Chapter 2: Literature Review

Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Induction Motor

2.1.1 Induction Motor Working

Induction Motor, as its name indicate works on the principle of the induction. Power supply is
applied to the stator winding and a rotating magnetic field is induced on the rotor winding which
rotate the rotor. This is the simple working principle of Induction Motor. Capacitor is required
in a single phase induction motor to produce the rotating magnetic field in the rotor winding.

2.1.2 Power flow

In induction motors input power is applied at the stator and the output power is taken from the
rotor shaft. There is a difference between the input power and the output power which is due to
the different type of losses present in the induction motor.

Fig. 2.1 Power Flow Diagram of Induction Motor.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1.3 Losses
A variety of losses is present in Induction Motors which includes:
2.1.3.1 Constant or Fixed losses
2.1.3.2 Variable Losses

Variable Losses
Variable losses are also called copper losses. They depend upon current flowing and the
resistance of the winding. As the load varies, current also varies according to the load and hence
the losses are increase or decrease by
Copper losses = I2R
I = current through winding
R = resistance of the winding
This means that if current is changed by 2 times then losses will be changed by 4 times. These
losses also depend upon resistance of the winding. Resistance of the winding is depend upon
the temperature.

Constant losses
Constant losses are those which remain constant throughout the operation of the motor even at
variable loads [5].Constant losses include
 Iron or core losses
 Mechanical losses
 Brush friction losses
Iron losses are further divided into Hysteresis and Eddy current losses. Iron losses depend upon
the frequency of the supply voltage.
Mechanical losses occur at the bearing and brush friction loss occurs in wound rotor induction
motor. These losses occurs with the change in speed. In three phase induction motor the speed
usually remains constant, hence these losses almost remains constant.

2.1.4 Resistance and Temperature

As the temperature increase the resistance of the winding is increased and as a result of it
copper losses of the winding are increases. Variation of the resistance with temperature is
given by
R = RO [1+ α (T-TO)]
RO = Initial value of Resistance

TO = Initial value of Temperature

α = temperature coefficient

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2.1.5 Previous Working

Several techniques are used to control the losses of the induction motor. Few of them control
the torque and speed to maximize the efficiency of the induction motor. One of the techniques
is to control the temperature of the windings i.e. by decreasing the temperature of the winding
losses has been controlled and this technique is successfully implemented in the industry.

2.1.6 Cooling Techniques

A few of the techniques that are used in industry for cooling purposes of the induction motors,
generators and transformers are Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN), Oil Forced Air Forced
(OFAF), Oil Forced Air Natural (OFAN) and Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF), the most efficient
of the above technique is OFAF. In this technique both air and oil is forced to circulate through
the surroundings of the windings in order to exchange the heat. Oil used for such purposes have
very high heat absorption property.

2.2 Efficiency Measurement of Induction Motor

Different organizations have made standards internationally to measure the efficiency of the
Induction Motors. These standard techniques to calculate the efficiencies have been accepted
worldwide and considered to be followed by the industries in order to compete in the market for
their survival. The most famous standards for the efficiency measurement that are accepted and
followed are of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineer (IEEE) and International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).

2.2.1 IEEE and IEC standards

IEEE 112 and IEEE 114 are standards by IEEE for the 3 phase and single phase Induction motor
Efficiency testing respectively. Similarly IEC 600-34-2 is the standard given by the IEC for the
efficiency measurement of the Induction Motor. Both of these standards uses different
techniques to calculate the efficiencies but the end result of the both standards is quite close to
each other. IEEE standard is more accurate than IEC [6]. The reason is that IEEE standard
measured the stray losses through proper technique whereas IEC standard assumed the stray
load losses.

2.2.2 Testing Procedure

We select the IEEE 112 and IEEE 114 standards for the efficiency testing of 3 phase and single
phase induction motor respectively. The complete procedure to measure each and every thing
regarding efficiency measurement is given in these standards.

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2.3 Harmonics
2.3.1 Causes
Harmonics are the part of the power system. They are the result of non-linear electric loads that
is loads that draw non-linear sinusoidal current from the sinusoidal voltage source and cause the
power loss in the system. Examples of the non-linear loads are electric furnaces and static var
compensators etc. They are also produced due to the transients present in the power system.
They causes the multiples of the fundamental harmonics, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th and so on to develop
and to flow in the normal operating system along with the fundamental components. Total
harmonic Distortion (THD) is a common measurement tools to measure the level of distortion
present in the power system. Total harmonic distortion is defined as the ratio of the total
harmonics to the value at fundamental frequency [7].

[8]

2.3.2 Effects
High level of harmonics causes the increased in heating effect produced in the Induction Motors,
Generators and Transformers. They also cause the misoperation of the electrical devices
especially those which operate on the zero crossing of the voltage level. The effect of harmonics
become more severe if the resonance phenomenon occurs. Resonance occur when a harmonic
frequency produced by a no-linear load closely coincides with a power system natural
frequency.

2.3.3 Harmonic Mitigation

Harmonic Filters are used to minimize the effect of harmonics in the system. Harmonic filters
reduce distortion by diverting harmonic current in low impedance paths. Harmonic filters are
designed to be capacitive at fundamental frequency, so that they are also used for producing
reactive power required by converters and for power factor correction. There are several types
of Harmonic filters available.

Band-pass filters, which are used to filter lowest order harmonics such as 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th,
etc. Band-pass filters can be tuned at a single frequency (single-tuned filter) or at two
frequencies (double-tuned filter).

High-pass filters, which are used to filter high-order harmonics and cover a wide range of
frequencies. A special type of high-pass filter, the C-type high-pass filter, is used to provide

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reactive power and avoid parallel resonances. It also allows filtering low order harmonics (such
as 3rd), while keeping zero losses at fundamental frequency.

Fig. 2.2 Types of Harmonic Filters [9]

2.4 Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)

In machine learning and cognitive science, artificial neural networks (ANNs) are a family of
statistical learning models inspired by biological neural networks (the central nervous
systems of animals, in particular the brain) and are used to estimate or approximate
functions that can depend on a large number of inputs and are generally unknown. Artificial
neural networks are generally presented as systems of interconnected "neurons" which send
messages to each other. The connections have numeric weights that can be tuned based on
experience, making neural nets adaptive to inputs and capable of learning.