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Columns
Rudrabir Ghanti* & Abhijeet Kashliwal
Dept. of Civil Engineering, VIT University
*rudrabir.ghanti@yahoo.com
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The soil improvement methods mostly used in the · Weight reduction
current state of the practice can be divided into eight · Reinforcement
main categories : · Chemical treatment
· Thermal stabilization
· Densification · Electrotreatment
· Consolidation · Biotechnical Stabilization
Preloading is usually accomplished by placing
surcharge fills. Controlled filling of tanks or lined
ponds, electro-osmosis or vacuum consolidation are
alternative means of preloading. To accelerate
consolidation, vertical (sand or prefabricated wick)
drains are often used with preloading. Consolidation by
Ground Improvement by Densification electro-osmosis is the same in many aspects as
For loose granular soils at the surface, stabilization and consolidation under externally applied stresses, except
densification is achieved by compaction with that the driving force for drainage is induced internally
conventional rollers. Densification at depth is by an electric field. In vacuum consolidation, both
accomplished using the following methods liquid and gas (water and air) are extracted from the
Vibrocompaction ground by suction induced by the creation of vacuum on
Dynamic the ground surface and assisted by a system of vertical
Compaction and horizontal drains.
Blasting
Compaction Grouting. Ground Improvement by Weight Reduction
In vibrocompaction, loose granular soils are densified at This method of ground improvement involves reduction
depth by insertion of vibrating probes into the ground. of the weight applied to a soft compressible soil by the
Compaction is achieved by impact and vibration, with use of lightweight fill material like Wood fibers, Sawed
or without the use of a water jet or compressed air, and lumber waste,
with or without the addition of granular material.
Densification can be achieved to up to 30m in depth. In Shredded tire , Clam shells ,geofoam,etc. The overall
dynamic compaction, large weights are dropped benefits gained from the use of lightweight fill materials
repeatedly on the ground surface at a predetermined include reduced settlement, increase, slope stability and
grid pattern. The high-energy impacts cause increased resistance to earthquake effect.
densification of the soil mass to depths from 3 to 8 m. The lightweight materials are placed over the native soil
The drop heights are usually 12 to 24 m and the drop in one of three ways:
points are several meters apart in a grid pattern. spread in a loose form, then compacted
Densification by blasting is accomplished by cut in block forms, then stacked according to a certain
detonation of explosives buried in the loose soils. The arrangement, or
shock waves generated by the blast breaks down the pumped in a flowable liquid form
initial structure of the soil and creates a Ground Improvement by Reinforcement
liquefaction condition that enables the soil particles to The soil and its reinforcing elements act in combination
rearrange themselves in a denser packing. to increase the shear strength of the soil mass, reduce its
In compaction grouting, a very stiff mortar grout is settlement under the load, and improve its resistance to
injected in the ground under relatively high pressure to liquefaction. Reinforcing the soil is usually
densify loose soil formations. In general, the grout does accomplished by one of the following methods:
not enter the soil pores, but remains in a homogeneous Mechanical stabilization
mass that displaces and compresses the surrounding Soil nailing
soil. The grout mix consists of silty sand, cement, Soil anchoring
additives and water. Micro piles
Ground Improvement by Consolidation Stone columns
Fiber reinforcement
Consolidation both the strength and unit weight of the In mechanical stabilization, the reinforcing elements
soil are increased and its hydraulic conductivity is such as metals,polymers,geotextiles are placed between
reduced when it is consolidated.Unfortunately, this layers of compacted soil. For construction of retaining
improvement is accompanied by a volume decrease and walls or embankment slopes, the reinforcing elements
ground deformations for which the soils are are usually attached to facings that retain the compacted
preconsolidated under loads more than design soil at the face and protect the reinforcing elements
loads.There are basically three methods of ground from weathering effects. The types of facing used
improvement. Preloading with or without vertical drains include precast concrete panels, cast-in-place concrete,
Electro-osmosis· Vacuum consolidation
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metallic plates or baskets, geosynthetic grids or sheets, columns. It is used mainly for excavation support,
timber,etc . underpinning.
Soil Nailing is an in situ technique for reinforcing, Soil Mixing, also known as the Deep Mixing Method, is
stabilizing slopes and retaining excavations and deep the mechanical blending of the in situ soil with
cuts through the introduction of relatively small, closely cementitious materials (reagent binder) using a hollow
spaced inclusions (usually steel bars) into a soil mass, stem auger and paddle arrangement. The intent of the
the face of which is then locally stabilized. A zone of soil mixing program is to achieve improved character,
reinforced ground results that functions as a soil generally a design compressive strength or shear
retention system. strength and/or permeability.
Rock and soil anchors offer an economical solution to The lime columns are suitable at best for stabilization
temporary or permanent stability or support problems. of deep soft clay deposits.A pozzolanic reaction takes
Designed to withstand lateral and uplift forces, these place between the lime and the clay minerals resulting
structural members are typically used with temporary, in substantial increase in the strength and reduction in
deep excavation support systems, as a part of permanent the plasticity of the nativematerial. The heat generated
retaining walls, for dam stabilization or to resist wind- by hydration of the quicklime reduces the water content
produced uplift forces. of the clayey soils, resulting in accelerated strength .
Micropiles are small diameter piles(less than 300mm) Ground Improvement by Thermal Stabilization
installed vertically and are spaced closer than in The thermal stabilization methods discussed in this
conventional pile foundations and the loads are paper are:
supported by a complex soil-pile structure analogous to Ground freezing
reinforced concrete, where the ground represents the Vitrification
concrete and the micropiles correspond to the steel Ground freezing is used to prevent groundwater
reinforcements. The micropiles are installed by drilling seepage into excavations and to increase the shear
and grouting. strength of the soil. Two basic systems are usually
Although constructed using the same equipment and followed in freezing: an open systemwhere the
procedure as vibrocompaction stone columns function refrigerant (liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide) is lost to
as reinforcement rather than densification. The presence the atmosphere after it has absorbed energy and
of stone columns transforms the ground into a vaporized, or a closed-circuit hydraulic system using a
composite mass of granular cylinders with intervening conventional mechanical plant and a circulating
native soil, providing a lower compressibility and a In vitrification, the soil is electrically melted at very
higher shear strength than those of the native soil alone. high temperatures using graphite electrodes.The
The newest concept of earth reinforcement is a three- inorganic portion of the soil typically breaks down into
dimensional technique involving mixing of major oxide groups, such as silica and alumina. Upon
continuous polymer fibers (yarn) with granular soil to cooling, these groups form glass and crystalline
form a composite material capable of resisting tensile products with excellent environmental properties.
forces. Ground Improvement by Electrotreatment
Ground Improvement by Chemical Treatment The electrotreatment methods used in environmental
Cement, lime, fly-ash, asphalt, silicate and others are geotechnology includes:
used to stabilize weak soils. They generally bind the soil Electrokinetic remediation
particles together, resulting in higher strength and lower Electroheating
compressibility. In lime stabilization, an ion exchange Electrokineting fencing
reduces the soil’s plasticity and improves its Bioelectrokinetic injection
workability. The first method is used mainly for extraction of ionic
The chemical treatment methods includes: contaminants such as heavy metals, and
· Permeation grouting the second for removal of volatile and semivolatile
· Jet grouting compounds. The last two methods are
· Deep soil mixing used to stabilize the contaminants in situ. Electrokinetic
· Lime columns remediation uses a direct electric
In permeation grouting, cement, lime, bentonite or current applied across a soil mass by a set of electrodes
chemical grouts (silicates, etc.) fill the voids in the soil, which desorbs ions from soil particles.
resulting essentially in increased strength and cohesion Ground Improvement by Biotechnical Stabilization
and reduced permeability, with no change in the volume This new form of ground improvement uses live
or structure of the original ground. Microfine cement biological objects (vegetation) as reinforcing elements.It
grout is the latest addition to permeation grouting. is used for stabilization of cut or fill slopes, or
Jet grouting uses high-pressure fluids, applied through construction of earth-retaining structures on parkland
a nozzle at the base of a drill pipe, to erode the soil and in environmentally-sensitive areas.
particles and mix them with cement grout as the drill bit Following table shows the key issues to be addressed
is rotated and withdrawn, forming hard, impervious with each ground improvement techniques.
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Ground Why do we choose “STONE COLUMN” out of so
improvement Key issues/problems associated many “Ground Improvement Techniques” available?
methods
They act as vertical drains accelerating the
1. Densification the percent of fines in the soil, process of consolidation and reducing post
the ability of the soil to dissipate construction settlement.
excess pore water pressure, the They also mitigate the potential for
energy felt by the soil, the liquefaction and damage by preventing preventing
presence of boulders and build up of high-pore pressure by drainage-path.
phenomenon ageing.
They have negligible demerits (which can be
2.Consolidation stability during surcharge easily overcome by suitable techniques-e.g.
placement, clogging of vertical BULGING can be easily prevented by
drains, maintenance of the encapsulation of stone column with
vacuum. geomembranes).
Significance Of Stone-Columns in INDIA
3. Weight placement of the lightweight
Reduction material which may be dusty, its Method of installing stone column
longevity and long-term (RAMMING) does not require any skilled
performance labor-any layman can do the job.
4.Reinforcement the load transfer to the Its installation is economically very
reinforcing elements, the
feasible-no high cost is required to do the
failure surface of the reinforced execution.
soil mass, the strain
compatibility between the soil India has significant deposits of soft clays
and the reinforcement, the (especially along the coastal regions).
arrangement and durabilityof the
reinforcing elements 3. Stone Columns
5.Chemical soil-grout compatibility and What are basically stone columns??
Treatment reactivity,operational
parameters,column STONE COLUMNS are vertical columns of compacted
verticality,weathering effects.
aggregate are formed through the soils to be improved.
6.Thermal the degree of saturation of the These columns result in considerable vertical load
Stabilisation soil, the carrying capacity and improved shear resistance in the
soil mass.
rate of groundwater
movement,the post thawing What Soils are Suitable for installation of
behavior,the heat transfer in the STONE COLUMNS?
melted soil.
Any soil type that does not respond to vibration alone is
7.Electrotreatment the soil’s electrical a candidate for stone columns. These soils include silty
conductivity,the ionic and clayey sands, silts, clays, and some layered soils
characterization of the where damping of vibrations occurs.
contaminants, the impact on
3.1 Installation methods of stone columns
buried objects and utilities.
Most widely used methods for installation of stone
8.Biotechnical the development of artificial columns are:
Stabilisation cohesion in the
VIBRO-COMPACTION METHOD.
ground, (b) the effects of RAMMING (INDEGENEOUS METHOD).
evapotranspiration, and (c) the
durability of the vegetation. Detailed Description of these:
3.1.1 Vibro-compaction method
The two primary methods of Vibro Stone Column
construction are:
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Wet, Top Feed Method (Replacement and No skilled labor required. Hence INDIAN
Displacement) mass power can be properly made to use.
No big initial investment required- it’s highly
In this technique, jetting water is used to remove soft feasible economically.
material, stabilize the probe hole, and ensure that the
stone backfill reaches the tip of the vibrator. This is the Easy to follow the steps, no qualification
most commonly used and most cost-efficient of the required.
deep vibratory methods. However, handling of the spoil Lastly, this method got its birth in INDIA, so
generated by the process may make this method more can be indigenously followed.
difficult to use on confined sites or in environmentally
sensitive areas. 3.2 Failure Modes of Stone Columns
Dry, Bottom Feed Method (Displacement) STONE COLUMNS: are either constructed as END
BEARING on a firm stratum underlying the soil or as a
This technique uses the same vibrator probes as FLOATING COLUMN with the tip embedded within the
standard Vibro-Replacement Stone Columns, but with soft clay. However, the former is used in practice. To
the addition of a hopper and supply tube to feed the make the most optimum application of stone columns,
stone backfill directly to the tip of the vibrator. Bottom we must understand the various failure mechanisms it
Feed Vibro-Replacement is a completely dry operation can undergo. Four Basic Failure Modes of Stone
where the vibrator remains in the ground during the Columns are:
construction process. The elimination of flushing water
in turn eliminates the generation of spoil, extending the General shear failure.
range of sites that can be treated. Treatment is possible Local shear failure.
Bulging failure.
up to a depth of 80 feet and is not inhibited by the
Failure by sliding.
presence of groundwater.
The modes of failure of Stone Columns depend upon
Benefits of this method:
the following parameters:
The Vibro-Replacement Stone Column Process
Type of Stone Column (End-bearing or
Free Floating).
Reduces foundation settlement Type of Loading on columns.
Increases bearing capacity
Mitigates liquefaction potential Passive resistance of tributary clay.
Provides slope stabilization The following pictorial representation illustrates the
Permits shallow footing construction various modes of failure clearly:
Prevents earthquake-induced lateral spreading.
3.1.2. Ramming :
Ramming is an indigenous method. It can described as
the “METHOD IN WHICH DENSIFICATION OF
SOIL MASS IS ACHIEVED MANUALLY WITHOUT
ANY SKILLED LABOUR”
Methodology:
Here, by using helical auger, at first bore-hole is
made. Then, granular chips (of 2-3 cms in dia) are
injected into the bore-hole. Compaction is done with the
help of light hammer weighing 125kgs and falling from
a height of 750 cms. This is a step-by-step process in
which compaction is carried out in layers. Above each
layer, sand cushion( of 10cm) is employed to prevent
crushing of stones.
Significance of RAMMING
CASE-1: Stone Column just loaded over the area of the
This method holds great significance in the context of
our country. The following points justify this statement: column
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Pictorial Representation Of Failure In Stone Column
Groups
3.3.1.Placing of surcharge
q q
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increases the passive resistance of clays by considerable In this approach (given by Greenwood), the pile dilates
amount (bulges) into the surrounding clay and is resisted by the
passive pressure of the surrounding clay. Hence, we can
conclude-“the Ultimate Strength of Surrounding Clay is
equal to the lateral strength of the clay surrounding it.”
Granular
piles Therefore, qu = pp = kp(γz) + 2Cu√(kp)
Concrete
skirting
Where,
σr = 2Cu + σs
where,
3.3.3 Geogrids And Geomembranes: σr – lateral limit stress.
Cu – undrained cohesion of clay.
By reinforcing stone columns by GEOGRIDS or σs – normal stress.
envolping it with geomembranes, the “ultimate bearing 4.3.Cavity expansion approach
capacity of stone columns can be increased to
considerable amount” In this approach {given by VESIC, 1972}, he imagined
the lateral bulging of the granular pile as “an infinitely
4. Ultimate Bearing Capacity of a Single large cylinder expanding into the soil and the confining
pressure inside the cavity is evaluated.”
Stone Column
σr = σ3 + c[ 1 + loge {Ec / (1 + µc)} ].
By “ultimate bearing capacity” we mean that critical
σr = Ultimate lateral stress
equilibrium when –“the lateral stress developed in the σ3 = Insitu lateral stress before expansion
stone column just exceeds the passive resistance of the c = cohesion of the clay
surrounding clay”. At failure, since the stone column Ec = Young’s Modulus of the clay
throws itself into the surrounding clay- the Ultimate µc = poisson ratio of clay
Bearing Capacity of Stone Column depends on the Clay qu = kp σr
in which the column has been injected. It must be σ1/ σ3 = kp = {(1 + sinφs) / (1 – sinφs)}
mentioned here that- “If Cu < 30 kPa, we do not go for
4.4. Unit cell approach
Granular Piles.” Out of all the methods available, for predicting the
“Ultimate Strength of a Stone Column”, this approach
However, following are the different approaches of
has a high practical value. The reason is- in all the
calculating the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of a Granular
above mentioned approaches the “Ultimate Strength
Pile:
was found out for a single granular pile, but in practice
we hardly find a single stone column”. This method,
bears the specialty that it can extended to a group of
4.1. Passive Pressure Approach: stone columns.
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CONCEPT OF UNIT CELL: granular pile. The distribution of vertical stress is
expressed by a stress concentration factor, n as
Out of many possible patterns of packing { like square, η = δ(σs / σc )
rectangular, circular, triangular} the triangular pattern is where,
usually employed because it gives the most dense σs = stress mobilized in stone column material.
σc = stress in clay material.
packing of all { found experimentally}. The following
Average stress (σ) at a given depth of unit cell is given
figure illustrates this. as:
σ = σs (as) + σc (1 – as)
Where,
as = Area Replacement ratio = Area of stone column
(As)/ Area of Unit cell (Ac).
Using this ratio, the stress in the stone column and
tributary soil is calculated as:
σc = {σ/ (as (η – 1) + 1)}.
σc = µc (σ).
µc = stress coefficient in tributary clay.
AND,
σs = { (η σ ) / ((η – 1) as + 1) }
σs = µs(σ)
µs = stress coefficient in stone column
NOTE: µs = η µc
Here, as seen in figure although the tributary area forms Laboratory scale model tests on soft clay beds
the regular hexagon about the stone column but for all reinforced with stone columns was performed wherein
practical purposes it can be closely approximated to an compressive load response of the composite ground was
equivalent circle having the same area with an effective assessed. Plate load tests were being conducted on soft
diameter (De) of: clay beds compacted to the predetermined density and
De= 1.05 s water content (or consistency index) reinforced with
stone columns prepared with different types of sand
such as fine sand, medium sand and coarse sand. The
relative density of granular material used were 40%,
50% and 60%. Consistency index(Ic) was varied for
60%,50%,40% where Ic = (LL – wc) / (IP).
Annular load
300mm
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Table: Soil Parameters
Compaction properties
Coarse 8.65 18 6
It was found that the load bearing capacity for the fine
sand was showing the best values ..
Load (N)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0
2
S e ttle m e n t ( m m )
fine
medium 9
4 coarse
6
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7. Ideas and Suggestions
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5. Geosynthetic encased stone columns: Numeric
evaluation by S.Murugesan and K.Rajagopal (2006)
6. Sharma R.S. , Phanikumar B.R., and Nagendra(
2004), Compressive Load- response of Geo-grid reinforced
granular piles in soft clays, Canadian Geotechnical
Journal,Volume-41, NO-1. Pp. 187-192.
Net search:
7. www.google.co.in
8. www.haywardsbaker.com
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