terms he was a botanist

who took special care on plants. The Vedic rsis identified man with trees and

therefore man should be in unity with nature. For example Brahadaranyaka

 132

Upanishad speaks that "As is the mighty tree so indeed is man: this is true

his hairs are leaves and his skin is the outer bark". 33

Ecological Villages in India

In ancient India, the distinction between village and vana was not

strictly maintained. We considered that the entire space is vana. The whole

cosmos was seen as Mahavana and there is no beginning or end in

Mahavana. A vana is meant to include not only trees but also villages,

ponds, gardens etc. For ancient people, the lord of vana, namely vanaspathi

was most important God and was the source for all material comforts.

Villagers differentiated the vegetable world into ousadhi or virudha plants

and vana or vrksa trees. The Vedic people believed that all plants and trees

are sacred because souls migrate into the plants according to work and

knowledge. 34 Eve1y villagers put forward their own rules and regulations in

order to preserve their village ecology so that they can have a sustainable life

style. In ancient villages the relationship between man and nature were never

seen as the basis of economic prosperity. The relationship between man and

nature was described as divine and for well being of man. Trees not only

provide us with precious wood, fruits and medicines but also purify the

environment and stabilize the cycle of rains. We, in India, are well aware of

13
Br. UP III 9:28 (Vol II) p.316
711e Kathaka Upanishad cf Krishna Yajurveda - Vth section in Paul Duessen, Op.cit. p.294
31
·
 133

the use fullness of trees, but our relationship with trees is moral and ethical.

If tomorrow someone claims that the benefits being derived from trees can

be obtained even without trees, even then no body in our country would

break off the relationship with them. 35

But after independence and after decades of planning, Indian masses

is still in the grips of poverty. It is clear that in the name of development, we

deviated from our stand of village oriented ecology. Every developmental

activity in progress is directly linked to commercial exploitation of natural

resources. Obsession with big projects and gigantic buildings is the curse of

post independence India. But in ancient India, a village is enough to meet its

own needs and man considered the space around his village as vana and

thereby he recognized the primacy of nature. The ancient people never

thought of economic advantage whenever they developed the concept of

relationship with man and nature. Whenever they cut down trees for

common purpose or individual purpose, they prayed to vanaspathi for

permission. Cutting down of trees were never considered as an act of

adharma if it were for practical purposes. But it was considered as adharma

when trees were cut down for commercial exploitation.

35
Banwari. op.cit, p. 79
 134

The agricultural practices of ancient people are having the following main

characteristics.

I. Diversity of crops - people produced almost all types of crops as it

was not for commercial purpose. The present day system of large

scale production of single crops for commercial profit was never

followed. Each village produced for its own sustenance.

2. Protecting genetic diversity of crops the ancient people were having a

large amount of knowledge regarding different varieties of crops.

They were very keen to follow different cropping patterns according

to the suitability of seasons.

3. Avoidance of chemical pesticides- they never used pesticides to

control the weeds. The organic farming of ancient people was very

rich with nutritious products. Now, there is a hue and cry for organic

faming in order to avoid negative effects of using chemical pesticides.

The evil effects of chemical agriculture is that after the initial increase

in production there is a decline in productivity and fertility of soil is

being loosened.

Apart from agricultural importance, the village forests played a vital

role in preserving and nurturing medicinal plants and trees. The ancient texts

give detailed description of varieties of medicinal plants grown in village

 135

forests. For example in Manusmriti, it is said that the creepers and trees

which can be grown either by sowing seeds or grafting are called udbhija.

Those which perish after their fruit is ripened and those which bear fruits

and flowers in abundance are called Ausadhi. 36 The trees grown in village

courtyards were selected in utmost care keeping in mind about the medicinal

properties of plants and trees. The coconut trees are considered as

kalpavrksa and its leaves are used for decorating auspicious functions like

mamages.

The villagers believed that some trees are having the spiritual power

to ward off evil spirits. So conservation of trees and gardens was means of

avoiding sins and the attainment of heaven. Mastsya purana mentions that if

anybody plants at least one tree then he will be able to stay heaven of Indra

for thirty thousand years, some puranas equates trees with sons for a sonless

man. A house without any tree is considered as a home without child. It is

being criticized that those who points about the merits of ancient village

ecologies were against the concept of development and past societies were

not free from demerits. But one should remember that simple life styles in

the past do not mean putting the clock back. The present day development is

one sided and such concepts of development cannot last long. The

environmentally degrading factors like pollution cannot be justified in the

36
ibid p.83
 136

name of development. It may give us comfort for present society. But if the

degradation continues in the way it is being done in present day society,

then, it will drive us back to the climatic conditions of thousands of years

ago. Eventually, the earth will become a haven land without any plants or

trees. We have made this earth as an unfit place to live. But it was not like

this in the past. Let us see what Vedic rsis concept of this world was.

Vedic rsis prayers that

"Assemble, speak together, and let your minds be all of one accord.

As ancient gods unanimous sit down to their appointed share,

The place is common, common the assembly common the

Mind so be their thought united, a common purpose

Do I lay before you, and worship with your general

Oblation, one and same be your resolve, and be your minds

Of one accord, united to the thoughts of all that all may

Happily agree" 37

These verses speak about universal vision of our rsis who conceived

the world as one, the nature as one, and our environment as one and thought

that all men belong to single unity, namely humanity. Our forefathers prayed

for peace and calmness to prevail in this country. There is a wonderful verse

37
Rg. Veda X.191 2-4 in P.B. Gagedragadkar, ed., op.cit, p.52
 137

in Jsavm,yopanisad that there is no need for hatredness between each other

beings.

"Yastu sarvani Bhutani atmaneyevanupasyati,

San,abhutesu catmanamtato na vijugupsate"

Verily whoever sees all beings in the self and recognizes his own self

in all beings does not feel (by reason of such an outlook) repelled by any
, 18
bemg:

Living in unity with all creatures of nature was the life style of our

forefathers. Their objective was clear and they reached their goal through

austere living. The main purpose of all the literature of the Upanishad is

concluded in the well known prayer:

"From unreal lead me to the real

From darkness lead me to the light

From death lead me to immortality". 39

Women and Ecology

Indian women come from var10us cultural, linguistic and social

backgrounds. Their role has been interpreted and reinterpreted in various

.181
sava5vopanisad. Verse 6
. Br. UP l 3.28 (Vol I) p.133
19
 138

ways according to traditional, social and historical reasons. But irrespective

of all the differences, Indian women are an influencing factor in all respects.

During the literacy movements in our country, it is women who enjoyed the

benefits of literacy. There is a saying that if you teach a man, he can use his

knowledge for his sustenance, but if you teach a woman, she uses the

knowledge for the sustenance of the family.

The role of Indian women in ecology is a most important aspect

because in all the environmental movements in India, the prime support

came from women. Although we consider women as weaker sections of the

society, it is this weaker section which brought a positive change in

environmental movements. Whether it is chipco movements or Narmada

Bachao Aandolan, it is women who spread the seeds in environmental

movements. "Interestingly, it was from the lower strata of society, that if

trickled up to the sensitive part at the middle class and informed urban

citizen s, who then conceptualized environmentalism and provided the

intellectual and communicational infrastructure to the movement through

their newly formed NGO's. 40

In the ancient period, family structure were patriarchal and patrilineal

but still, women held high positions. There were some hymns in Rg Veda

Pravin Seth, Op.cit .. p.p 28-29

·lfl
 139

which were attributed to women seers alone like Ghosa, Visvarana and

Lopamudra. 41

Vandana Shiva, the strong exponent of women's liberation

movements argues that the negligence of recognizing nature's diversity and

treating nature with commercial values alone 1s the basis of all

environmental problems. "The marginalization of women and the

destruction of biodiversity go hand in hand. Diversity is the price paid in the

patriarchal model of progress which pushes inexorably towards

monocultures, uniformity and homogeneity. In this perverted logic of

progress, even conservation suffers". 42 Educating women especially rural

women about concerns in environmental ethics is productive in all ways. It

is because women are considered as custodians of biodiversity. In all

cultures, forests are worshipped as vana durgas or tree goddess. Another

significant factor in women's ways of conservation in nature is that they are

strongly partners of non-violent methods in nature conservation.

All the popular worships in Hinduism are centered on feminine

aspects. This feminine dimension of divine is the most stressed aspect in

worshipping nature. The nature is worshipped in the form of mother and it

41
Sarada Sugirtha rajah. "Women in Hinduism' in Paul Bowen, ed., Themes and issues in Hinduism
(London: Cassel publishers, 1998), p.57
42
Vandana Shiva, "Women 's Indigenous knowledge and Bio diversity conservation" in Geeti Sen.
ed.. Indigenous vision (New Delhi: Sage publications, 1992) p.205
 140

evolves in all forms, both animate and inanimate forms. The common Indian

man worshipped nature as mother without delving into the intricacies of

philosophy. He worshipped mother earth mainly because that it is the earth

that creates preserves and sustains life. The rural women played an

influencing role in prese1ving the nature and natural resources. The rural

Hindu women consider that violence against nature is violence against them.

The scientific reasons for the concept are that all forms of life are seemed to

be evolving from feminine principles; women consider Tutsi as a sacred

plant and worship it daily. It is sacred not only because of spirituality but

also because of its medicinal properties. It is prescribed by ayurveda and

perceived as the plant which has therapeutic and curative powers. To ensure

that each home may have a tulsi plant, the practice of worshipping it daily

has been entrusted with women. "Tulsi is sacred as a plant with beneficial

and medicinal property and is considered as Vrindavan, the symbol of

cosmos, with her daily watering and lighting a lamp before if for worship, a

woman reflects the relationship at her home with the cosmos and the nature.

The west views nature in the frame work of the dichotomy between man and

women and person and nature. In Indian cosmological view, the concept of

pun,sha and prakrti, person and nature are a dua1.1ty m

• umty.
· 43

ravm Seth. op.cit, p.86

·llp
 141

The "Marriage Tree" is a common custom among some groups in

India. This tree is necessary in wedding and is adorned as a part of

ceremony. This function is celebrated mainly to teach the bride and

bridegroom about the fertility of nature.

The verses attributed to Devi Vasudhara, mother Earth in the Prithvi

Sukta clearly demonstrates ancient seer's vision of nature and its relation

with women. The image of earth as mother clearly indicates that conflict

with nature is self destructive activity. The earth is a mother in the sense that

earth alone has the capacity to nurture all forms of life. In Indian tradition, a

woman is considered as Sakthi or energy, which is the creative power. The

powers of earth are considered to be feminine because it nurtures and

protects. For example a tree or plant cares its seeds and gives protective

layers according to its capacity. Another significant feature of Indian

tradition is that as far as ecological aspect is concerned, there were no

feminist protest movements in ancient India. This does not undermine

women's role in nature conservation. Whether it is a female God or common

women, every female has significant role in preserving nature according to

Indian tradition.
 142

Jainism and Ecology

Jainism is strictly an ethical philosophy whose sole aim is liberation.

To attain liberation, Jainism prescribes certain values, which includes

conquer and control of passions and desires. Jainism elaborately discusses

about the ways and means to conquer our passions and desires. It is this

unchecked passion and desires that create disturbances in the rhythm of

nature. In this sense, Jaina ethics is also an ecologically sensitive

philosophy. Jainism prescribes strict adherence of moral principles and in

the case of monkdom, it is extremely disciplined. But in the case of laymen,

some exceptions are allowed. The moral principles and laws for monkdom is

known as 'Great vows' or maha-vrata and of the common people as 'small

vows' or anuvrata

The five vows are as follows. 44

1. Ahimsa

2. Satya

3. Asteya

4. Brahmacharya

5. Aparigraha

44 ·
a B anarss1·aass 1997)
Chandradhar Sharma. A Critical Survey ofIndian Ph,losophy (De 11u.·· MoU·11
p.66.
 143

Ahimsa in Jainism and its Ecological Perspective

Ahimsa is ordinarily translated as Non-violence. As far as monkdom

is concerned, ahimsa is the most important vow. In wider perspective, it

includes "abstaining from any injury to any of the ten pranas of an

animal". 45 In Jainism killing means depriving some one from any of the ten

vitalities, which includes five vitalities of senses, i.e. senses of eye, ear,

smell, taste and touch and three vitalities of mind, speech and body and

lastly, two vitalities of breathing and life. 46 This is the most exhaustive

definition of non-violence. It is clear from this fact that Jainism considered

even one sensed animal, so as to include any living being under the purview

of ahimsa Jainism asserts the equality of all living beings and recognized

each living being's right to life.

Ahimsa (Anuvrata) is transgressed in the following ways.47

1. One should not keep any animal tied so as to causing discomfort to

the animal, (bandha)

2. One should not cut or mJure any part of the animal's body.

(Chavicheda)

45
Meena A.Kelkar. "The Jaina Code of conduct-A philosophical Study" in S.E.Bhelke and P.P.
Gokhale ed.. Studies in Indian Moral Philosophy (Pune: Indian Philosophical Quarterly
publication.2002),p.23 6
1
� Kamala Jain, op.cit p.56 .
• ' Koshellya Walli,Ahimsa in Indian Thought(Varanassi:Bharatha
1
Marusha, 1974 )P.67
 144

3. One should not overload an animal of which it cannot bear,

(atibhara)

4. One should not disturb the animal during its feeding

(bhaktapanaviccheda).

The ecological consc10usness employed by Jain monks is so

influencing that even lay men were advised to follow the principle of

compassion and equality even at the time of distress. "Not to nourish the

thought of misery with regard to all creatures of the world, in thought, word

and deed, or cause its development in other's mind or approve its

development in other's mind is termed as friendly feeling or positive aspect

of ahimsa". 48

Jainism prescribes that purity of mind is most essential for

enlightenment. Everyone should cultivate the positive virtues of goodwill

(maitri) and compassion (Karuna) to all creatures.

The concept of 'samata' is best employed in Jainism. It prescribes

that "one's behaviour should be such that it does not retard the development

of or injure the physical, mental, or intellectual vitality or 'pranas' of others.

48
ibid, p.62
 145

This is depicted in the daily prayer recited by the monks and house holders,

'I have friendship with all and enmity with none". 49

Ecological traditions in Buddhism

The term Buddha is a descriptive one which means enlightened one.

It is perceived that most people are in the state of being asleep and they are

unaware of the real nature of things. So the term 'Buddha' itself asks every

one to wake up and open the eyes towards the realities. It also means that

Buddha is an awakened person who clearly understands the real nature of all

things in the world. As far as Buddhism is concerned, the person who sees is

not imp01tant, but one's vision should be enough to understand the real

nature of things. Buddhism is less focused on the individual founder but

more on his teachings.

Buddhist ecology is prominently known as non-violent ecology, in

the sense that Buddhism conceives a society as that which is ecologically

sustainable and socially just. Non killing and compassionate attitude towards

all beings is the core of Buddhist ecology. Those who criticize the role of

religions in ecology argues that non-violent ecology is a myth or a romantic

19
Kamala Jain. op.cit.,p.62
 146

concept as violence and non-violence are relative terms and all society is

basically violent.

Buddhism answers such criticisms in a calmer, more integrated and

compassionate ways. Buddhism argues that we should wake up from such

delusions. Such delusions cause violence and thus suffering for an individual

and to those he interacts with it. As competition between animal species is

violent, there is also non-violent relationship between species and most

social interactions are non-violent.

The whole of Buddha's philosophy may be summarized m his

concept of four noble truths

1. There is suffering (duhkha)

2. There is a cause of suffering (duhkha-samudaya)

3. There is a cessation of suffering (duhkha-nirodha)

4. There is a way leading to this cessation of suffering (duhkha­

nirodha-gamini pratipat)

All these noble truths can be applicable in today's problems related

with environmental crisis. The relevance of four noble truths and its

remedial action is prescribed mainly for the ordinary responsible individual

in society. The first noble truth states that life is full of suffering and even
 147

the so called pleasures are fought with pain. So according to Buddha, there

is something wrong in our concept of pleasure. The same point is applicable

to the environmental crisis in a deeper level. In our run for material pleasure

we neglected and destroyed others right to live and exploited nature's

resources unlimitedly as if they are only for satisfying man's pleasure. But

we never enjoyed anything and are in a deep crisis. Buddhism teaches that

peaceful harmony is established only by peaceful co-existence of all species

and this can be attainable by following the eight fold path. So by following

the eight fold path, one can achieve ecological stability and sustainable

development. At the deeper level there are several important principles

inherent in Buddhism which should be applied by individuals for the

creation of a compassionate ecological society.

Kamala Bhasin narrates the story of Buddha which is worth

noticing "The story of Buddha's childhood is most important in the

contexts of our present day debates Gautam was about 12 years old and was

playing in the garden when he saw a beautiful bird falling from the sky. He

rushed to the bird, picked it up and saw that the bird had been hit by an

mow. He ran home with the bird and started nursing it. Just then, one of his

male cousins came rushing in, saying "Gautam give me my bird, this is my

bird, and Gautam asked why the bird was his. The cousin replied "it is mine

because I hit it with my arrow and brought it down. Goutam understood

 148

what his cousin replied but did not like his logic. He thought for a while and

said, you wanted to kill this bird, which means you are its enemy. How can I

give the bird to the enemy? I love this bird; I want it to live, so it is mine".

Kamala bhasin says that "those with economic power like Gautam' s

cousins for profit they will shoot at anything down, for profit they will tum

fertile lands to golf courses, exploit seas, and poison lands because they have

no love for nature". 50

Buddhism promotes unconditional love, compassionate

understanding and charity which are most important for creating a

ecologically sustainable society. Lack of unconditional love creates delusion

and lack of impassionate, understanding creates hatredness and lack of

charity creates greed, all of which are the causes of all crisis. All beings

including humans and nature are a network of relations which is cyclic in

order. The disharmony at one point creates ripples in other, that is why

Buddhism prefers a harmonious relationship in society.

Eco-philosophy of Buddhism

Buddhist ethics is mainly based on moral virtue and this virtue is

attained when we get free from remorse. According to Buddhism the aim of

SCi Kamala Bhasin, Equation for Life- issues on sllstainable Development (Bangalore: Books for
Change publishers, 1998) p.ii
 149

all ethical actions IS overcommg of dukkha, both individually and

collectively. On the ecological point of view, Buddhism prescribes that if we

want to attain calmness, amicable social relationship and harmony in nature

one should follow certain rules. These rules are prescribed not to limit

anyone but by obeying rules one should overcome all rules. If we deviate

from the rules one is bound to suffer as a natural result of unwholesome

actions. These rules are related with pratitya samutpada. Some scholars

opine that the Sanskrit word pratitya samutpada is the nearest equivalent in

Buddhist sources to our term nature". 5\

Although there is no direct remark about eco philosophy in

Buddhism, Buddhist teachings also contain environmental ethics. Buddhism

identifies the unity and welfare of all beings. Nirvana is a positive bliss

when the desires and passions have been destroyed and the boundary

separating the finite self from its surroundings.

The ecological point in Buddhism is that persons who is initiated into

Buddhism starts to feel that he is destined to remove dukkha and help others

in their path of annihilating dukkha "As a Buddhist comes to understand the

extent of dukkha in his own life, a natural development is concern about

other's suffering, and deepening compassion. Indeed, the importance of

51 Ian Harris. "Attitudes to Nature" in Peter Harvey, ed., Buddhism (London: continuum
publications. 200 I) p.242
 150

comparing oneself with others is stressed. Since the self of others is dear to

each one, let him who loves himself not harm another". 52 According to

Buddhism one should follow the unity of human nature and it means

following the laws of nature which is applicable to all living beings. Thus

Dhamma means identification of nature of things in environment and even

embracing the environment with universal love.

Buddhism strictly prescribes that its monks should limit their

consumption of natural resources only for satisfying the basic needs of food,

clothing, shelter and medicine. This point emphasizes about the

environmental ethics that, natural resources consumption should be in a

limited sense so that sustainability, is maintained. The Buddhist middle way

is an ideal path in which one should avoid extremes of denial and over

consumerIsm.

Ahimsa and Buddhism

The concept of Ahimsa or non-violence is the common feature of all

Indian religious traditions. In Buddhist ethical tradition, non-violence or

Ahimsa is having prime importance in the list of pancasilas which are

known as gahatthasilas means those meant for common house holders, and

5, Peter Harvey. An Introduction to Buddhism - Teachings, History and practices (New Delhi:
Foundation Books, 2004) p.197
 151

dasasilas or sikkhapadas - those meant for monks and nuns. 53 Both

Buddhism and Jainism stress the concept of Ahimsa in a deeper level, it may

be because both these streams of thought stress the need for renunciation of

material world and leading a life of nobility without affecting the path of any

other being. In practical sense, the use of ahimsa in Buddhism and Jainism is

different. Buddhism prefers moderate in practical conduct and Jainism were

stringent in applying their rules to the society.

Buddhism believes that the practice of ahimsa will lead to a favorable

future birth. Adherence to injury results in an unfavorable destiny to the

individual. The act of cluelty also affects the person who is doing cruel to

other beings. The person who does cruel things gets affected with impurity

and this impurity leads a person to the lower levels of existence. This

concept is having a close similarity with Jaina concept of Samata, i.e.

'Treating all creatures lower or higher, as equals,.54 Compassion to animals

also comes under ahimsa, Buddhism strictly prescribe that we should desist

any act of doing injury to any animal. The middle path theory of Buddhism

view compassion and friendliness as nearest to the concept of ahimsa. These

are the positive aspects of ahimsa.

j3 Kamala Jain, The Concept of Pancasila in Indian Thought (Varanassi: PV Research Institute,
1973) p.73
j4 ibid
 152

It was King Asoka who put into practice the concept of ahimsa in a

full fledged manner. He enforced strict rules for observing the laws related

with ahimsa. The sacred edicts of Asoka are rich with his noble acts of

kindness towards animals. Ahimsa is practiced not only by keeping away

with injuries to natures' sons but also spreading the message of equality and

compassion with all creatures.

The positive aspect of ahimsa is the practice of four 'Brahmaviharas~

which is viewed as the psychological analysis of the concept of ahimsa. 55

These Brahmaviharas are

1. Metta,

2. Karuna,

3. Mudida and

4. Uppeksha

These Brahmariharas are four types of mental stages for purifying

oneself.

Metta has two stages of projection, positive and negative, like the

vedantic concept of avarana and vikshepa. In its positive sense metta is

55 ibid p.77
 153

fiiendliness and in its negative sense it is non-enmity. "It simply means

directing love towards all living creatures. It helps ones own self because it

minimizes hatred; it helps others on whom it is bestowed because he gets

something what he lacks". 56 So in its positive sense, metta means having

friendliness and love towards all creatures and in its negative sense

annihilating hatredness towards all creatures and thereby establishing a

positive contact between peaceful minds with peaceful world.

Karima means compassion towards all creatures. It is some sort of

self identification with the person who is in deep trouble. It is thinking

oneself with others position when others are in distress. Karuna is aroused

by seeing others who is in distress condition. In such situation, the intention

for enmity and hatredness vanish and kanma is aroused to help others.

The third stage is known as mudita or goodwill. Mudita is something

near to bliss or delight. Mudita means having unselfish love towards all

beings. It is some sort of positive detachment. When one loves someone for

expecting some favors this creates Karmic particles and such love can be

transformed to selfishness and such other negative thoughts. Mudita is

disinterested love towards all creatures. Mudita creates peaceful and lovable

atmosphere and there is no question of any violence. It maintains happiness

56
ibidp.78
 154

in oneself and happiness in others. It helps to annihilate selfishness and blind

love. The symbol of mudita is joy and delight. Mudita is a feeling of

disinterested love, when in others certain virtues are seen; one does not feel

envious of other's progress and virtues. It therefore, shows an effort on one's

part towards the maintenance of the happiness of others.

Buddhism widely encouraged kindness towards animals as is clear

from the evidences from Jataka stories. For Buddha kindness towards

animals is part and parcel of his day today ethics. "Tradition holds that the

Buddha's favorite residing places were parks and pleasure groves which

came into the possession of the early sangha as gifts from wealthy day

followers. 57

It is believed that Buddha attained nirvana under a Peepal tree. It is

said that seeing Buddha under the peepal tree, people believed that tree god

had revealed himself in human form. In Buddhist philosophy, there is

mention about three trees associated with attainment of omniscience by

Buddha. These trees are known as the trees of enlightenment- asrattha, the

tree of goat herd (nya grodha) and tree of the serpent king muchalinda. 58

57
· Op.cit, p.249
Ian Harris.
.
58
Bans1lal malla, op.cit, p.35
 155

In all Buddhist literatures, compassion is the word which is stressed

deeply. Buddhism advocated reverence and compassion for all life.

According to Buddhism, the monks should select a natural and peaceful

environment for meditation. Traditional Buddhist viharas were in the

vicinity of forests and thus these forests became the sacred places. The

Buddhists were more concerned with the contemplation of nature through

meditation. It was the tradition of India, that those who want to clear the

questions about spiritual salvation leaves the household life and engages in

deep meditation with the forests. Buddhist monks were asked to cultivate the

act of solitude and forests were the right place for them. Buddhist literatures

give a vivid description about Buddhist viharas and caityas which are

surrounded by trees.

Buddha strongly opposed and condemned all forms of animal

sacrifice. He always advocated for cultivation of sympathy and compassion

for all forms of sentient beings. He condemned the infliction of pain and

suffering to all beings. He pleaded the kings of the time for not to take part

in hunting and the kings were expected to protect the animals too like his

subjects. In Buddhism there was an implicit ethics or code of conduct

regarding man's relationship with environment. This can be understood by

Buddhist literatures which always advocate for humanist philosophy. The

concept of pancasila has been greatly employed by Buddhists in detailed

 156

description. All the five precepts contain the message of environmental

ethics and the importance of a noble, altruistic life.

Combined with pancasila and noble eight fold path, Buddhism can be

considered as an ideal philosophy of environmental ethics. Because the five

precepts clearly outlines how man should lead a life which does not affect

any one harmly and eight fold path is meant for creating a harmonious

society. The ultimate aim of Buddhist ethics is the eradication of suffering

(nibhana). For attaining nibhana Buddha prescribes the total eradication of

greed, hatred ness, egoism and cultivation of moral virtues, like compassion

non injury, universal love etc. From the ecological points of view all these

points suggest that Buddhism is an eco-philosophy which has deep concern

for natural environment and which stands for a harmonious relation between

man and nature.

The most important contribution to the world by the Buddha is two

things, one is love and another is compassion. Buddha expanded these two

principles in such a way that there is no parallel in history. Both these

principles exist side by side, like two sides at the coin. Love is the wish for

others to be happy and compassion is the desire to remove suffering of

others. Buddha extended these two principles to all living beings people,

animals, trees, plants and to the earth as a whole. Martine Batchelor points
 157

out that the root of Buddha's compassion is wisdom. "Wisdom is not an

introverted intellectual quality but as the Buddha explains here, gives rise to

spontaneous concern for life". 59 Buddha taught that the source of morality is

love and respect for life. Morality cannot come simply by following rules

and principles without questioning them. A morally right action in Buddhist

tenns is abstention from killing breathing things, abstention from stealing,

abstention from misconduct in sensual desires. 60

Buddha never limited his principles of love and compassion to

humans alone; he extended these principles to all creatures in same manner.

Buddha loved man and wild animals in the same way and he extended

compassion to all creatures. Buddha realized that the natural environment is

the ideal place for cultivating spiritual ideals.

According to Buddha both love and compassion should start from

individual himself, because everyone has the feeling of suffering and every

one wants uproot its causes. In his search to understand the meaning of

human life, Buddha discovered the truth that metaphysical principles are

incapable of solving human problems. The true way that sets out hearts free

is inside every individual and we have to find the way by existing in the

Martine Batchelor and Kerry Brown. ed .. Buddhism and Ecology (New Delhi: Motilal
59

Banarsidass. 1994) p.6.

60
ibid
 158

midst of all network of relationship. This relationship includes non human

being also.

Nature played a crucial role in evolving Buddha's personality. It is on

nature's lap that Siddhartha, the young king transformed into a Buddha, an

enlightened one. He was born in the midst of natural environment, achieved

enlightenment in the midst of nature and attained Mahaparinibhana, in the

midst of nature. So nature and all children of nature influenced him

profoundly. It is clear from the facts that he delivered his first sermon at deer

park. His teachings were under the shadows of large trees, monasteries

constrncted without disturbing the natural environment. Meditation was

done deep inside the forests. This is the prime reason for Buddha's love and

compassion to all creatures. "The Buddhist community all over the world

has extended popular ritual at Bodhi- Pooja, which is performed by pouring

water to the root of Bodhi tree and paying respect to it, and other species at

the tree. This v irtually has helped to preserve the trees even during droughts
61
as well as from human destruction.

61
Avinashkumar Srivastava "Buddhist Environmentalism" in D.C. Srivastava, ed., Op.cit, p.140
 159

Ecological perspective of Indian ethical principles

The history of Indian moral thinking started from pre Vedic and Vedic

times. It is said to be comprised of Nigama, Sramana and the Agama and

also purana and nastika tradition of Lokayata.62 The aim of Indian moral

thinking is direct vision of truth or direct reality of truth. Unlike other

cultures or civilizations; Indian thought enjoyed a thread of continuity from

primitive times. Indian ethics has never been considered as an action in

isolation. It was caITied out along with other inquiries. Meena A. Kelkar's

article, 'The nature of Indian moral philosophy' points out that "The

discussion of morality is caITied out at two levels. At one level, morality is

concerned with the rules of conduct, prescriptions and prohibitions that are

accepted in a society. It is the foundation of social, communal life. At

another level, morality is not a socially binding force but a liberating force.

At this level, morality is the essence of being human and a part of man's

awareness of the entire cosmos, a point of transcendence the ultimate limit,

something close to self-realization". 63

Indian moral tradition is rich with prayers for the welfare of all. It

does not limit its thinking capacity to humans alone, everything, from a

Karunesh Shukla, "Some thougths on Indian moral thinking" in S.E. Bhelke and P.P. Gokhale.
62

ed .. Studies in Indian moral philosophy (Pune: Indian philosophical quarterly publication. 2002)
61
p.3
. I .p.15
. I·bll
 160

piece of dust to most complex orgamsm comes under it. Indian moral

philosophy includes everything and excludes nothing. For example, the

Santhimantra

"San,etra sukhinah santu

San,e Sassta niramayah

San,e bhadrani pasyuntu

ma kascit deihkham apnuyat"

This implies that, there be a transformation from individual ness to

concern for the well being of the whole world.64 So there is always a

tendency to look at beyond. Ancient Indian seers clearly realized that the

moral realm of man includes not only man but also all the species, trees

flower and eve1ything in the world. Ancient Indian literature is rich with the

stories of animals, plants, tress, flowers etc. All these shows that, our moral

realm was basically environmentally conscious realm. This ecologically

conscious realm was our guiding principle in the past.

One of the beautiful aspect of Indian moral tradition is that it always

reminds us that we are outside the circle of 'I' and 'mine', we are connected

to the outside world in innumerable ways and there is interconnectedness in

everything. And to pray means to pray for the well being of all creatures.

64
ibid, p.16
 161

But the point to ponder is that we have forgotten all our merits. "We

Indians have forgotten so much about whom we are and about what makes

us one of the most outstanding people in the world. For example, if we

bother to investigate any of the practices that most of us now dismiss as out­

dated rituals, all of them have a very carefully thought out purpose which

makes them invaluable pointers to what is now called as the art of living". 65

Indian tradition reminds us that there is no need to follow God adherently

and follow religious practices strictly. Even if we discount faith in God, the

prayers like santimantras reminds us that we are all interconnected each

other and praying for another's well being is simply extending our mind

towards symbiotic living.

According to Indian tradition, ethical values are not mechanical and

do not arises out of material environment. It arises from spirituality and must

be sought for in the depths of the human personality. 66 Indian moral tradition

clearly dismisses un-eco friendly life styles as unethical. Atharva Veda

clearly speaks that the earth is not for human beings alone but for other

creatures as well. According to Hindu concept, all that exists is created by

Supreme Being and will return to Supreme Being. So everything has a point

of sacredness. This is the reason for veneration of our natural environment.

The Bhagavat Gita points out that the Supreme Being is the source and

Ratna Rajaiah, "Lost Treasures" The New Indian Express Daily dated 09-04-2006.
65

Swami Ranganathananda, Eternal values for a changing society (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidhya
66

Bhavan. 1971), p.541

 162

dissolution of whole universe. So it is advised that to treat all other species

as our own. So Indian moral philosophy is inseparable from social and

natural context. This point establishes the importance of dharma. "This is

what Indian thought calls dharma, in one of its two aspects, namely the

aspects of abhyudaya or social welfare, the other aspect being its trans social

spiritual dimension, nihsreyasa or spiritual liberation. The Mahabharata,

therefore defines dharma in its aspects as abhayudaya as 'that which holds

together, that which sustains all human beings. 67

Purusarthas

The concept of Pun1sartha is one of the most important themes in

Indian Philosophy. The Purusarthas are important steps for fulfilling on

ideal life and it is the central theme of all ethical teachings. Purusarthas are

known as the four ends in a man's life, corresponding to every end, there is a

science of directing these ends-Dharmasastra Arthasastra, Kamasastra and

Moksasastra. But Kamasastra and Arthasastra can operate in a fulfilled

manner only with the regulation of Dharmasastra. This point underlines the

importance of spirituality over materialism. This is explained by the

following chart.

(,) ihid
 163

Purusartha

Material

Dharma

The doctrine of Purusarthas is an important contribution of Indian

tradition to the eco-philosophy. It is one of the distinguishing features of

Indian ways of life. Purusarthas is one of the methods of describing and

directing ideal life. It shows the paths that how a man should lead a noble

life with noble ideas without affecting anyone's lives, Purusartha are the

goal of which people wishes to achieve. It is a positive concept and applied

or practical aspect in Indian philosophy. D.P.Chattopadhyaya points out that

each one of these Purusarthas is both value and virtue-value to be attained

for a virtuous life. Dharma keeps humans away from wrong doing and also

promotes whatever is right or good. Artha in Chattopadhyaya's opinion not

only money but in addition to monetariness, it implies meaningfulness.

Kama represents psycho-somatic integrality of humans, Moksha means

when we fellow the other three in a systematic manner, then we becomes

really free in whatever way we describe it.68

68
Dr.D. P. Chattopadhyaya, "Value in the context of learning" in Raghawendra Pratap Singh. ed ..
Applied Philosophy (New Delhi: OM publications, 2003) p.37
 164

Dharma-It is the most important concept in Purusartha. Dayakrishna

points out that this concept is concerned with 'the other' in the moral

context. 69 Dharma regulates the entire sphere of human behavior even to the

minute details. The meaning of the word 'Dharma' cannot be limited in one

concept alone. "The term Dharma conveys a complete array of meanings

and has defied the attempts of both western and Indian scholars to reduce it

to a single English equivalent, such as religion, law, Duty, social usage, right

conduct, morality, Justice or rightiousness". 70 This term 'Dharma' has got

wider connotations in all areas of life, its Sanskrit root 'Dhri' means to

cany, sustain or stabilizing. It refers to the moral continuous in and through

the series of lives.

Dharma keeps humans away from doing wrongs and evil practices

but also promotes goodness and virtue. Dharma ensures wellbeing of all

creatures and this concept of well being to all creatures is embedded in

vasudhaiva kutumbakam. In the AthanJa Veda, an entire hymn is devoted to

praise the mother Earth-Prithivisukta. The earth is explained as the abode of

a family of all beings, every little organism is a part of this family71 virtues

regarding Dharma were passed on to generation to generations through the

art of story telling. This dharma was the moving force behind eco-

69
Dayakrishna, The problematic and conceptual structure of classical Indian thought (Delhi:
Oxford University Press, 1996) p.58
B arbara D. Holdr�ge, "Dharma" in Sushil Mittal and Gene 11mrsby, ed., The Hindu world (New
10

,1 York: Rout ledge publications, 2004), p.213

• 0.P. Dwivedi, "Dharmic Ecology" in Christopher Key Chapple and many
Evelyn Tucker. ed ..
op.cit., p.10
 165

movements in India like chipko. It is because of Dhanna that there is a

serious concern for sustainable development and ecology even under the

pressures of modernization.

The term Dharma has got a wider meaning and in Indian moral

Philosophy 'dharma' is a most important concept. The use of the word

'dharma' is not limited in a single category for example.

• In duty dharma means emphasis on duties and obligation

• In justice dharma is the basis of rights and equality

• In religion dharma is a command of conscience to believe in a

supernatural power

• In nature dharma is the natural standard of things and living

being and

• In ethics dharma means management of human conduct. 72

From ecological perspective, dhanna includes all the above meaning

and even surpasses such meanings. O.P.Dwivedi, uses the expression

'Dharmic ecology in action' 73 to denote that cultural and religious sources

are most impmtant aspects in environmental conservation. Dharma has been

acted as a constant source of inspiration throughout the ages, from ancient

time onwards the term 'dharma' is treated as that which upholds morality. In

:� Dr. S.N. Gupta, Outlines ofEthics (Jalandhar: Delux publications, 1997), p. 28

.
0.P. Dw1vedy, op. cit. p.18
 166

contemporary times it has most important perspective m ecological

conservation. Dharmic ecology means that which upholds and preserves

ecology for future generation also. In this sense, it is everyone's

responsibility to protect Dharma and promote Dharma, so that everyone may

benefit from it. There is a saying in ancient Indian that "Dharma eva hato

hanti" means dharma being destroyed, destroys everything and "Dharma

rakshitah rakshitah" means Dharma protected, protected everything.

As dharma is interpreted variously according to the contexts,

ecological dharma is interpreted as an action oriented philosophy to protect

beauty of the natural world, to preserve nature for a meaningful existence.

Ecological dharma is the new dharma of the new world. It is the new

interpretation of the old scriptures for achieving a harmonious nature.

Dhaima requires that one consider the entire universe as an extended

family, with living beings in this universe as members of the same

household. This is also known as the concept of vasudhaiva kutumbakam.

Only by considering the entire universe as part of one's extended family,

one can develop the necessary maturity and respect for all other living

beings. The welfare and caring of all is realized through the golden thread of

spiritual understanding and co-operation. 74

14
ihid
 167

According to Hindu dharmic tradition, public good such as protecting

the environment, wellbeing of other living beings etc. takes preference over

personnel good. Those who follows dharma, acts in such a way that every

one's welfare is concerned. Hindu dharma has provided clear guidelines for

environment protection and respect for all living being. Our literature is rich

with vivid descriptions on nature and Indian authors from ancient time

onwards engaged nature in their stories and poems in a beautiful manner.

But gradually we ignored the ethical values of nature and noble values got

replaced by exploitative strategy. Now, it is time to re invoke those noble

ethical ideas to preserve our environment, as the main functions of dharma

are unification, integration, conservation and harmonization.

Art/ta and Kama

The uniqueness of Indian concept of values is the perfect integration

of material values to spiritual values and mental values to the moral values

to ancient India, it is expected that a wise man keeping in mind the welfare

of all, acts with a great care in following purasarthas. His actions with

regard to dharma, Artha, and Kama leads to moksha. Purusartha is not mere

an object of desire, but it stands for long standing goal. In society one has to

follow purusartha so as to have a balanced view of nature. Purusartha helps

us to have a hannonious relation with his fellow beings in society. Those

 168

who follow purusartha recognise the intrinsic value in all living beings. The

concept of purusartha denotes that Indian philosophy is not wholly

spiritualistic. Purusartha gives equal importance to both spiritual and

material life at the same time; it guides material life according to spiritual

ideals. For example, in purusartha, artha is not considered as sin, material

wealth is not a sin and even for ethical activities like charity, money is

needed. But the way to achieve artha is regulated by dharma and it

prescribes to achieve money only through dharmic way.

Artha and Kama which are materialistic concepts, come under

dhanna and moksha. Dharma and moksha regulates the artha and Kama.

Wherever this regulation is disturbed, social order and harmony is

deteriorated. According to this principle, it is this absence of regulation

which resulted in environmental degradation. So the Indian moral principles

advocate regulating our material needs in order to have a sustainable society.

The same point is explained in Jsavasyopanisad.

Asrama

The term 'asrama' generally refers to four distinct social locations

within which the Hindus pursue cultural as well as specifically religious

 169

goals. 75 Through the courses of time, this asrama system became the integral

part of the Hindu dharma. In ecological point at view, this asrama system is

one of the cmcial concepts. This system very well explains the intimate

relationship between man and nature. It is also pointed out that the concept

of moksha or liberation is possible only for those who have deep

commumon with nature. "The progression or succession of four stages

culminates, according to many Hindu sources, in moksha or release from

transmigration, ignorance, and suffering stereological goal embodied in the

term 'Moksha dharma '. Thus appropriate place and opportunity are given at

least in theory to both participation in the social virtual world and

renunciation of that world". 76

Bramacharya refers to sexual abstinence and control of one's senses.

Eve1y asrama as an institution is a set of normative duties on the individual

which are related to the goals of the asrama.77 This is the period of student

life. In this period, the student acquires practical training by disciplining the

body and organs, learns self restraint and non-violence. From the ecological

point of view, the student learns the greatness of nature in this period. He

learns to control his material needs to the minimum thereby developing the

attitude of modesty and compassion to all being, with regard to the value of

75
Sushi! Mittal and Gene Thursby, ed., op.cit, p.383
ibid
76

77 G.S. Bhatt, "Social Philosophy", in Donald H.Bishop, ed., Indian Thought An Introduc
tion (New
Delhi: Wiley - Eastern Pvt. Ltd.,, 1975), p.208
 170

life, he finds no difference between man and other beings. Another

important factor is that he learns the lessons of social equality in this period.

The sons of rich and poor are to live and study under similar conditions and

are to be sub.�ect to same treatment. 78

The period of grhasta or householder is the most important period

among all the asramas. "Manusmiriti mentions the grhasta asrama as the

pre eminent asrama and the grahasta as the pre eminent among members of

all the four asrams. 79 The other three, vanaprasta, sanyasa and

brahmacarya are all depended on grhasta in the sense that it is grhasta who

is capable of fostering and nurturing the other three asramas in all ways,

both mentally and spiritually. In this sense grhasta is jyesthasrama or the

pre-eminent asrama. 80

It is grhasta who is responsible for a society in which harmony

prevails. The role of grhasta is full or responsible and he is expected to do

service to all sections of society. He is the upholder of morality and behaves

kindly with all creatures of the earth. According to Swami

Ranganathananda, this concept of grhasta is equalled with modem concept

of citizenship and grhasta is having twin constituencies of political and

18
ibid
79
Swami Ranganathananda, Op.cit, p. 743
80
ibid
 171

ethical man. This ethical constituent registers man's psycho-social growth. 81

This ethical constituent directs grhasta to have a harmonious relationship

with environment, both inner and outer. This interaction between man and

his environment is ought to be controlled and regulated by ethics.

Vanaprastha stage is attained when grhasta performed all his duties,

towards pitri and putra and towards society. The concepts of debt, finance,

liberality and sacrifice bring out the social obligation of the grhasta. 82

Vanaprastha is seen as a preparation for the life of the sannyasin. The

ancient man always considered forests as his solace and all the creatures in

the forests were his friends. Retiring to forests means a journey to have a

spiritual experience. Vanaprastha includes giving up luxuries and sleeping

on the bare ground eating only minimum food and controlling worldly

desires. By this, one is preparing to enter the next stage. This concept is

most important in relation with ecology. This stage helps us to understand

nature intimately and teaches us to live with nature.

The fourth asrama namely sanyasa is a complete renunciation from

worldly pleasures. The only social obligation that a sanyasi has to perform is

the unity of mankind with God. This means that a sanyasi gives awareness

;'. Swami Ranganathananda. Op.cit, p. 744

- G.S. Bhatt. Op.cit, p.209
 172

to the members of society that he is not different from nature and this unity

brings a man in close association with God.

Literal meanmg of Si/a is character or behaviour. It means good

character or morality or virtue. It is also known by another term caritra. In

general terms sila or caritra means the capacity to distinguish between good

and bad, right and wrong. Pancasila is the five basic tenets of morality and

all the moral code's foundation is based on these principles.

The principle £fAhimsa or non-violence is the first among pancasilas

and which has a greatest importance viewed from ecological point of view.

This principle is closely associated with the human psychological make up. 83

So it is religiously, socially, politically, ethically and ecologically important

principle. Ahimsa or non-violence is based on man's basic instinct of love,

sympathy, and compassion and non-hatred ness. From this point itself it is

very clear that it is ecologically most important principle. Ecological

diversity and harmony in nature cannot be maintained and preserved without

the principles of Ahimsa or non-violence. Positively speaking, Ahimsa

stands for love in a higher realm which means unselfish love without any

conditions. In its lower realm, it means love with attachment which

inevitably includes selfishness also. The basis of Ahimsa or non-violence is

83
Kamala Jain, Op.cit, p.37
 173

unselfish love. In ecological point of vtew it 1s unselfish love and

compassion towards all beings, both living and nonliving.

The concept of ahimsa is a gradually evolved entity m Indian

philosophy. In the prevedic and in the beginnings of Vedic period one could

find references to animal sacrifice. As the pre-vedic Indian offered to God

what was their food, as they were meat eaters, they offered flesh to God. As

the Vedic man gradually evolved to higher realms, they discouraged animal

sacrificing rituals. The dominant rule in latter Vedic periods were 'Na

himsyat sarvabhutani' - All creates should not be killed. 84 Jainism and

Buddhism were totally against animal sacrifices. Ahimsa in its extreme form

can be noticed only in Jainism. "The underlying principle of non-violence is

the principle of equality or 'samata' in Jainism. Samata is the basis of all

morality, philosophy and logic of Jaina thought and prevails all over Jaina

system. For this it is said, no living being loves suffering (dukkha) just as I

do not". 85

By looking into the traditional ecological wisdom of India, it is clear

that the danger to man is not nature but man himself. The danger to whole

eaith comes from negative technological mindedness and over materialistic

tendency. It is only through the cultivation of noble philosophical ideas that

84
Koselya Walli. Ahimsa in Indian Thought (Varanassi: 'Bharata Manisha, 1974), p.142.
85
Kamala Jain. Op.cit, p.50
 174

man can strike a balance. So the primary duty of man is to create a workable

environmental ethics with the support of Indian philosophical systems as the

background.

It is because an Indian philosophical system whether it is orthodox or

heterodox, speaks about welfare of man. But in contrast to other ideologies,

Indian concept of man includes his relationship with outer world also. So

whenever man thinks about welfare, it includes others welfare also. It is

clear from the prayer:

Let there be balance in the space

Let there be balance in the sky

Let there be balance in the earth

Let there be calmness in waters

Let there be growth in plants

Let there be growth in the trees

Let there be grace in all god

Let there be bliss in the Brahman

Let there be balance in everything

Let there be peace and peace

86
Let such peace be with every one of us.

"Sukla Yajurveda 36. l 7".in Ralph.Frigith.Op.Cil,p.119

86
 175

Geographical boundaries cannot delimit the importance of wisdom

contained in our tradition. As this geographical determination of countries is

the creation of man, not by nature, and as Indian philosophy prays for the

welfare of all beings in earth, it has a justifiable claim to be incorporated

into all streams of thought.